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+
S
S g
S
S g 2
1 S S S
2
o
t t
o
t t 2
o
2
c
2
b
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
+
Compare this with expression 4.8 in EN1991-1-4, c
e
(z) = c
r
2
(z) c
o
2
(z) [( 1 + 7I
v
(z)] , where 7I
v
(z)
corresponds with 2g
t
S
t
/S
o
and c
r
2
(z) c
o
2
(z) corresponds with S
c
2
S
o
2
. It can be seen that there is no term
equivalent to (g
t
S
t
/S
o
)
2
. The effect of this missing term is to underestimate the wind pressure. In the worst
case of a very low building in category V terrain this could be by up to 30% (depending on the turbulence
intensity).
EN 1991: Actions on structures Part 1.4: Wind Actions
15
only considered on those parts of a roof whose length exceeds the smaller of W/2 or H, and for walls
on those parts whose length exceeds the smaller of W or 2H. In EN1991-1-4, friction effects on walls
and roofs are only considered when the roof or wall length exceeds the smaller of 2W or 4H.
EN1991-1-4 also has a simple rule allowing friction effects to be disregarded when the area of the
surfaces parallel to the wind (i.e. roof and side walls) is equal to or less than 4 times the area of all
surfaces perpendicular to the wind (i.e. windward and leeward walls). The area over which the
friction force is assumed to act is smaller in EN1991-1-4 than BS6399-2, however EN1991-1-4 does
not allow the use of the size factor when calculating friction forces, these are counteracting effects
but there will be differences between friction forces calculated from these two methods.
2.4.6 Section 6 Structural factor c
s
c
d
This section gives rules for determining the structural factor c
s
c
d
which accounts for the effect of non-
simultaneous occurrence of peak pressures over the surface of the structure or element combined with the
effect of dynamic response of the structure or element due to turbulence. For the majority of traditional low-
rise or framed buildings c
s
c
d
may conservatively be taken as 1.0 . Clause 6.2(1) of EN1991-1-4 gives a list of
building and element types for which c
s
c
d
may be taken as 1.0. For other building types, or where a more
precise value is required, c
s
c
d
must be determined using the detailed procedure given in clause 6.3.1. Two
alternative procedures are given in Annexes B and C of EN1991-1-4 for determining the parameters required
for the calculation of c
s
c
d
, the recommended procedure is given in Annex B. The UK NA allows Annex B but
not Annex C for use in the UK.
The factor c
s
c
d
is generally treated as a single factor unless otherwise specified in the NA. In the UK it has
been decided to allow c
s
c
d
to be separated into a size factor c
s
and a dynamic factor c
d
. This is similar to the
approach used in BS6399-2, where the size effect factor, C
a
, corresponds to the size factor c
s
and the
dynamic augmentation factor, (1 + C
r
) corresponds to the dynamic factor c
d
. The decision to allow c
s
c
d
to be
separated was not taken just to promulgate the BS6399-2 approach but because of the positive benefits to
be gained from reduced wind loads and also because the procedure for determining c
s
and c
d
in Annex B is
complex and not suited for hand calculation. The NA gives Table NA3 for determining c
s
values and Figure
NA9 for determining c
d
. These have been derived using the detailed procedure in Annex B. In Figure NA9,
graphs are given for four classes of structure which correspond to the classes given in Figure 1 of BS6399-2.
The benefits of separating c
s
and c
d
are greatest for large plan area low-rise buildings. For example consider
wind loads on the long face of an office building 10m high with plan dimensions of 60m x 20m in Town
terrain, using the NA c
d
= 1.0 and c
s
= 0.77 giving a c
s
c
d
value of 0.77. This will give a 23% reduction in wind
load on this face compared with the c
s
c
d
value of 1.0 recommended in clause 6.3.1 of EN1991-1-4.
2.4.7 Section 7 Pressure and force coefficients
This section gives pressure and force coefficients for a wide range of buildings, structures and elements
(note that force coefficients for bridges and related structures are given in Section 8).
EN1991-1-4 uses four separate types of aerodynamic coefficient:
Internal and external pressure coefficients
Net pressure coefficients
Friction coefficients
Force coefficients
The first three will be familiar to users of BS6399-2. Force coefficients give the overall load effect on a
structure or element and include friction effects, whereas pressure coefficients do not. Therefore friction
coefficients may be applied in conjunction with pressure coefficients but should never be used with force
coefficients.
Guide to the use of EN 1991-1-4 Wind Actions
16
2.4.7.1 Pressure Coefficients
Pressure coefficients are given for buildings in Section 7.2. There are many similarities between the
EN1991-1-4 and BS6399-2 pressure coefficients, because they were largely based on those given in the
BS6399-2 standard method. The layout of the tables and figures and the size of the roof and wall zones will
therefore be familiar to UK engineers. There are some omissions and differences, for example, EN1991-1-4
does not include directional pressure coefficients, information on inset stories, polygonal plan shapes, re-
entrant corners, irregular faces or multipitch roofs. The major differences are:
Pressure coefficients
Two sets of pressure coefficients, c
pe,1
and c
pe,10
are given in EN1991-1-4 for most building forms.
c
pe,1
values are intended to be used for the design of small elements and fixings, and c
pe,10
values
are for design of loaded areas over 10m
2
. In general the c
pe,10
values are similar to those given in
BS6399-2. For loaded areas between 1m
2
and 10m
2
EN1991-1-4 recommends that logarithmic
interpolation be used using Figure 7.2. After consultation with UK industry it was concluded that this
would impose a considerable unnecessary burden in calculation effort. Consequently Figure 7.2 is
not to be used in the UK. The NA gives a simplified alternative procedure in which the c
pe,1
values
should be used for all fixings and elements of 1m
2
or less and the c
pe,10
values should be used for all
loaded areas >1m
2
.
Division by parts
The rule on division by parts has been changed, it may now only be applied to the windward walls; in
BS6399-2 it could be applied to all walls but only for determining overall loads
Pressure coefficients for vertical walls
In EN1991-1-4 these values depend on d/h ratio, this is the inverse of the ratio used in BS6399-2.
The effects of wind funnelling are not included in EN1991-1-4. Also note that Table 7.1 should not be
used in the UK. It has been replaced in the NA by Table NA4 which now includes net pressure
coefficients for overall load; this corresponds to Table 5a in BS6399-2.
Pressure coefficients for circular (vaulted) roofs
Figure 7.11 pressure coefficients for vaulted roofs, should not be used in the UK. This has been
replaced in the NA by Figures NA10 and NA11 which provide more reliable data and include the
effects of roof length. Pressure coefficients for vaulted roofs are not given in BS6399-2.
Internal pressures
In BS6399-2 only two possible values for internal pressure, +0.2 and -0.3 are given for the general
case with no dominant openings. It is known that the internal pressure can take values within this
range, or even outside of this range in some circumstances. The approach used in EN1991-1-4 is
based on the permeability of each wall and roof and allows a more precise value of internal pressure
to be calculated depending on the approaching wind direction.
2.4.7.2 Net pressure coefficients
Net pressure coefficients are given for canopy roofs, free-standing walls and parapets. These data are based
on BS6399-2, however, there are some differences, for example:
Monopitch canopies
Some of the pressure coefficients have been increased and the distance of the centre of pressure
from the windward edge has been reduced from 0.3W used in BS6399-2 to 0.25d in EN1991-1-4.
Free-standing walls and parapets
In BS6399-2 a reduction factor is given to account for end effects, in En1991-1-4 this factor has been
combined with the pressure coefficients. The figure for the effect of shelter from upwind walls has
been simplified.
EN 1991: Actions on structures Part 1.4: Wind Actions
17
2.4.7.3 Force coefficients
Force coefficients are given for signboards, structural elements, circular cylinders, spheres, lattice structures
and flags. BS6399-2 does not give any force coefficients; however it does give net pressure coefficients for
signboards and for a limited range of structural elements, which for these cases can be considered to be
equivalent to force coefficients. It should be noted that for slender structures with h/d > 5 the force
coefficients for elements may be used. This causes a discontinuity around h/d = 5 because the loads for
h/d<5 are derived from pressure coefficients and the loads for h/d>5 are derived from force coefficients. This
more likely reflects the uncertainty and lack of information on force/pressure coefficients on tall buildings
rather than an aerodynamic effect.
2.4.8 Annexes
There are six informative annexes in EN1991-1-4:
Annex A - Terrain effects
Annex B - Procedure 1 for determining the structural factor c
s
c
d
Annex C - Procedure 2 for determining the structural factor c
s
c
d
Annex D - c
s
c
d
values for different types of structure
Annex E - Vortex shedding and aeroelastic instabilities
Annex F Dynamic characteristics of structures
Of these Annexes C, D and E will not be used in the UK.
Annex A contains five parts of which part A.2 Transition between roughness categories 0, I, II, III and IV, will
not be used in the UK because transition effects are contained in Figures NA3 to NA8 in the National Annex.
Annex B gives the recommended procedure for determining c
s
c
d
and is based on the procedure given in the
ENV version of EN1991-2-4.
Annex F gives recommendations for determining the basic structural parameters that are required for
determining dynamic response of structures, such as:
natural frequencies
modal shapes
equivalent masses
logarithmic decrements of damping.
Annex E does not include adequate information on aeroelastic response of bridge decks. For this reason
Annex E will not be used in the UK. It will be replaced by a new document based largely on the existing
Annex E but with additional information for bridges. This new document will not be part of EN1991-1-4, but is
expected to be published as a companion document (NCCI).
2.5 Road map
EN1991-1-4 includes two general procedures for calculating wind loads on buildings and structures, these
are:
a) a standard procedure that applies to those structures whose structural properties do not make them
susceptible to dynamic excitation. This procedure applies to the following classes of structure:
Any building of height less than 15m
Fa ade and roof elements which have natural frequencies > 5Hz
Framed buildings with structural walls of <100m in height and whose height is also less than 4
times their in-wind depth.
Circular chimneys with height <60m and whose height is also less than 6.5 times their
diameter
Guide to the use of EN 1991-1-4 Wind Actions
18
b) a detailed procedure that applies to those structures which are likely to be susceptible to dynamic
excitation and which fall outside of the scope of the standard procedure.
It is anticipated that the standard procedure will be used for the design of the majority of buildings and
structures in the UK, including dwellings, low-rise buildings and medium-rise buildings. The detailed
procedure is likely to be used, or at least considered, in the design of tall buildings, chimneys, masts, long-
span bridges and other similarly wind sensitive structures.
The number of steps required in EN1991-1-4 to determine wind loads for the majority of buildings and
structures is the same as in BS6399-2. In general the 6 steps outlined in Table 4 are required (the equivalent
steps in BS6399-2 are also shown in this table for comparison).
Table 4 Summary of calculation steps to calculate wind load using EN1991-1-4 and BS6399-2
EN1991-1-4 Procedure BS6399-2 Procedure
1. Read V
b,map
from map, adjust for altitude
2. v
b
= c
dir
c
season
c
prob
v
b,0
3. q
b
= 1/2 v
b
2
4. q
p
= c
e,flat
(z) q
b
5. W
e
= q
p
(z) c
pe
6. F
w
= c
s
c
d
W A
ref
1. Read V
b
from map
2. V
s
= V
b
S
s
S
d
S
a
S
p
3. V
e
= V
s
S
b
4. q
s
= 1/2 V
e
2
5. p = q
s
C
pe
C
a
6. P = 0.85 ( P
front
- P
rear
) (1 + C
r
)
Table 5 outlines the steps required to determine wind loads on buildings and structures where z < 50m and
orography is not significant. In other cases the number of steps increases, however the NA has greatly
simplified EN1991-1-4 by introducing alternative procedures for determining the design wind load by
presenting parameters such as the roughness factor c
r
, the turbulence factor (k
i
/ln((z-h
dis
)/z
o
), the exposure
factor c
e,flat
and the size and dynamic factors c
s
and c
d
in a tabular or graphical format. This speeds up the
design process, reduces the calculation effort and improves the accuracy over the EN1991-1-4 original
procedures, whilst still being fully compatible with the EN1991-1-4 principles. Figure 1 shows the flow chart
for determining wind loads using the NA and EN1991-1-4 simplified and general methods.
The case study TSTs
19
Figure 1 Flow chart for determining wind loads using the UK NA with EN1991-1-4
Determine fundamental basic
wind velocity v
b,0
NA2.3
Calculate basic wind velocity, v
b
Calculate basic
wind pressure q
b
Apply altitude factor to UK
windspeed map NA2.4
vb,o = vb,map calt
Wind Loads
Find pressure coefficients (c
p
)
or force coefficients (c
f
)
Option 1: c
s
c
d
= 1
Option 2: Table NA3, Figure NA9
Option 3: 6.3.1 and Annex B
Find c
eflat
(z) using
Figures NA7 and NA8 (if
z < 50m and orography is
significant find c
o
(z) (A3))
Check Limits of
applicability 1.1(2)
General Method
(must be used if
orography is
significant and
z > 50m)
Find mean wind velocity,
v
m
(z) using Figures NA3 and
NA4
Simplified
Method
Find turbulence intensity, I
v
using Figures NA5 and NA6
Determine size effect factor cs
and dynamic factor c
d
Determine peak velocity
pressure using expression
NA4
Determine peak velocity
pressure using expression
NA3
Guide to the use of EN 1991-1-4 Wind Actions
20
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References
21
3. References
1. EN1991-1-4, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures General actions Part 1-4: Wind actions, CEN
2005.
2. BS6399-2: 1997, Loading for buildings Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads, BSI, June 2002
3. Cook N J, Designers' Guide to EN1991-1-4 Eurocode 1 Part 4 - Wind actions. ISBN 0727731513
4. Rees J, The assessment of site wind speeds at Bilsdale Mast using computational fluid dynamics,
IASS Working Group 4 for masts and towers, 21
st
meeting, Milan, September 2003.