AR1252-HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE -IV

QUESTION BANK
Unit I
Part A

1.Trace the historical orgin and evolution of the minaret in world Islamic architecture.
Egypt In post-Fatimid Egypt minarets is composed of three distinct zones: a square section at the
bottom, an octagonal middle section and a dome on the top. The zone of transition between each
section is covered with a band of muqarnas decoration.
Syria The traditional Syrian minaret consists of a square plan tower built of stone. The form is
thought to derive from the traditional Syrian church tower of the Byzantine period. It is built of large
dressed ashlar blocks .
Generally during the Ottoman period the square tower was abandoned in favour of the octagonal or
cylindrical minaret.
North Africa and Spain share the square tower form with Syria and are thought to derive from the
same source - Syrian church towers. In time this design was adapted by Christians in Spain for use
as church bell towers.
The cylindrical minaret form, which was developed in Iran, spread over a huge area with the Seljuk
conquests of Syria, Anatolia, Iraq, Afghanistan and India.
Some of the structures were severe plain brick shafts whilst others were highly decorated with
complex brick patterns. A variation of the standard from was the introduction of various forms of
cylindrical fluting.
Minarets of this type may be interpreted as victory towers rather than as religious towers in the strict
sense.
The most famous minarets in Iraq are the giant spiral minarets of Samarra both of which are dated to
the ninth century. The spiral minarets of Samarra were never copied.
India Minarets were never universally adopted in India and where they were built they were not
necessarily used for the call to prayer.

The most famous minaret in India is the Qutb Minar attached to the Kuwwat al-lslam Mosque in Delhi
which was begun in 1189. This tower has four storeys marked by balconies supported on bands of
muqarnas corbels.
In Gujarat and Burhanpur minarets were always built in pairs flanking the central iwan as in Iran.
These minarets were cylindrical constructions with internal staircases with intermediate balconies
leading to conical roofs. Elsewhere before the Mughal period solid tower-like buttresses were
attached to the corners of mosques.
The first minarets of the Mughal period are tapering white marble constructions with two
intermediate balconies and an open canopy on top. The lower stages of these towers are fluted.
Ottoman Minarets are the combination of tall pointed minarets and large lead covered domes gives
Ottoman architecture its distinctive form. In most mosques in the Ottoman Empire this was achieved
with a single minaret attached to the corner of a mosque. However, in the major cities of the empire
mosques were built with two, four or even six minarets.

2. Differentiate between the Pendentive system and the Squinch system of

constructing a dome over a square compartment.
A squinch in architecture is a piece of construction used for filling in the upper angles of a square
room so as to form a proper base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome. It was the primitive
solution of this problem, the perfected one being eventually provided by the pendentive. Squinches
may be formed by masonry built out from the angle in corbelled courses, by filling the corner with a
vise placed diagonally, or by building an arch or a number of corbelled arches diagonally across the
corner.
Pendentive
The term applied to the triangular curved overhanging surface by means of which a (circular) dome
is supported on a square or polygonal compartment; in the construction of a dome resting upon a
square base, the spherical triangle formed between each pair of supporting arches; one of the
triangular spherical sections of vaulting the spring from the corners of a rectangular ground plan and
serve to allow the room enclosing it to be covered by a dome or cupola; the part of a groined vault
that springs from a single pier or corbel

3.Write a short note on the Caravanserai.

A caravanserai, or khan, also known as caravansary, caravansera, or caravansara in English was a
roadside inn where travelers could rest and recover from the day's journey. Caravanserais supported
the flow of commerce, information, and people across the network of trade routes covering Asia,
North Africa, and South-Eastern Europe, especially along the Silk Road.
Most typically a caravanserai was a building with a square or rectangular walled exterior, with a
single portal wide enough to permit large or heavily laden beasts such as camels to enter. The
courtyard was almost always open to the sky, and the inside walls of the enclosure were outfitted
with a number of identical stalls, bays, niches, or chambers to accommodate merchants and their
servants, animals, and merchandise.
Caravanserais provided water for human and animal consumption, washing, and ritual ablutions.
Sometimes they had elaborate baths. They also kept fodder for animals and had shops for travelers
where they could acquire new supplies. In addition, some shops bought goods from the traveling
merchants

A sample floorplan of a Safavid caravanserai

4. What is the significance of Geometry in Islamic architecture?

These patterns exemplify the Islamic interest in repetition, symmetry and continuous generation of
pattern. It demonstrate integration of geometry with such optical effects as the balancing of positive
and negative areas, interlacing with fluid overlapping and under passing strap work, and a skillful use
of color and tone values.
More than any other type of design (geometric patterns) permitted an interrelationship between the
parts and the whole of a building complex, the exterior and the interior spaces and their furnishings.
Geometry itself became a major art form, using refinement, repetition and symmetry to
create a wide variety of effects.
Star - most common Islamic design which symbolizes equal radiation in all directions
from a central point.

5. What are the elements of decoration used in Islamic architecture in India?

Calligraphy
Considered one of the most important of the Islamic arts (role in recording the word of
God). Surface inscription in the stone, stucco, marble, mosaic and/or painting. The inscription might
be a verse from the Koran, lines of poetry, or names and dates.
Geometry itself became a major art form, using refinement, repetition and symmetry to create a wide
variety of effects. Repetitious designs represent the Islamic value of constantly repeated prayers
Star - most common Islamic design which symbolizes equal radiation in all directions from a central
point.
Tessellations - designs repeated and filled in (like patterns of bricks and many tiles) and are
interlocking, like pieces of a puzzle.
Arabesque (Arab-style) - geometricized vegetal ornament. Patterns with vines, leaves, or flowers,
and sometimes with just lines.
Floral Patterns mughal architectural decoration in India
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Light
Symbol of divine unity.
Functions decoratively by modifying other elements or by originating patterns.
Combination of light and shade creates strong contrasts of planes and gives texture
to sculpted stone, as well as stocked or brick surfaces
Water
In hot Islamic climates, water from courtyard pools and fountains cools as it
decorates.
Water can not only reflect architecture and multiply the decorative themes, it can also
serve as a means of emphasizing the visual axes.
ARABESQUE
The arabesque is an elaborate application of repeating geometric forms that often echo the forms of
plants, shapes and sometimes animals (specifically birds). The choice of which geometric forms are
to be used and how they are to be formatted is based upon the Islamic view of the world. To many in
the Islamic world, symbolize the infinite, and therefore uncentralized, nature of the creation of the
one God ("Allah" in Arabic).

6.Sketch and explain the essential parts that are found in an Indian mosque?
Typically, there are ten common architectural elements in a mosque. The most important element to
consider is the sheltered prayer-hall or sanctuary (haram). The qibla, one of the prayer-hall walls, is
always constructed to face Mecca. The mihrab, a location representing where Muhammad had stood
at prayer within the haram, is a recess in the qibla wall. The design of the mihrab is that of a Roman
semicircular niche. The minbar, or pulpit, is traditionally located to the right of the mihrab when
viewed from the entrance to the haram. It typically consists of a staircase leading to a small platform
where the imam would stand to deliver the khutba (Oration). The dikka is a platform positioned in line
with the mihrab, which is used by respondents to repeat the ritual postures of the imam to
the congregation. Nearby the dikka is the usual placement of the kursi, a reading desk on
which the Quran is placed.
Another key element is the courtyard, an uncovered space often surrounded by columns or arcades
which serves as a place for adherents to gather and prepare. The ablution fountain, generally
located at the center of the courtyard, offers a place for attendees to wash before prayer, a practice
which is required by the Quran. Perhaps the most well-known and visible element of all is the
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minaret, a tower that serves as a landmark for the mosque as well as a place from which Muslims
are called to prayer. The final element to consider is the entrance portal, a prominent architectural
feature of mosques representing a gateway between the lifes common busy affairs and the calm of
sacred space

The standard components of the mosque

7.Sketch the form of a typical Islamic Minaret and outline its purpose.
A minaret is a distinctive architectural feature of Islamic mosques, generally a tall spire with an
onion-shaped or conical crown, usually either free standing or taller than any associated support

structure. The basic form of

a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery. Minarets

provide a visual focal point and are used for the call to prayer. It provides a visual cue to a Muslim
community, the main function of the minaret is to provide a vantage point from which the call to
prayer is made. The call to prayer is issued five times each day. Minarets also function as air
conditioning mechanisms: as the sun heats the dome, air is drawn in through open windows then up
and out of the minaret, thereby providing natural ventilation.

8. Sketch and explain the types of arches used in Islamic architecture.

Ogee arch

four centered arch

Multi centered arch

9. What is the significance of Garden in Islamic architecture?

The underlying theme of the Islamic garden is the concept of the chahar-bagh or four-fold garden.
Classically, the chahar-bagh is constructed around a central pool or fountain, with four streams
flowing from it, representing the four main elements of life. The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh),
describing his miraculous journey to heaven, mentions four rivers: flowing with wine, milk, honey and
water. The number four has an inherent symbolism reflecting the natural world. The symbolism of an
Islamic garden represents a universal theme that of the understanding of nature and the universe.
The Islamic garden, based on its Quranic archetype, is a place of retreat, shelter, abode, away from
the tensions of everyday existence. There are many references in the Quran describing paradise as
a garden, and in creating gardens on earth based on heavenly descriptions, man shows his desire to
attain the highest state of being, his promise from God as reward for righteous struggle. Flowing
water, fountains and rivers are the most memorable descriptions one has after reading the Quranic
references to paradise.

char bagh garden in front of Tajmahal

10. Define the term islam

The Five Pillars are:

Faith-Muslims must testify that there is only one God (Allah) and that Mohammed is
the last prophet.

Prayer-Muslims must pray five times per day facing Mecca.

Alms-Muslims must support the poor through a special alms tax.

Fasting-Muslims must fast during the holy month of Ramadan (they only eat one meal
at sundown).

Pilgrimage-Muslims must travel to Mecca at least once in their lifetime if they are able.

PART- B
1. Explain the features of mosques in Islamic world with neat sketches

Or What are the elements comprising the mosque structure? Discuss in detail with neat
sketches.
Refer part a- question no 6
Traditional Typologies
A typology is a systematic organization of elements into types based upon shared attributes. There
are six traditional typologies which describe the form and function of mosques. These typologies are
known as the Arabian or hypostyle, Turkish or centraldome, Iranian or Iwan, Indian, Chinese and
Southeast Asia types. The most popularmosque types in the Islamic World are the hypostyle
mosque, the central-dome mosque, and the Iwan type mosque.
Hypostyle Mosque
The hypostyle mosque is commonly found in the Arabian Peninsula, extreme southwestern Europe
and North African regions. The word hypostyle means under pillars and the design allows for the
construction of large spaces .The hypostyle mosque was introduced by the Umayyads in Syrian and
later adopted by the
Abbasid dynasty that ruled Persia and modern day Iraq. The hypostyle mosque features a large
courtyard and a flat-roofed sanctuary supported by regularly spaced columns or arcades. It
constitutes a flexible architectural unit for constantly growing communities

Hypostyle prayer hall of Cordoba Mosque, Spain

Central-Dome Mosque
The central-dome typology was introduced by the Ottomans in the fifteenth century .It is constituted
by a hall dedicated for worship and crowned with a central dome .The central dome is often
surrounded by smaller and lower semi-domes. This typology of mosque provides an ambulatory and
more illuminated space. Perhaps the best known example of this typology is the Dome of the Rock in
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Jerusalem, Israel. The Selimye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey constitutes an example of the centraldome mosque with transformation and expansion of the number of minarets

Hagia Sophia.Istanbul the imperial Byzantine church which was converted to a mosque, Istanbul,
Turkey

Iwan Mosque
The iwan typology was developed during the medieval period. It consists of a courtyard serving as
the prayer hall and surrounded by four iwans where one of them comprised the portal .The iwan
opposite of the portal contains the qibla wall. The typology of the iwans was borrowed from basic
Iranian architecture and is characterized by vaulted ceilings with one wall open

Plan of the Bibi Khanim Mosque, Iran

Indian Mosque

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The Indian mosque typology was designed after that of the iwan model with immense gateways .The
Indian mosque typology is more distinctive by its large courtyard space and its preference to
spherical domes and arches.

Plan of the Friday Mosque, Fatehpur Sikri, India

Chinese Mosque
The Chinese mosque typology revealed a great influence of the Chinese house,temple, and palace
architecture. The mosque consists of a series of courtyards surrounded by timber structured walls.
The dome of this mosque is covered by a hexagonal Chinese typology timber roof

The Great Mosque, Xian, China

Southeast Asia Mosque
The Southeast Asian mosque typology features a tower within an enclosed area. The spatial
characteristics of the mosque summarized master-columns of four or six columns indicating a
vertical axiality without interior subdivisions .Southeast Asian mosques generally stand without walls
or fences, nor do they possess minarets

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The four master-columns supporting the upper roof

Mosque Function
The function of the mosque goes beyond the organization and the articulation of the interior spaces.
It indicates the role of the mosque within the overall societal fabric. A mosque is a place dedicated
for Muslims to gather and worship. The prayer hall or sanctuary, also called the haram, forms the
space where congregants pray five times a day in rows facing Mecca. Additionally, a mosque holds
the main prayer service for Muslims which is the Friday prayer, salat ul-jumuah). The sahn or the
mosques courtyard is an important place for public gatherings One of the primary functions of the
mosque is community service .This role is evident in the traditional hosting of meals in the mosque
during Ramadan as well as other religious events that reach out to the community. As charity, or
zakat, is one of the five pillars of Islam, mosques are also supposed to help the poor .Another role
played by the mosque is embodying socio-political activities Traditionally, mosques formed the
nucleus of the Muslim community and were located at the center of the city. Congregation, especially
men, came to gather and pray, as well as to engage in politics. As a result, mosques also served as
space used to promote civic participation, protests, and to sign petitions.
Additionally, mosques have a major educational role to play. Some mosques provide Islamic
schools. Traditionally, Madrassas are separate buildings that have an important educational role
helping Muslims to study and to become imams, religious prayer leaders, analogous to Christian
priests and ministers

2. Discuss in detail, the characteristics of indo- Islamic architecture in

terms of
a. Elements of decoration.
b. Materials and methods of construction
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ANSWER:
a. Elements of decoration
Calligraphy:
Because of its role in recording the word of God, calligraphy is considered one of the
most important of the Islamic arts. Nearly all Islamic buildings have some type of surface
inscription in the stone, stucco, marble, mosaic and/or painting. The inscription might be a
verse from the Qur'an, lines of poetry, or names and dates.
Like other Islamic decoration, calligraphy is closely linked to geometry. The proportions of
the letters are all governed by mathematics. Inscriptions are most often used as a frame
along and around main elements of a building like portals and cornices.
An inscription also might be contained in a single panel. Sometimes single words such as
Allah or Mohammed are repeated and arranged into patterns over the entire surface of
the walls. Calligraphic texts might appear in pierced cartouches, providing a pattern for
light filtering through windows

Geometry :
Islamic artists developed geometric patterns to a degree of complexity and
sophistication previously unknown. These patterns exemplify the Islamic interest in
repetition, symmetry and continuous generation of pattern. The assurance of the
Islamic designers is demonstrated by their masterful integration of geometry with such
optical effects as the balancing of positive and negative areas, interlacing with fluid
overlapping and under passing strap work, and a skillful use of color and tone values.
More than any other type of design (geometric patterns) permitted an interrelationship
between the parts and the whole of a building complex, the exterior and the interior
spaces and their furnishings. Repetitious designs represent the Islamic value of
constantly repeated prayers
Geometry itself became a major art form, using refinement, repetition and symmetry
to create a wide variety of effects.
14

Star - most common Islamic design which symbolizes equal radiation in all directions
from a central point.
Tessellations - designs repeated and filled in (like patterns of bricks and many tiles)
and are interlocking, like pieces of a puzzle.
Floral patterns :
Islamic artists reproduced nature with a great deal of accuracy. Flowers and trees
might be used as the motifs for the decoration of textiles, objects and buildings. In the
Mughal architectural decoration of India, artists were inspired by European botanical
drawings, as well as by Persian traditional flora. Their designs might be applied to
monochrome panels of white marble, with rows of flowering plants exquisitely carved
in low relief, alternating with delicately tinted polychrome inlays of precious and hard
stones

ARABESQUE
The arabesque is an elaborate application of repeating geometric forms that often
echo the forms of plants, shapes and sometimes animals (specifically birds). The
choice of which geometric forms are to be used and how they are to be formatted is
based upon the Islamic view of the world. To many in the Islamic world, symbolize the
infinite, and therefore uncentralized, nature of the creation of the one God ("Allah" in
Arabic).
Figures and animals:
Because the creation of living things that move -- that is, humans and animals -- is
considered to be in the realm of God, Islam discourages artists from producing such
figures through art. Nevertheless, a certain amount of figural art can be found in the
Islamic world, although it is mainly confined to the decoration of objects and secular
buildings and to miniature paintings. Figural sculpture is quite rare in Islam.
Light:
For many Muslims (and non-Muslims), light is the symbol of divine unity. In Islamic
architecture,
Light functions decoratively by modifying other elements or by originating patterns.

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With the proper light, pierced facades can look like lacy, disembodied screens, Light
can add a dynamic quality to architecture, extending patterns, forms and designs into
the dimensions of time.
And the combination of light and shade creates strong contrasts of planes and gives
texture to sculpted stone, as well as stocked or brick surfaces.
Water
In hot Islamic climates, the water from courtyard pools and fountains cools as it
decorates. Water can not only reflect architecture and multiply the decorative themes,
it can also serve as a means of emphasizing the visual axes. Like the images they
mirror, pools of water are immutable, yet constantly changing; fluid and dynamic, yet
static. In hot Islamic climates, water from courtyard pools and fountains cools as it
decorates. Water can not only reflect architecture and multiply the decorative
themes, it can also serve as a means of emphasizing the visual axes

b. Materials and methods of construction

Squinch arch
A squinch in architecture is a piece of construction used for filling in the upper angles
of a square room so as to form a proper base to receive an octagonal or spherical
dome. It was the primitive solution of this problem, the perfected one being eventually
provided by the pendentive. Squinches may be formed by masonry built out from the
angle in corbelled courses, by filling the corner with a vise placed diagonally, or by
building an arch or a number of corbelled arches diagonally across the corner
Pendentive
The term applied to the triangular curved overhanging surface by means of which a
(circular) dome is supported on a square or polygonal compartment; in the
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construction of a dome resting upon a square base, the spherical triangle formed
between each pair of supporting arches; one of the triangular spherical sections of
vaulting the spring from the corners of a rectangular ground plan and serve to allow
the room enclosing it to be covered by a dome or cupola; the part of a groined vault
that springs from a single pier or corbel.

Muqarnas
Muqarnas takes the form of small pointed niches, stacked in tiers projecting beyond
those below and can be constructed in brick, stone, stucco or wood. They are often
applied to domes, pendentives, cornices, squinches and the undersides of arches and
vaults.
It involves three-dimensional architectural decorations composed of niche-like
elements arranged in tiers. The two-dimensional projection of muqarnas vaults
consists of a small variety of simple geometrical elements.
Stalactite
(Gr- a dripping stone) Honey combing; a type of ornamentation resembling the
formation of calcium carbonate hanging from the roof or walls of a corner; it appears
to have originated in the multiplication of small squinch arches on a pendentive hence
the stalactite pendentive. Its complicated arrangement of prisms appealed to the Arab
love of geometrical decoration stimulated by Islamic prohibition of animal
representation; stalactite is also used as a series of squinch arches in the phase of
transition; a typical Muslim feature

Stonework
The earliest Islamic monuments, dating from the Umayyad period, clearly continue the
Roman/Byzantine tradition in their typical structures and in their use of dressed and carved stone.
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These techniques continued under later dynasties in Egypt and Syria (the Fatimids, Zangids,
Ayyubids and Mamelukes). The deep carving, ordered in panelled schemes, with calligraphic bands
and geometrical and arabesque motifs, make an impressive contrast against great expanses of
undecorated surfaces.In Asia Minor they continued the traditions both of ashlar building and of stone
carving. Under the Seljuks a more plastic style of stone-carving was introduced, based on the stucco
work of their predecessors in Iran. The strength and vitality of this tradition of carved stonework
continued up to the beginning of the 16th/10th century.

Brickwork
brickwork was the favoured building technique in the eastern Islamic provinces .The first stage (in
the 11th/5thcentury) saw an increasing variety of brick bonds that created relief patterns of light and
shade to great effect. The technique was such that some buildings featured dozens of different
bond-patterns. Later, carved ornamental inserts were used to break up the tedium of plain bonding;
these were soon moulded before being fired, in a whole variety of motifs. In the next stage these
brick inserts were glazed, a technique that lead naturally on to entire walls and domes being
invested with coloured glazed bricks, by which time the structural and decorative functions of
brickwork had more or less separated out. Over time these glazed bricks were gradually reduced in
thickness until they were virtually tiles and the possibility of a whole new era of architectural
ornament was created.

Ceramic tiles and ceramic mosaic

Coloured glaze was part of the repertoire of decoration in the architecture of the Ancient middle-east.
The earliest Islamic monuments made extensive use of mosaic as both floor and wall decoration, It
was not really until the 12th/6thcentury that architectural ceramics began to be used extensively in an
Islamic setting .The gradual development of suitable ceramic glazes, in both pottery and tile-work,
represented a whole series of technological advances, and as such was as much a
scientific/technological achievement as an artistic one. Ceramic tiles are found in most Muslim
countries, using an extensive range of techniques that include high moulded relief, polychrome,
lustre-ware and sgraffito. In addition, sophisticated techniques were developed that used pieces of
cut-tiles, bonded together with plaster, to form elaborate, multi-coloured mosaic panels. Each
element of the traditional Islamic decorative canon, geometric and vegetal arabesque forms,

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together with calligraphy, is used but with great local variations of style.The use of cut-tile mosaic
seems to have come into favour in the Islamic west.

Stucco/Plasterwork
Plaster was a building material used to cover rough, rubble walls This was a readily available .Its
earlier forms followed late-Classical and Sassanian models, next stage towards a flattening of the
decorated surface, the emphasis on symmetry, its division into distinct, evenly laid-out panels, and
the use of abstract rather than naturalistic motifs.
Plaster, a singularly useful material that leant itself to moulding and carving in a variety of ways,
became a staple of Islamic architecture. Because of its plasticity as a medium it was less frequently
used for purely geometric designs, and was more often used in vegetal-arabesque arrangements. It
could also, of course, be painted or gilded.

Woodwork
Since wood is a comparatively scarce material it was used for doors and window
shutters which are frequently inlaid, but the finest work is generally found on pulpits
(minbar), the key piece of furniture in the mosque from which Friday sermons are
preached.

UNIT 2

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PART-A
1. State any two architectural examples in lodi dynastry.
Refer Part-B Question No- 5

2. Mention any two buildings constructed during tughlag

dynastry.
Tomb of Ghiyas ud din Tughlaq, Delhi (1325 AD)

Contained within an irregular fortified structure with five bastions at corners dictated by
contours of hillocks

Surrounded by moat and approached by 228.6 m long causeway

Within the courtyards are several underground vaults possibly to deposit hoarded wealth

The tomb

Placed diagonally in the widest part of fortified enclosure bringing it in the direction of Mecca

The tomb is square in plan with 20 m side and rising up to height of 24 m

Walls of the tomb are battered and inclined at 75 degree

Made of red sandstone and white marble lining

Use of both true arch and lintel beam, the stone lintel being redundant in nature a
compromise between two different methods of building construction - this compromise
becomes elegant and effective device in the later buildings of the Muslims

Roofing with white marble dome with use of squinch

Kalasa pinnacle over dome Hindu influence

Tughlaq mosques

Further transformation in design of arched faade emergence of ceremonial pylons in place

of arched screen

Started to have courtyard generally raised over high platforms with imposing flights of steps

Lower portion of raised platform is provided with deep niches for pilgrims, priest, shops, etc.

Some notable examples:

Khirki Masjid, Delhi (1375 AD)

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Raised on a plinth of 3m height . it consist of four courtyards square in size of

9.14m encircled by arcades. The open courtyard is the source of light and
ventilation for the entire mosque structure. Roof is partitioned into 25 squares of
equal size with 9 small domes in each square and alternated by 12 flat roofs to
cover the roof. Four corners of the mosque are with circular towers with three
gateways in N, S and E sides, one in middle of each face with tapering turrets
flanking each gate.
South gate with imposing steps is used as main entrance constructed with
combination of arch and trebeated construction. The turrets in north and south
side are circular in shape and articulation gives them 3 storied appearances.

3. Write short note on surface treatment of qutb minar.

The Qutub Minar comprises several superposed flanged and cylindrical shafts,
separated by balconies carried on Muqarnas corbels. The minaret is made of
fluted red sandstone covered with intricate carvings and verses from the Qur'an.
.Each story has a different design theme, and balconies project from each story.
These balconies are supported on elaborately carved and inscribed stalactite-like
brackets (muqarnas), structural elements which support the weight of the
projecting balconies. A door on the northern side of the minaret, facing the Qutb
mosque, leads to its internal spiral staircase that accesses each of the balconies.
Small windows open onto this internal stairway. The Nakshi inscriptions on the
Qutb Minar include Quranic verses and an account of the construction of the
minaret, including its repairs. The inscriptions also serve political intents, declaring
the greatness of the rulers involved in its construction

4. Write short note on first Islamic building erected in India.

The first Islamic structure erected in India was Qutb mosque also known as
Quwwat ul Islam, meaning the 'might of Islam,' the mosque was created with the
dismantling and reassembling of the 27 existing Hindu and Jain temples on the
site. New additions made using the local trabeated construction, as opposed to
arcuated or vaulted construction. This was constructed over a hindu sub-structure.
It measures 217x150 built around a paved courtyard in 1195. The extra height
required is achieved by superimposing one column over the other. Domes were
located over corners of the courtyard and over the entrance. The cupolas were
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finished by filling with lime concrete and thick plaster applied to get smooth profile
of shallow dome. Maqsura or screen of bricks i.e. five pointed arched opening108 long and 50 height 8 thick is constructed to highlight the qibla wall.
The arches were constructed with rubble masonry and finished with red
sandstone. The surfaces of stone were engraved with verses from Koran
bordered with spiral form.

PART -- B

1. Bring out architectural features of qutb minar

Qutub Minar in red and buff sandstone is the second highest tower in India, after
the Fateh Burj or "Victory Tower" in Punjab . A projected balcony encircling the
Minar is supported by stone brackets which are decorated with honeycomb
designs. The Qutub Minar comprises several superposed flanged and cylindrical
shafts, separated by balconies carried on Muqarnas corbels. The minaret is made
of fluted red sandstone covered with intricate carvings and verses from the
Qur'an.
The Qutb Minar is a unique building which announces the arrival of Islam in India.
The Qutb Minar was built of grey Delhi quartzite in ashlar masonry; the first three
stories are revetted with red sandstone from Agra, while the upper two are also
clad in white marble. The minar comprises a tall tapering cylindrical tower
standing on a circular base with five storeys which together reach a height of 72. 5
m. Each of the storeys is reached by an internal spiral staircase of 360 steps
which leads to the balconies which are supported on muqarnas corbels. The most
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characteristic feature of the building is the corrugated angular and rounded fluting
on the shaft which forms the basis for many later imita-tions. The first part of the
tower was built by Qutb al-Din who died in 1210 leaving only one storey
completed. This is the thickest part of the tower with a base diameter of 14 m
tapering to 9 m at the first balcony. This part of the minaret is built with alternating
sharp-angled and rounded fluting (twelve of each type) which are decorated with
bands of inscriptions. The second storey added by Iltumish has rounded flutes,
the third storey has angular flutes and the fourth storey was plain. During the
fourteenth century the top of the building was damaged by lightning and in 1569
Firuz Shah repaired the damage to the top and added an extra storey. The
diameter at the fifth storey is only 2.7 m making a reduction from an area of 44
square metres at the base to 8.5 m at the top.
Each story has a different design theme, and balconies project from each story.
These balconies are supported on elaborately carved and inscribed stalactite-like
brackets (muqarnas), structural elements which support the weight of the
projecting balconies. A door on the northern side of the minaret, facing the Qutb
mosque, leads to its internal spiral staircase that accesses each of the balconies.
Small windows open onto this internal stairway.
The first story of the minaret is 29.1 meters in height, encircled by 12 wedge
flanged pilasters alternating with 12 rounded flutes. The second story is 15.39
meters tall with semi-circular flutings and two bands of inscriptions; its balcony
features a 0.9 meter-high railing. The third story is star-shaped in plan; it is 12.31
meters in height, and its surface is decorated with two bands of inscriptions. The
height of the fourth story decreases to 7.3 meters, while the fifth and last story is 7
meters tall.
The Nakshi inscriptions on the Qutb Minar include Quranic verses and an account
of the construction of the minaret, including its repairs. The inscriptions also serve
political intents, declaring the greatness of the rulers involved in its construction.

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2. Sketch and explain the buildings of QUTB complex. Show how

they reflect the confluence of two cultural modes.

The Qutb complex was built by Qutb al-Din Aybak (reg. 1206 - 1211) who
established the first Islamic sultanate in the Indian subcontinent in Delhi in 1192. It
is located within the citadel of Qal'a-e-Rai Pithora (Qila Rai Pithora) where Qutb
al-Din also set up his administrative quarters and residence. Also known as
Quwwat ul Islam, meaning the 'might of Islam,' the Qutb complex was created with
the dismantling and reassembling of the 27 existing Hindu and Jain temples on
the site. New additions made using the local trabeated construction, as opposed
to arcuated or vaulted construction.
The Qutb complex consists of a mosque and two minarets enclosed within a
series of cloistered precincts. This rectangular complex measures about 235 m
(north-south) by 155 m (east-west) along the exterior. It was entered via four
monumental gates along the north, east and south walls, of which only the
southern gate (Alai Darwaza) remains. The mosque, known as the Qutb or
Quwwat ul Islam Mosque, occupies the southwest corner of the complex. It
consists of rectangular enclosures, all the later work of Aybak's successors. The
Qutb Minar (minaret) stands in the southeastern part of this enclosure. The
unfinished Alai Minar (minaret) stands in the northeastern part of the complex. A
tall screen wall with pointed archways runs along the western edge of the
precinct, creating a qibla wall for the prayer spaces. In addition to these elements,
the complex also contains several smaller buildings: the Tomb of Iltutmish, Ala alDin Khalji's madrasa, and the Imam Zamin Mosque. Apart from the Qutb Minar,
the Alai Darwaza, and the ruins of the Qutb Mosque, little of the Qutb complex
stands today.
The rectangular enclosure with the iron pillar in the temple space, which was
intended to serve as a ritual ambulatory for the sanctuary, was later used as an
assembly court for the Muslims, who faced west for communal prayers. The shafts
of the temple columns, decorated with carved human figures covered in bracelets
and cable and link chains terminating in bells or tassel rosettes, were maintained.
On some of the overhead slabs, representations of Vishnu and Buddha along with
lotus motifs are still visible.
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Qutb al-Din Aybak later commissioned a maqsura, or screen wall, before the
western iwan. Made of yellow and red sandstone, this wall is 2.43 meters thick,
45.72 meters long (running along the qibla wall) and 15.2 meters in height. This
five-arched screen wall contains one grand central high arch with two smaller
ones on either side. All are pointed (ogee) arches, created with the use of corbels
by the Hindu masons. These false, or corbelled, arches later evolved into radially
cut arches; this evolution in construction can be seen clearly in subsequent
additions to the complex. This maqsura was later adorned with Quranic verses in
Nakshi letters by Muslim calligraphers.
Iltutmish (reg. 1211 - 1236), upon succeeding Qutb al-Din Aybak, ordered a
further eastward extension of the mosque that nearly doubled its size. Two screen
walls on the northern and southern sides were added, maintaining its design
continuity and symmetry. Iltutmish also added three more storeys to the Qutb
Minar, topping it with a cupola. His small tomb, located in the northern extension
of the complex, is also considered to be an outstanding: its severe exterior is
sandstone, and its lavishly ornamented interior features geometrical arabesques
and floral motifs.
The Sultan, Ala al-Din Khalji (reg. 1296 - 1316) took over from Iltutmish and tripled
the size of the mosque to accommodate the area's growing Muslim population.
The Sultan decided to build another minaret, one larger than the existing Qutb
Minar. This new minaret, the Alai Minar, was placed at the northeastern part of the
Qutb complex; however, work on this minaret ceased during the first stage of its
construction. Sultan Khalji also added a madrasa to the southwestern end of the
complex and the Alai Darwaza on its southern end. The Alai Darwaza is a richly
decorated gateway, renowned for its use of a bold polychromatic scheme. Three
other gates were also added to this mosque extension, two at the eastern wall
and one at the northern wall.
The final extension to the mosque was done by the Tughluqs (reg. 1320 - 1399),
mainly by Firuz Shah, who added the fifth and the sixth stories to the Qutb Minar.
The Tughluqs were then superseded by Timur (Tamerlaine), the ancestor of the
Mughals.

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The importance of the Qutb complex declined towards the end of the thirteenth
century due to two major factors: one, the increasing water scarcity of the capital,
and two, the decision on the part of each new ruler to consolidate his political
legitimacy by building a new city. The Qutb complex remains a highlight among
subcontinental pre-Mughal Islamic architecture. In both the original Hindu temples
and the later Muslim additions, the intricate stone carving and calligraphic work
stand out.

1)Ala-ud-din khalji madrassa 2) Tomb of Iltutmish 3) Iron Pillar 4) Qutb Minar. The
rectangular blue structure encompassing the Iron pillar and Qutb Minar is the
Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. 5) Alai Gate 6) Tomb of Imanzam 7) Gateway 8) Alai
Minar 9) Gateway

3. Explain the characteristics of Ghiyaz-ud-din Tughlag tomb,

with neat sketches.
Ghiyath al Din Tughluq (reg. 1320-1325) was the first Tughluq ruler who, upon
succeeding the Khaljis, established the Tughluqabad Fort on the southeastern
side of the Qutb complex in old Delhi. Built during his lifetime, his tomb is a
fortress-like complex, constructed on an (now-dry) artificial lake, which separates
the tomb from the Tughluqabad Fort. A 229-meter-long causeway, supported by
26 arched piers, crosses the lake to connect the tomb to the fort. Water also
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added a dimension to the paradise imagery in tomb architecture, a theme that

would be carried on from the Tughluq tombs to reach its height with Mughal
architecture.
The tomb complex has an oblique pentagonal plan with a battlement perimeter
wall supporting conical bastions at each angle. Measuring 11.75 meters in height,
the perimeter wall inclines inwards and has a continuous crenellated parapet. One
enters the court through a strategically staggered, decorated entrance gate.
Arched corridors and vaulted chambers run along the interior side of the court
perimeter wall.
Placed diagonally within the court, the tomb itself is constructed of rubble
masonry, unadorned on its exterior and faced with red sandstone and a white
marble decorative course on the interior. Square in plan, its battered walls are
massive: the interior tomb walls measure 11.74 meters in length (18.74 meters on
the exterior), with an overall height of 24.4 meters and a 75 degree slope.
Its pointed dome, which rests on a transition of corner squinches, has an an
interior diameter of 10.41 meters and an exterior diameter of 13.41 meters.
Crowned with a vase and melon (kalash and amala) finial, the dome follows the
typology of Hindu temples in the Delhi region. Three sides (north, south, and east)
of the tomb have horseshoe-arched doorway openings with spearhead extrusions
in their intrados and are flanked by a niche on either side. A marble band begins
at the base of these horseshoe arches, running across the architrave. The
western wall of the tomb accommodates the mihrab.
The interior of the tomb is faced in red sandstone up to the base of the dome,
above which it is clad in white marble. Three tombstones are housed within the
tomb structure itself. With the exception of the marble-clad mihrab, the interiors
are unplastered and undecorated. In addition to the grave of Ghiyath al-Din, the
tomb also contains the graves of his wife Makhdima-Jehan, and his son Sultan
Muhammad Adil Tughlaq Shah (d. 1351).

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4. Describe in detail the architectural characteristics of Alai

Darwaza
The Alai Darwaza is located in the Qutub Complex of Delhi. It is on the southern
part of the complex near its entrance. It was constructed in 1311. Alla-Ud-Din
Khilji made this large gate as the first of four gates that he wanted to build.
For the 1st time the construction was carried out with masonary that was found of
alternate courses of stretchers and headers with header embedded deep into
thickness of wall for stability.
The dome of 34 feet dia over a 54 feet sq base are all constructed with true
arches. It is constructed using red sandstone and white marble as the facing
material. The flat quaranic inscriptional band surrounds and defines the

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opening .horse shoe shaped arch is defined by band of inscriptions in marble; the
jambs are adorned with pairs of slender pilasters.
The intrados of arch itself is ornamented with so called spear head fringe or
garland of buds. Outer faade is treated like two storeyed building with blind
windows in non existing upper storey.
Interior is decorated with intricate arabesques decoration. Light get filtered
through the stara and hexagon jaalis that fill the arched windows in the lower
storey and create a intricate and complex patterns. The jaalis was used to provide
controlled illumination and ventilation for large voluminous space. The gatehouse
structure has only a main central hall, a cubical structure of 55 feet in plan with a
total height to the top of domical finial is 60 feet. In the middle of each side is a
doorway flanked by perforated stone windows.
Each doorway opens into single inner room with hall of 36 feet side and domed
ceiling. In the design the three outer faces are much alike, each containing a tall
archway over a flight of steps leading to higher floor of interior. Below is a plinth
with its vertical sides elegantly carved in varied bands surface of the wall divided
into two stories then again into upright rectangular panels, the two lower being
arched recesses with stone grilles. The system of construction of this pointed
horse shoe arch is that of radiating voussoirs formed of dressed stone.supporting
the arch are the slender. Nook-shafts, carved and moulded, the whole contained
within a rectangular framework bordered with repeating pattern and inscription in
white marble. This dome is supported by an octagonal base and a series of
squinches to help get the dome to blend in with the rest of the build around the
gate. A plaster material is also used on the outside part of the dome to keep it
protected and to give it a uniform appearance.
Inner or fourth side with semi- circular arch- elaborately patterned with repetition
of motifs. Around the shape of arch is a band of inscription of calligraphy in white
marble. There are several different verses from the Quran featured around the
inlay. These include a few quotes from the Hadith books. These are critical books
to the Islamic faith. The inscriptions around the gate are very elaborate and
appealing.

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5. Write a description on the tomb structures erected in India during Sayyid

and Lodi Dynasty with a specific example.
Sayyid and Lodi Tomb Patterns
Although there are variations, the Lodi Tombs generally follow one of three patterns.

1. Type 1 is a tomb that consists of a dome raised on twelve columns over a square platform.
The typical octagonal drum of the dome is of modest height, and the dome is usually
surrounded by kangura (crenellations) and a chhajja (projecting eave). Each corner of the
square tomb is marked by a chhatri (umbrella dome).
2. Type 2 starts with an octagonal base. Each side of the octagon is marked by triple arches,
with buttressing at each corner. The dome is supported on a sixteen-sided drum, giving the
illusion of a circular space. Often, chhatris mark the entrances, and the parapet is made up of
kangura and guldastas (spires).
3. Type 3 looks much heavier, as each faade of the square tomb is all but solid. The pishtaq
(central arch) and other arches decorating the facades are usually blind (that is, filled in with
masonry rather than left open to light and air). The dome is typically supported by a sixteensided dome, which is itself supported by squinches of various forms.

The Bara Gumbad

The Bara Gumbad, or "big dome," is a large domed structure grouped together with the Friday
mosque of Sikander Lodi and a mehman khana (guesthouse), located in New Delhi's Lodi Gardens.

30

Although they were built under the same dynasty, each of the three structures was undertaken
separately. The Bara Gumbad, completed in 1490, is considered to have the first full dome
constructed in Delhi. Its original contains no tombstone. The buildings are sited on a three-meterhigh platform, measuring approximately 30 meters (east-west) by 25 meters (north-south). The
Friday mosque is located along the western edge of the platform; the guesthouse is sited opposite it,
occupying the eastern edge, while the Bara Gumbad is located along the southern edge. Stone
masonry walls, about six meters high, connect the three structures along the southern edge. The
northern edge is provided with staircases for accessing the platform. A centrally located straight flight
comprising of eight steps, about ten meters wide, connects the ground to a generous mid landing.
Square in plan, the Bara Gumbad measures approx. 20 meters per side. Set on a plinth 3 meters
high, it joins the common plinth on the north and projects beyond it to the south. Its plinth is
decorated on the east, south, and west with ogee arch openings set into rectangular frames. These
provide access to a basement.The walls of the Bara Gumbad are approx. 12 meters tall, above
which a hemispherical dome on a hexadecagonal drum extends another 14 meters from the roof
level, for a total building height of 29 meters above ground level.
Each of its elevations is nearly identical and divided into 2 horizontal sections. A projecting portal
composed of an ogee arch set in a rectangular frame (approx. 8 meters wide), is centered in each
elevation and rises approximately 75 cm above the parapet line of the building. The 1.5 meter wide
frame is made of dressed gray granite. Each vertical pier of the frame has six shallow red sandstone
niches arranged atop one another at varying heights; nine niches continue in a line along the
horizontal portion of the frame. The portal is described by two receding planes of grey granite ogee
arches; the spandrels are cased with black granite with a thin projecting edge of red sandstone. Two
round plaster medallions adorn the spandrels. The lower layer of the portal has a central doorway,
spanned by two red sandstone brackets that form a trabeated arch supporting a black granite lintel.
These brackets are supported on grey granite posts. An intricately carved red sandstone frame
adorns the brackets and the lintel; it starts at the springing point of the arch and frames the lintel of
the doorway. The entire composition is set in a rectangular yellow sandstone frame. An ogee arch
window has been provided above the trabeated entrance. The portal is crowned by the arched
crenellations of the blind parapet. Solid turrets mark the projecting corners of the portal.
The remainder of the elevation, that flanking the central portal on either side and recessed behind it,
is divided vertically into two equivalent parts by projecting horizontal bands of stone. Each part is
described by two equal arched panels set into rectangular frames. Both the panels of the upper part
on either side of the portal are blind and filled with granite masonry. The lower panels located
31

adjacent to the portal are windows, while the lower panels at the edges are filled in. The parapet, like
the portal, is decorated with arched crenellations, and the roof has solid turrets at each corner.
A single hemispherical dome surmounted on a sixteen-sided drum crowns the building. Each face of
the drum is described by an ogee arched niche set in a rectangular frame. The top edge of the drum
is decorated with a band of arched crenellations, similar to those on the roof parapets, running above
a projecting band of stone that surrounds the drum. Below this projection is band of leaves carved in
relief. The extrados of the dome are finished in smooth plaster. The lotus base, possibly for a
vanished calyx finial, is still extant.
The structure can be entered either from the raised courtyard via the north elevation or from a
double flight of steps located on the western elevation. Inside, the square building measures about
seven meters per side. An 80 cm high, 45 cm wide solid seat runs continuously along the interior
perimeter of the building. Light streams in from all four walls, which are punctured by the openings of
the doorway at the ground level and the ogee arch window above. The interior surfaces of the
Gumbad are unornamented and finished in dressed granite. The square plan of the room transitions
into an octagon via squinches, which then support the thirty-two-sided drum and the dome. The apex
of the dome has two bands of floral inscriptions; otherwise, the dome is finished in plaster. The
absence of historical inscriptions has contributed to the confusion over the original purpose of the
Bara Gumbad.

Sayyid Mahmud Shah Tomb

The architectural austerity practiced during the Tughluq dynasty was relaxed under Sayyid rule.
Ornamental details were once again incorporated into architectural expression, though the utilization
was still prudent. Due to the inheritance of greatly diminished state coffers, the Sayyid's could not
commission monumental buildings. As a result, their architectural legacy manifested in small tombs
and mausoleum built throughout Delhi. The city became a veritable necropolis leading this period to
32

be known as the 'macabre' reign, a word perhaps derived from 'maqbara' (cemetery) in Arabic. Also
during this period came a renewed interest in melding Hindu and Islamic art traditions and motif.
The tomb of Muhammad Shah, the third ruler of the Sayyid dynasty, is one of the larger tombs
surviving from this period. It is located within the Lodi Gardens that was designed by the Sayyids and
Lodis in the fifteenth and sixteenth century. It is based on a configuration used mostly for royal
tombs-an octagonal chamber ringed by an outer arcade, while square tombs were for high-ranking
members of society. The width of each of the octagonal faces of the arcade is 32'-9" (10m),
equivalent to the height that includes the base and the corner pinnacles (guldasta). Each face is
pierced by three arched openings with a running 'chhajja' (overhanging eaves supported by stone
corbels) above. The corner of the octagon is reinforced by a sloping buttress.
The central dome sits on a sixteen-sided high drum, giving the tomb greater verticality. Hindu
influence is reflected in the eight 'chhatris' that ring the dome, each centered and in line with a face
of the octagon. The dome of each 'chhatri' is a smaller version of the central dome, each capped by
a lotus finial with a decorative band around the base.
The tomb chamber is an octagon measuring 26'-3" (8m) in diameter. The ceiling is decorated with
carved stucco using circular designs with arabesques and calligraphic motifs. The main entrance is
through the south, though each side of the chamber has a beam and lintel doorway. There are eight
graves inside, the central one is believed to be that of Muhammad Shah.
The tomb is considered a refinement of the tomb built for Mubarak Shah, father of Muhammad Shah.
Muhammad Shah's tomb is more compact in plan with a higher dome that lends it better
proportionality and is more pleasing visually.

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Exterior View Of The Tomb

Sloping buttress at the corner

34