Boys and girls stay in to play: creating inclusive and exclusive computer entertainment for children

James STEWART University of Edinburgh

Abstract :

This case study tells the story of a small firm of designers and artists that creates and sells creative interactive computer-based products to publishers and other intermediaries in the market !n particular they produced a series of "girl games#$ entertainment %& R'(s for early teenage girls for a ma)or general store chain$ an interactive television series for children of both se*es$ and +edutainment, products for children They find their +multilayer, approach to design and particular graphic style attractive to both girls and boys$ though this is never a factor that is considered by their intermediate customers &espite producing some games$ they do not sell or design for the mainstream gaming market -hich they feel is dominated by a technology-led paradigm$ and products for boys Their games for girls are engaging and original$ and -ere very successful$ but follo- the style of .//0s products that target traditional +feminine, interests$ influenced by -hat girls are kno-n to consume 1 particularly girls maga2ines !n the other products$ particularly the television sho-s$ cooperation as -ell as competition is an important factors in creating a -atchable and en)oyable product that appeals to girls and boys 3erhaps not being able to compete in the mainstream technology-led market opens up an opportunity to develop other approaches 4o-ever$ the difficulty for a small$ and rather +alternative, firm to participate in the mainstream gaming market highlights the range of other players -ho are important in bringing computer based play$ often mi*ed -ith ideas of education to female users !t also highlights the lack of engagement -ith girls as users of !%T for play by many of these established players

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Executive Summary
This case study tells the story of a small firm of interaction designers and artists that creates and sells creative interactive computer-based products to publishers and other intermediaries !n particular they produced a series of "girl games#$ entertainment %& R'(s for early teenage girls for a ma)or general store chain$ an interactive television series for children of both se*es$ and +edutainment, products for children The firm -as chosen because they had an e*plicit strategy to create games and entertainment products for girls$ and because the strategy -as not premeditated$ but emerged out of an interaction -ith the market$ and the development of particular products The users of the entertainment and edutainment products are constructed in a variety of -ay by the designers$ the various publishers$ parents purchasing the games$ and the children playing them$ based on e*perience$ stereotypes and sales9 Children as particular users of games and entertainment: This is based primarily on age group -hich relates to ability and interests %hildren respond to themes and aesthetics that appeal to them$ and these vary bet-een children Boys and girls as different types of users of games and play9 girls and boys are perceived as having different interests and play styles and different consumption of computer and video game entertainment (any girls are not attracted to mainstream video games that are designed primarily for boys because of high speed interaction style$ a common +dark,$ +digital, aesthetic$ and because of the themes of the games :irls prefer more cooperative play$ not only competitive play :irls like environments to e*plore at their o-n pace$ and not be pressured by goals$ rules and a ticking clock :irls like particular themes and content that boys to not These perceptions are e*pressed in the firm,s girl games9 many girls like to play -ith ideas of love$ they like the idea of a secret diary$ they like to e*plore ideas and feelings -ith friends$ and to appropriate celebrity lives and pro)ect themselves into those lifestyles The source of these constructions depends on the designer$ but are very much link to personal life e*perience The designer of the girl games dre- on her memories of being a young girl$ and her interests then$ and pro*ies for the interests of many pre-teen girls as e*pressed in the design and content of girl,s maga2ines Testing of the product confirmed choices and lead to changes The designer of the children,s games dra-s on personal and family e*periences$ pro*ies such as children,s books$ kno-ledge about the games market$ and the concerns of many firms in creating games for boys$ and the results of observations and testing of their o-n products -ith children 4e constructed girls as preferring the more open play style$ having an aesthetic different to many boys$ and preferring different types of content to boys The designers also have constructions of the various other actors in their business$ and those actor,s constructions of girls as !%T users9 Mainstream games publishers ackno-ledge that girls are an important market that is not addressed -ell by industry$ that girls like to play as much as boys$ but girls games -ill be unlikely to pay off (any games design companies are seen as having an image of the user in their o-n image9 one generation of boys designing for the ne*t Educational Publishers, Museums etc., are represented as not being concerned -ith the se* of the children$ but only -ith the age group as a salient category in the design and sale of educational and edutainment products he general store that commissioned the games for girls and for small children considered that %& R'( entertainment -ould be something that they could offer their customers as part of a range of products Parents are represented as being keen to have their children learning$ at least a bit$ -hen they spend time in front of the computer They are also seen as the gatekeepers and purchasers of soft-are for children This company developed a business on creating products that they -ant to build$ but that they also found satisfied intermediate and end users ;uite successfully <ased on constructions outlined, the firm developed products that are either inclusive 1 that appeal to

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girls and boys e;ually 1 or exclusive ! that only appeal to girls They have done this by find -ays of creating computer play environments that appeal to girls$ both though the choice of aesthetics and content$ though the interaction design style$ and through the game structure At the level of content this firm created exclusive games 1 games for girls$ by choosing clearly +feminine, themes for their girl games9 the secret diary$ the popstar emulation game and the game of being in love They used a particular aesthetic as -ell$ very pink$ cartoonlike$ irregular shapes9 very unlike conventional games and computer applications This content and aesthetic is taken closely from -idely read girls maga2ines$ so -as considered to be something that many girls -ould like$ but also be familiar -ith and unmistakably +girly, and their o-n At the level of product structure and interaction the games are arguably not pure games$ but play environments or tools$ to use and e*plore at ones o-n pace$ to appropriate by customising$ not by mastery The firm also produced inclusive products9 the children,s interactive T= sho-s$ children games and other edutainment products These products -ere produced for publishers -ho re;uired products to suit boys and girls -ithin a particular age range To create these they used content that -as accessible to all children$ primarily as they are educational in nature$ and focused on the interaction and game structure To do this they developed -hat they termed +multi-level, products that could be played in different -ays$ and interacted aspects of play environments or cooperation and e*ploration -ith goals$ rules and competition They considered that although all players could en)oy al aspects of the game$ certain aspects -ith appeal more to girls and other more to boys !n general one of the strengths of their products identified by this firm is that their products appealed to +non-users,$ those -ith little interest or no attraction to some of the +mainstream, computer games and entertainment$ or to technology in general This can be seen as a strategy for product differentiation: creating products that appeal to non-core markets in computer based entertainment This firm discovered the strategy by chance$ and has e*ploited to a certain e*tent$ finding it a market much less cro-ded than that for mainstream gaming products This means that the intermediaries for their products are not games publishers but a range of other types of publishers

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1.

Introduction

The market for !%Ts and games for children under .> is the key market in games and play products$ and naturally a small but important part of the !%T market . (any of the games and interactive products sold for this age group have been considered as primarily for boys$ even though video games are )ust as much part of girl,s lives too Several attempts -ere made over the .//0s to understand and create computer entertainment especially for girls in this age group 5the ?girls games, movement?6$ often by female academics and entrepreneurs -ith a feminist agenda$ including$ for e*ample$ such large study by <renda @aurel and co-orkers at !nterval Research and the subse;uent production of a number of girl games on the 3urple (oon label 5%assell and Jenkins$ .//A6 !n general$ the conclusions follo- earlier +pre-technology, research$ that boys and girls play in very different -ays at this age$ and although most girls do play video games of many sorts$ the ma)ority of products do not cater for the specific play interests$ and patterns of girls There is also evidence that the publishing and production of video games is highly competitive and in many -ays risk averse$ such that production and marketing of games specifically for girls is reserved for a niche of producers 4o-ever games are only a part of market in +fun, !%T products for children9 many children,s products integrate education and entertainment9 +edutainment,9 !%Ts are a -ay to present and engage children -ith +educational, topics by using -ith play elements$ or games are e*plicitly developed as learning tools This broader link bet-een play and !%T content is important in understanding !%Ts for children and girls in particular This study e*plores the e*perience of a small multimedia design company that designs educational %& R'( and !nternet products$ and has created a number of games and interactive television sho-s for children$ and games or play environments for girls in particular They create specific types of products -ith an aesthetic and interaction style rather different from the ma)ority of video games$ and they find$ through testing$ that girls and boys both en)oy them$ but have different -ays of playing them This they attribute to their multilayered interaction and content style and the graphical aesthetics The firm is generally commissioned to produce products by educational establishments$ foundations$ publishers$ and museums Their girl games -ere unusual as they -ere commissioned$ not by a games publisher$ but by a chain of general stores The study complements a larger study of games designers$ producing games largely aimed at boys or a +general, market that is also part of the S!:!S research "The :ender :ame - A study of 8or-egian computer game designers# by 4elen JBsk :ansmo$ 4ege 8ordli and Cnut 4 SBrensen$ and a study of -omen video game players and ma)or video game platform firms #:irls Just -ant to have fun# by Aphra Cerr This firm is not primarily a ,games, company$ but operates on a boundary bet-een education and entertainment in a -ay that helps us investigate the concept of play in !%T$ and issues of the market for products that target girls

2.

Thumbnail

This case study tells the story of a small firm of designers and artists that creates and sells creative interactive computer-based products to publishers and other intermediaries in the market !n particular they produced a series of "girl games#$ entertainment %& R'(s for early teenage girls for a ma)or general store chain$ an interactive television series for children of both se*es$ and +edutainment, products for children They find their +multilayer, approach to design and particular graphic style attractive to both girls and boys$ though this
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%hild :ames -ere a mere D EF of the US video game market by units sold in the US in >00. 583& GunWorld$ >00.6

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is never a factor that is considered by their intermediate customers &espite producing some games$ they do not sell or design for the mainstream gaming market -hich they feel is dominated by a technology-led paradigm$ and products for boys Their games for girls are engaging and original$ and -ere very successful$ but follo- the style of .//0s products that target traditional +feminine, interests$ influenced by -hat girls are kno-n to consume 1 particularly girls maga2ines !n the other products$ particularly the television sho-s$ cooperation as -ell as competition is an important factors in creating a -atchable and en)oyable product that appeals to girls and boys 3erhaps not being able to compete in the mainstream technology-led market opens up an opportunity to develop other approaches 4o-ever$ the difficulty for a small$ and rather +alternative, firm to participate in the mainstream gaming market highlights the range of other players -ho are important in bringing computer based play$ often mi*ed -ith ideas of education to female users !t also highlights the lack of engagement -ith girls as users of !%T for play by many of these established players

3.
3.1

Theoretical discussion
lay! "amin" and leisure use of I#Ts

%omputer and video games have become one of the mainstays of the entertainment industry since their invention in the late ./H0s They are en)oyed in many forms by people of all ages$ male and female While dominated by soft-are running on portable or T=-based terminals$ they are also played on computers$ increasingly connected to the internet 'ver the years there has been continued technical development of the e;uipment 1 the platforms continually opening up ne- possibilities to games designers$ and a development of negame formats from card games through the first person +shoot-em-ups, to +lifestyle, simulations to appeal to every sort of taste and temperament As -ell as +pure, games$ the emergence of interactive media focused attention on the introduction of play and gaming elements into educational products$ spa-ning the concept of +edutainment,$ ranging from educational products softened -ith animations and cartoon characters$ to games -ith nominal educational messages The arrival of the internet opened ne- -ays of using the computer terminal for a broad range of leisure activities 1 from surfing the -eb$ participating in chat rooms and multi user environments -ith more or less structure Gor the analyst this opened up ;uestions of the definition of leisure$ entertainment$ play and gaming 1 -hether they could be distinguished$ and ho- useful these distinctions might be @eisure activities such as play and gaming are generally conducted in social situations$ and more or less in cooperation or competition =ideo games open up the possibility of replacing a human opponent or playing companion -ith a machine 1 leading to a huge output of games pitting a human player against a computer environment or opponent 1 and the predominant vision of video games as a solitary pursuit Just as books for entertainment had been criticised as promoting solitary pleasure over social activities -hen they -ere first introduced$ video games -ere criticised the same -ay !n fact many video and computer games are playable in a multiuser mode 1 and$ as -ith most games and sport$ also allo- an individual to hone their skills alone to pit them against a friend or even a professional opponent The computer can also be used for many leisure activities that do not rely on a particular +game, any more than a piece of paper needs to have a novel printed on it or be used for entertainment 5as anyone -ith a pencil or a bo* of paints -ill point out6 The computer itself as a technology is a source of play for many users$ such as configuring and testing the system$ or -riting ne- code$ and standardised applications for -riting$ dra-ingI e-mail and -eb bro-sing can be used for play )ust as easily (essaging in particular can be seen as a form of social play based on gossip and conversation that has been successful on the computer -ith e-mail and instant messaging$ but topped by mobile phone messaging We arrive at the concept of !%T based play 1 a much broader concept than +gaming, -hich implies play -ithin a set of predetermined and unchangeable rules 1 in this case embedded in the computer programme

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'ne area of computer use that has stressed play and fun since the multimedia computer become a consumer item is in education 5<uckingham et al >00.6$ -here graphical$ net-ork and interactive attributes of computers have been promoted as making the +-ork, of learning more +fun# The much criticised but commercially successful concept of edutainment may not be as strong today as in the .//0s$ but it illustrates attempts to redefine the boundary bet-een play and -ork$ and to place children,s school and home learning into the melting pot -here 3lay is put to -ork to supposedly attract children to learning . Taking a broader vie- of play and !%Ts$ the focus on video games and the computer and internet maybe rather too narro- As the case of this firm sho-s$ the television is still one of the key entertainment media that can be integrated into interactive play A more important trend$ as illustrated by the statistics on toy purchase$ is the continuing incorporation of !%T technology into toys in more child friendly -ays Toys have e*ploited electronics for as long as microprocessors have been available$ and this trend continues$ -ith computer controlled @ego$ +A !, robot cats$ interactive globes and electronic pets > 'f course the mobile phone is steadily reaching do-n the age range$ so many under-.>s -ill have personal terminals for mini games and te*t messaging play

3.1.1 Research on Computer and Video Games for Girls

'ne of the principle sources for our understanding of girls and computer games is from a body of research done in the ./A0s and .//0s and published in the collection " Gorm <arbie to (ortal combat# 5%assell and Jenkins .//A6 This book consists not only of research papers$ but intervie-s -ith engaged game designers themselves (uch of -hat is discussed in this paper is found elaborated upon in this book$ as regards the e*periences and strategies of game designers and their development of games and play for girls This brief reviedra-s upon this collection and other sources 'ne important factor about the market for childrens games$ especially for the under .>s$ is that purchases are to a large degree mediated by parents$ -ho screen the content$ provide the terminals$ and decide the spending This has a number of implications for use of !%Ts and games for girls Research suggests that in many cases parents do not encourage girls to play +time -asting, games as much as they let boys play 5see also Cerr this pro)ect6 This implies that the amount of money available to buy +pure, games for a specifically girl,s market is limited !n particular girls are encouraged to use technology as a tool or in education$ not for play$ 5a theme -hich is often reflected in -omen,s attitude to technology more generally6 This suggests that content products for girls may tend to be more +educational,$ especially as parents that can afford computers are probably those -ho display middle class tendency to discourage time -asting play and emphasis home learning in all toys and activities 5@ivingstone and <ovill .///6 D !t is not only parents that can impose this limitation but teachers too$ as 58ordli$ >00>6 suggests
"We heard teachers say ho- important it -as to give the girls an impression of ho- useful it -ould be for them to learn to use a computer$ but this may impose limitation rather than encouragement 'ne needs carefully to consider statements like the one made by Sil)e -hen she -as asked about ho- clever she -as using a computer9 " don#t thin$ "#m particularly clever. " only use it for fun. 5Sil)e6 What is being suggested is that girls like to play$ but they are being constrained from using computer for play9 "The fact that many boys very fre;uently play computer-games has been a

"The only thing that has changed in edutainment is the marketing slant JEdutainment has become a bad -ord$J said Eve Seber$ director of 8orth American sales and operations for Tivola$ a %&-R'( publisher 8o- its Jsmart play$J and the games are becoming more fun$ as the industry reali2es children have to like them more than their education-oriented parents# http:%%ne&s.com.com%'())! ()*)!+,-.(+.html$ Tiffany Cary Tech toy bo* looking empty %8ET Gebruary .A$ >00>
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"4ot &o2en# toys in US for >00D reported in " <arbie cars$ talking globes among +4ot &o2en, toys#$ Reuters$ 0K-0H-0D 5reported in Gorbes com6 The Tamagochi$ the first very popular electronic pet -as developed by -omen D @ivingstone 5.///6 reports that middle class parents are much more likely to emphasis learn though !%Ts and control more over play uses than in -orking class families

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standard e*planation of their dedication An educational strategy that presupposes that girls do not -ant to have fun$ may be a serious mistake #

Another problem identified is that many games and play programmes include content$ interaction style and design that do not appeal to girls and -omen 5Wright >000b6 'f course the massive use of computer and video games by -omen and girls partly gives the lie to this simplistic gender dichotomy$ as does the assumption that all boys and men like mainstream video games As pointed out earlier$ there is a proliferation of games genres$ many of -hich could be said to appeal to more +feminine, interests 8onetheless there does appear to be a strong current in game producing and playing culture that is male dominated and appealing to boys and men <ut -hat makes -omen and girls interested in playing particular games and -hat should be done to make games more +girl, friendlyL @ack of games for girls is still problem for at least a part of the market$ as 58ordli$ >00.6 says 9":irls do like to play games$ but nobody make games for girls # 'ne possible reason for this$ identified in the literature$ is the structure of the video games industry$ and to a certain e*tent the entertainment and toy industry as a -hole %arahar 5.//A6 of SE:A$ emphasises the competitive pressures of the games industry :ames are very e*pensive to create and market$ and if they do not sell$ they are removed from the shelves -ith in a fe- -eeks !t takes a brave or foolhardy firm to offer a product that is out of the ordinary$ that breaks out of the dominant paradigms of the market 1 particular genres and e*pectations 1 and that mandate in favour of incremental rather than radical change !t is also suggested that most +girl games, companies are smaller start ups$ set up by people -ith an agenda to produce entertainment for girls$ and determined to create a niche market$ possibly a strategy that is not availableMcompelling to ma)or economic players Strategies that have been articulated for doing this include strong product differentiation and specific targeting of girls and their parents Celley 5.//A6 'ne implication for the content of the products$ suggests Celley$ is that firms need to undertake market research to find out -hat girls -ant$ but almost inevitably respond to traditional gender representations 1 creating +girly, girl games As one designer complained$ "What are you going to do$ you kno-L :irls like lipstick# 5Weil .//H6 The concept of games for girls became a mainstream issue in the mid .//0s -hen (attel$ producers of <arbie dolls$ released a <arbie game that became a top .0 game selling over A00$000 copies in the US !t -as typical of computer entertainment for girls at the time$ based on dolls$ diaries$ and social relationships This shocked the industry into thinking there -as a big untapped market 3urple (oon produced a range of games$ but then -ere taken over and eventually closed do-n by (attel Even many of the firms set up in the US run by entrepreneurs -ith a feminist agenda produced products along these lines 5%assell and Jenkins p .H6 4o-ever many thought that mainstream gaming should address issues of female players$ and that there could be other types of !%T play for girls What should video or computer entertainment for girls consist of$ if it does not appeal to traditional +feminine, stereotypical activities$ and -hat is -rong -ith this any-ayL Typical statements about -hat -omen and girl games should be include emphasis on cooperation over competition$ strong female characters$ a strong story$ they should relate to real life and have attractive use of graphics and sound1 Several games producers$ follo-ing other media producers$ have been able to successfully produce such products &oes this type of product have to e*clude traditional +feminine, interests as promoted in mainstream girls and -omen,s maga2ines$ and -hich could be seen as reinforcing traditional stereotypes 5(cRobbie$ .//.6> !n the debate over the inclusion of girls in computer use$ %assell addresses this ;uestion$ pointing out that the girls and -omen for -hom this +femininity, is important are precisely those that need to be +turned on, to technology !ndeed dismissal of traditional feminine themes and interests could be considered typical of a broader tendency amongst

. >

The &ouglass 3ro)ect at Rutgers N 5Agosto >00.6 developed a scheme for evaluating %& R'(s for (cRobbie 5.//.6 criticises girls maga2ines -hich assume basic girls interests are 1 my body$ my scene$ my life$ my personality "the consensual totality of feminine adolescence means that all girls -ant to kno- ho- to catch a boy$ lose -eight$ look their best and be able to cook# p O/

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intellectuals to dismiss interest in +lo- bro-, themes - themes that should be taken as seriously as any other 5'renstein .//E$ ;uoted in %assell and Jenkins$ .//A6. !n general$ -hatever the product$ the content of the game appears to be the key determinant in -hether girls are interested in playing$ and in recent years the gro-th in girls playing either means that traditional gaming content is becoming more acceptable to girls$ or that there are changes in that content :ro-th in role-playing games and simulations$ and online gaming that is cooperative as -ell as competitive are changing the perception of female gaming$ and creating much more choice +The Sims, is latest e*ample of a top selling game that is about nurturing members of a household 4o-ever there are relatively fe- games that break out of mainstream genres9 a small number of games that emphasise naturalistic graphics$ contemplative pu22le solving notably (yst$ -hose success perhaps highlights the e*pensive and risky strategy of creating a game on +alternative, parameters A final point coming out of the literature is to ;uestion the focus on games and gender to see a +bigger, picture Girst$ there is the definition of -hat a game is$ and -hether girl games are games at all$ -hen often$ like the <arbie games they are in fact +tools, for some other sort of play> 5Subrahmanyam and :reenfield .//A6$ or 3urple moon games -hich are described as +Adventures, Are girls, games missing the point by avoiding concepts of -inning or acting out a different person according to strict rulesL To understand this Jenkins 5.//A6 suggest that video games are boy spaces$ and designers have to look for other formats and themes to create successful +girl spaces,
This moves us back to the role of the designer$ and the maturing technology$ industry and market in interactive content Weil 5.//H6 suggest that there should be more focus on design$ and less on gender9 designers need tools and opportunities to e*plore ideas and formats$ and hopefully there -ill be space in the market to let designers be creative and design -hat they -ant$ and not )ust according to the demands of a mainstream boys market$ or the rather traditional findings of user studies and market research

$.

%ethodolo"y

The original aim of the study -as to look at the a-areness of gender in the design and development of interactive television products !nteractive television has been an emerging system for the last D0 years$ but is finally coming of age in the >000s Gor some time it -as considered a -ay to reach the masses -ho did not have access to net-orked computers$ especially -omen$ -hom it -as supposed -ould have less access to computers !nteractive T= -as brought directly to their living rooms 4o-ever attending a leading industry conference in >00>$ and listening and talking to many of the participants$ it became clear that there -as very little concept of the users$ let alone attempts at targeted development for particular market segments$ including -omen or girls 'nly one firm that had developed a truly interactive television programme$ mentioned girls e*plicitly$ and indeed their portfolio included a set of +game for girls, The girls in this case are pre-teenage 1 from K-.> years old The interactive television concept and many of their other products 5-hich included %& R'( games and museum installations6 appeared consciously designed to appeal to girls and boys$ and girls in particular$ -ith an emphasis on -ord games$ and cooperation The company representative$ one of the designers$ also suggested that the market of games for boys -as so saturated and competitive that girl-games -as an easier market to produce for This appeared to be a strong e*ample of a commercial inclusion strategy involving girls This small case study -as based on a visit to the offices of this firm$ an intervie- -ith one of the founders 5a man6$ the lead graphic designer$ and one of -omen -ho had designed a set of %& R'( games for girls As -ell as face-to-face intervie-s$ the designers provided -alkthroughs of the game products$ and a discussion of ho- the games -ere developed$ the concepts behind them$ ho- design decisions -here made$ sources of inspiration and other commentaries ! -as also able to take a-ay a number of the games to play
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Gor e*ample see attempts to take the use and study of television soap operas and romantic novels seriously as important cultural phenomena$ and legitimate cultural artefacts used by many -omen Allen$ R % $ Ed 5.//E6 to be continued: soap operas around the &orld @ondon$ Routledge > Earlier <arbie products that -ere more e*plicitly games -ere market failures

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&.

A company! a "ame and a '"irl(friendly) style

<y describing ho- and -hy the members of this firm create their products$ and their interaction and aesthetic style -e start to see ho- they have built up e*pertise and a market for their products for children$ and strongly focused on girls

5.1.1 The first game

The firm -as founded in the late .//0s by three graduates in interaction design from an arts school -ho -ere commissioned to make a game for children by a large publisher The %& R'( based game -as a critical and commercial success$ -inning a ma)or pri2e in the UC The -ork -as organised bet-een a pro)ect manager$ the graphic designer$ and the programmer$ and four others including a sound designer -ho )oined to finish the pro)ect in / months The game is an +edutainment, product$ -hich subtly introduces ideas of the la-s of physics to the players The designers have a particular stylistic vision and concept of interaction that allo-s the game to played in a variety of -ays$ and an aesthetic that emphasises a natural look and feel over a pure fantasy environment The firm follo-ed up the success of the game -ith other commissions
P'neQ from a big shopping company$ 4 1 ! think they ordered K %&s from us 1 > girls %&s and D children,s %&s$ for up till O-A years So that gave us a push in this direction <ut ! have to say that it -as directed to 1 our main focus is children$ young people K-.EM.K and -e had a very strong direction into the girls market

4o-ever since these products -ere created most of their -ork has involved commissions from museums to create -ebsites or %& R'(S based on their material$ and from schools The firm employs a range of people$ full time or for particular pro)ects$ both male and female They see one of their main strengths as their particular approach to designing products$ creating multilayered -ays of engaging -ith the content$ and a naturalistic feel

5.1.2 The interaction style and aesthetic

The style of games in the company is based very much on -hat they themselves -ant to design 'f course that is the ideal )ob for designer$ engineer or artist 1 to create -hat they -ant to create according to their interests and ideas This is -hat designing games allo-s them to do more than creating %& R'(S from other people,s content The style of games that they decided to produce -as something much freer than many mainstream games
We decided for the first games$ -e -anted to leave total freedom in the -ay to move around this game$ and that -orked pretty -ell$ but -e had to introduce something to make the gaming element more spicy 'nly moving round at your o-n pace is not a game$ could become boring$ !n the end a game needs a goal$ in the end this game needed this goal to make it complete <ut on the other hand this game is being used at so many different levels

This aspect of the game needing a goal to be a +game, is an important observation about the need to build a range of different -ays of engaging -ith the content$ -hat they call being on "different levels# The company -as not -orking -ithin the frame-ork of many technologyled firms$ perceived as creating games for boys9
There are more and more ! think -e specifically do not design things for boys$ -e are not technically - into computer based$ programming based design company 'ur background is in design and interaction design - the user is very important for us ! think that at !R that -e try and build from human scale - make our soft-are feel more analogue than digital 'nce they start -ith all the computerised interfaces When -e had the rolls in the petrol station$ the digital clips !n cars they introduced the digital screen instead of the dials$ ! think that the dials are much nicer -ay to see -hat is happening We are trying to build that into digital products 1 the feel of analogue design$ real -orld feeling

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There is not only a concern for a free game playing style$ -orking on different levels$ but also for the aesthetic$ -hich is contrary to many of the mainstream games built on a +digital, aesthetic
We al-ays look at the real -orld ho- the real -orld behavesI at the details The real -orld is endless -e do not have the click click 8ot ones or 2eros$ the grey scales$ -e design for the grey scale$ al-ays more natural A lot of design is still done from the digital technical background &esigners do not see the importance of the beauty of introducing this real -orld style !t makes a difference in the -ay interaction is seen by the users Related to a larger target audience than )ust boys$ not )ust speed ! think$ -hat -e )ust discussed - computerised feeling of dark and grey computerised aesthetic of games$ so very much from a boys mind$ it is hard to say it is al-ays this or that !t has lots to do -ith the interaction$ and -hat can people do -ith creation

&esigning -ith this approach had a particular success in the market that focused the team on taking advantage of a niche market of products for girls9
We have to think$ for us it is kind of a niche market thing$ market driven$ so -e see some chances on this side of the market$ girl$ but it is also driven by the ;uality of some of the products -e make$ by itself$ and from thereon -e noticed the -ay -e made things -as also decisive for -hy -e go this direction The first thing -e noticed that it gave opportunity to girl to play this game in a certain -ay -hich -as different from the -ay that boys played it$ -hich -as clearly noticed in tests We noticed this real difference bet-een the t-o groups ! think this is the main reason$ first for us to decide to try and e*pand on this$ and to see if -e could use this style$ not only style$ but interaction design$ to even more directly approach the girls, group So it think it -ent hand in hand$ it -as basically already the -ay -e design out stuff -hich is more like girls like$ and there -as ;uestion from different side for making girls soft-are Then the first game -as an adventure game$ so the content -as not specifically targeted at girls$ and then -e -anted to make specifically girl$ and -e made content that -as fit for girls Those t-o reasons -ent hand in hand on the decision to make products for girl

The design background and skills to produce these games$ and the company leadership comes out of the background of the designers They are not engineers$ or hard core gamers$ designing more games for themselves They are interaction designers -ho have their o-n interests$ but also an ability to see -hat others do -ith their products
We learn to look 4o- people react to certain games$ and learn ho- to look at it And it told us ho- people react to$ doing$ certain things All situations different$ age groups different$ players different$ situations do thing different$ things are very so much$ depend on the situation$ they they do not really tell you 1 make you try to get under the skin of the person that uses it$ figure out scenarios$ scenarios about ho- people are seeing$ handing information

This is an essentially human and creative centred approach to design$ rather than an attempt to pull the ma*imum speed or effect from a games platform !t -as though putting this interaction observation into practice that the designers realised the -ays that their games -ere played$ and the degree to -hich they could appeal to different audiences User testing of products in development is seen as one of the key -ays to make sure that it is accessible and interesting to eventual users 4o-ever the -ay this is done$ and at -hat stage varies -idely These designers relied on themselves and one child during development$ follo-ed by a testing day in a school
We tested as -e developed it$ )ust by very informal -ays A nephe- .0 years old$ came by and looked at the product$ and gave comments This -as good$ but in beginning very good$ but once problems 'ne time he looked at it and did not understand -hat -e built$ -e have to do it all over again . month of -ork And the after -e finished -e had a beta version and -e -ent to a school and -e had a testing day -ith video$ and that -as the most$ that day -e realised the real difference bet-een boys and girls and that -as really beautiful to see

The difference bet-een boys and girls playing styles -as not investigated before the game -as developed$ but became very evident during this final testing9

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!t -as really interesting to see ho- they approached playing the game This game is based on idea of describing your o-n tempo$ you are not hunted through a corridor -here you have to defend yourself$ but is )ust very s-eet$ ;uiet atmosphere$ no rush$ be smart$ and you get engaged in doing certain things and are again interest$ you can find your o-n tempo very much$ so the -ay you discover things is > t-o -ay approach The boys are very much click click click everything$ then something happens and they start to think -hat happens$ then click again$ trial and error )ust finding out :irls -ere al-ays$ if the mouse -as not taken out of their hands by the boys$ -hich is usually the case$ the boys take the mouse and take control$ the girls sit back$ and try to see -hat happens and see -hat is in the picture$ and -hat they have to do

This -as an important realisation that appears to have become one of the bases of the firms, understanding of ho- their products -ork$ and -hat they can offer the market

&.2 The mar*et for child edutainment and "irl "ames

The primary market for all interactive products is publishers and other intermediaries$ ranging from retailers to museums This firm -orks on commission for museums$ schools and educational organisations$ general publishers but not for specialised games publishers The interactive television programmes -ere funded by a government television fund !n this market the customers usually aim their products at a particular age group$ and rarely$ or in their e*perience$ never$ consider issues of gender
The strange thing is that -e never get asked for it$ the museum most clients never ask for something specifically for girls

!n general the products are educational$ one can assume that they hope to use the medium of a %& R'( or -eb page to make their content 5more6 interesting to all children
! -onder -hy they never do this actually$ ! think they afraid to lock out too many 1 a museum$ the target group of a museum is more than girls so people are afraid to make this choice

This firm,s e*perience of the games market is revealing They fre;uently attend trade sho-s and find considerable difference bet-een themselves and producers of mainstream games
PWe are inQ the edutainment business$ not the games market We notice it is a -hole different ballgame The boyish style$ the -hole culture is totally different to ho- -e are and -hat -e do$ -e meet a lot of those people at trade sho-s and such - it is a really different business- very much directed to boys There is an industry feeding the younger ones A generation building games for the younger generation Geeding the younger ones The dark side of the boy 1 night$ monsters ! am not very much attracted to this style

The firm no- have a vie- of their audience as +soft,$ not particularly engaged -ith technology for its o-n sake$ or -ith the agendas and aesthetics of the games subculture9
A lot of people$ ! think most people -hich are not in the games market$ -ho are not very much into computer games$ like boys market and boys are very much - they love digital$ they love technical aspects They love this side of it (ost people are interested in -hat -e make e*cept this very technically oriented group$ but it is not a very computer literate group They are more interested in the games -e make9 a lot of parents like very much$ not a very computer aggressive interested group$ more like people -ho like reading books 1 a soft market

The commissions for their products tend to come though -ord of mouth or people -ho have seen their products9
(ost of them kno- your games$ usually the -ay things go A slo- process$ 8ormally someone bought one of the games$ he liked it himself$ and he is -orking himself for a company$ in . or > year$ they -ork in a museum$ they have a need for ne- -eb design etc$ lots of people come this -ay from a seed that is planted )ust because they bought one of these games

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@ike many creative producers$ they rely on their products to sell themselves$ to catch the eye of potential clients -ho -ill commission more -ork This relies on a cross over from private leisure use of a product to a professional decision to buy from the same firm

&.3

'+irly)#ontent and the "irl "ames.

The designers felt that the key factor in making a girl game is the content 1 using themes and interest that are -ell kno-n to appeal to young girls$ and presented in an aesthetic that young girls engage -ith readily 4o-ever the content is more than )ust the themes$ but also ho- it is put together and -orks as a play environment or tool
The main difference comes from the content$ -hen -e make girl games -e choose a different content We build a diary$ ho- to become a star$ my !dol$ -hich you collect picture from the !nternet$ your favourite movie start for e*ampleN

The games for girls -ere developed for a national general store chain that sells a range of products aimed at young girls !n discussions -ith the firm they agreed to buy a number of games for children and for girls in the .0-.D age group The games -ere very successful$ but the store eventually dropped them 4o-ever versions -ere sold in other countries and they are being re-commericalised though other outlets$ possibly including a girl,s maga2ine 'ne event that marked the success of their +Popstar# product -ith original songs is that it seemed to inspire three girls to do a sho-9
The &iary$ it -as the first one$ ! think they reordered D time$ it -as a really good seller This one P3opstarQ -as very funny -e made different songs1 -e got a re;uest from D girls -anted to do a sho-$ and they -anted permission from us to do these songs

4ere it is -orth telling the story of one of the designers of the +girl games,$ and ho- her team arrived at the end products9 < is a graphic designer in her late >0s -ho,s dream )ob is doing design for interactive products She -as part of a team of three designers -ho develop the +girl games, She -orked -ith another -oman developing the concept and the graphics$ and a man -ho did the programming She had no background in designing games for girls$ and initially little idea of any of the research in the field of girl play and games for girls 4er inspiration -as based on an !-methodolology, 5Akrich .//E6 1 developing -hat she felt she -ould have liked -hen she -as .0 or .> years old The inspiration for the themes and the images derived largely from maga2ines for girls published around Europe$ dra-ing on established products that are kno-n to have a market Themes of -anting to be a pop star$ looking at pictures of celebrities$ and dating boys 1 got translated into three products My "dol 1 a scrap book for pictures of celebrities and friendsI Popstar 1 singing along -ith a number of songs$ and playing at being a pop star$ and the Secret /iary 1 mainly oriented at relationships$ especially -ith boys !n the design they used some of the firm,s concepts of natural environments and interaction (uch of graphics -as based on creating the feeling of the physical 1 maga2ines on the rack$ a scrapbook and diary$ entering a building etc The technology is used to e*tend -hat could be done in traditional media$ create a space to e*plore$ and +tools, to do things$ rather than self-contained rule and goal-based games This is -here most of the creative effort -ent &eveloping the diary$ for e*ample$ meant inventing -ays of making the computer do more than a paper diaryI this included -riting lots of te*t to respond to ;uestionnaires in an interactive -ay The interfaces are very different to conventional business computer interfaces or many video games$ -ith similar aesthetics to the girls maga2ines that inspired them$ -ith lots of colour 5especially pink76$ cartoon images$ and non-rectangular -indo-s &uring the pro)ect < did more reading on the sub)ect$ and became a-are of the issues involved in games for girls <ut primarily the source of inspiration -as e*isting paper-based products and creativity of -orking in a group developing an original product These products are unashamedly +girly, - appealing only to the interest of young girls 4o-ever they assume girls can use the machines -ith no problems$ and can ;uickly figure out the interface -hich

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might be confusing to someone -ho used a more straightfor-ard efficiency-based interface This design process is unashamedly based on creating products that girls -ill -ant$ and not -hat they +should, have$ either in terms of being -orthy and educational$ or anti-traditional feminine interests Although the themes are certainly +girly,$ they are not emphasising oldfashioned stereotypical female roles Self e*pression through a diary and playing -ith the idea of +love, are probably timeless interests$ and the pop star aspiration is unashamedly fun and even creative Unfortunately -e have no information on -ho -as buying them$ but the firm suspected that they -ere bought )ointly by girls and their parents

&.$ The cross(media "ames and "ame interaction

(oving from games on the 3% platform for girls$ the firm -as also able to participate in the development of interactive television games for children$ linking the internet and television The games involved children playing online$ sending in pictures$ and having stories animated The T= games -ere produced as part of a team -ith a television producer and technical teams using a grant from a national foundation @ike much of television for children since its inception$ the medium has been seen as a -ay to educate and entertain at the same time$ and this collaboration -as no different in its aims
We -ere P-orkedQ together to develop the T= sho- and interaction for the -eb game and the interaction and the game that is sho-n on T= There also an internet site -here people had to interact together and make -ord %hildren logged in and because a letter$ as a letter you are nothing$ but letters together in a -ord can be everything The concept behind the internet game they had to make -ords together -ith other children$ and these -ords -ere used in a story being -ritten by a -riter$ these stories animated and sho-n on the T=$ the children that -on on the internet game -ith the highest points$ that -ere chosen in most -ords They could compete in a multi-user D& game on T=$ they -ere filmed on T= These -ere the three things happening during the -eek

4o-ever introducing interactivity can be done in many -ays$ and the firm deliberately designed -ith cooperation and competition$ emphasising communication and social aspects that are suggested to be particularly important for girls
What -e found very important is to develop a game -ith a multi-user aspect To do it together -ith the children$ lots of multi-user games children play +against,I -e -ere turning this around$ -e -anted a multi-user game -here children are together$ use each other$ have an added value in playing together$ instead of competing only This -as one of the main focuses !t -as ;uite a lot to do -ith children creating stories The first one -as Typotunes$ ! think it -as played by boys and girls$ but it -as a game of competition and made groups of children$ and relied heavily on communication and chatting and inviting other children to compete$ this social aspect of doing something together relates very much to girls 1 but it -as popular both -ays

The designer had a clear opinion that certain types of games are more attractive to girls$ an idea that could be$ and -as implemented into the products and programmes9
(ulti-user games are in themselves better suited for girl$ but also doing thing together or the very important thing is -e learned it that if you put boys on a soccer field and one gets hurt$ they continue the game$ for the girl the game turn from soccer to taking care game Totally different approach to game =ery together$ not so competitive Typotunes very suited for games %ommunicate$ making things together$

They find that it is not only the content$ but also the interaction style that makes a game attractive to girls9
The -ay -e build interaction$ PisQ very much related to -hat girls like They can approach it a different -ay to boys$ their o-n tempo$ -hich makes it suitable for girls and boys Sou can click on it fast$ play it fast$ or do it slo-ly$ look at it$ have it come to you$ interpret it$ a different tempo

They try to create products that have content of e;ual interest to girls and boys$ but can be approached in different -ays$ and played in different -ays This returns to the concept of

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+multi-layered, games that -here different interaction styles and strands of content can be put into one product to give it a -ide appeal for boys and girls$ but also different ages

,.

#onstruction -f The .ser

!n the intervie-s -ith the designers$ and looking at their products$ -e see the users or potential users are constructed in a variety of -ays by the designers$ the various publishers$ parents purchasing the games$ and the children playing them These interpretations are used or avoided by the designers in developing products and their business

,.1 #onstructions of children and "irls as "ame players

Children as particular users of games and entertainment: children are conceived as particular types of users of !%T entertainment and learning This is based primarily on age group -hich relates to ability and interests %hildren respond to themes and aesthetics that appeal to them$ and these vary bet-een children Boys and girls as different types of users of games and play 9 girls and boys are perceived as having different interests and play styles They are also seen as being very different in their consumption of computer and video game entertainment The images and e*perience of girls is often compared to that of boys$ primarily since in this case and in the literature that is a concern for -hy girls seem less engaged -ith computer gaming than boys The constructions e*pressed in these intervie-s include9 many girls are not attracted to mainstream video games that are designed primarily for boys because of high speed interaction style$ a common +dark,$ +digital, aesthetic$ and because of the themes of the games :irls prefer more cooperative play$ not only competitive play :irls like environments to e*plore at their o-n pace$ and not be pressured by goals$ rules and a ticking clock :irls like particular themes and content that boys to not These are e*pressed in the firm,s girl games as9 many girls like to play -ith ideas of love$ they like the idea of a secret diary$ they like to e*plore ideas and feelings -ith friends$ and to appropriate celebrity lives and pro)ect themselves into those lifestyles There is also a construction of boys in this analysis9 boys are competitive$ allo-ed to play video games$ and do so$ they like the mainstream themes$ they live in a sort of subculture -ith appreciation of particular aesthetics$ gaming style$ game themes etc

,.2 -ther actor)s construction of "irl "ame mar*et

The designers also have constructions of the various other actors in their business$ and those actor,s constructions of girl as !%T users9 Mainstream games companies9 3ublishers ackno-ledge that girls are an important market that is not addressed -ell by industry$ but that girls like to play as much as boys They are not -illing to take risks -ith products that are unlikely to be a big success due to high development costs and limited shelf space$ and girl games are not seen as being able to deliver (any games design companies are seen as having an image of the user in their o-n image9 one generation of boys designing for the ne*t Educational publishers, Museums etc: They are represented as not being concerned -ith the se* of the children$ but only -ith the age group as a salient category in the design and sale of educational and edutainment products They not do appear to not recognise that girls and boys may have different -ays of learning or playing that could be a criteria for commissioning -ork he 0eneral store: The chain of stores commissioned the games for girls and for small children as they -anted to add to their product ranges for these groups$ and they considered that %& R'( entertainment -ould be something that they could offer their customers$ successfully as it turned out

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Parents: 3arents are represented as being keen to have their children learning$ at least a bit$ -hen they spend time in front of the computer They are also seen as the gatekeepers and purchasers of soft-are for children @iterature suggests that many parents have different attitudes to girls and boys playing$ and to their use of computers 0irls9 :irls themselves have their o-n image of -hat girls should do and play$ -hat is a girl,s aesthetic etc$ but this is not e*plored in this case he /esigners9 t-o designers -ere intervie-ed$ each -ith a different construction of the user$ related to their product development role and personal background Gor the -omen designing the games for girls$ she had images of girls liking the sort of content that appears in girl,s maga2ines$ -hich appeared to concur -ith her o-n remembered interests She and the others in her team create products that supposed girls had the sort of interests outlined above The lead designer ! the company constructed girls as preferring the more open play style$ having an aesthetic different to many boys$ and preferring different types of content to boys <ound up -ith this is the idea that e*isting !%T entertainment and play products are not delivering to girls$ and that there is commercial value in e*ploiting particular type of design and market

,.3 /ources of *no0led"e for constructin" the user.

&esigners and others have a range of sources to dra- on in constructing the users !n this case$ the designer of the girl games dre- on her memories of being a young girl$ and her interests then$ and pro*ies for the interests of many pre-teen girls as e*pressed in the design and content of girl,s maga2ines from around Europe She also dre- on some research and articles of games for girls This is all used to feed the imagination in the creation of the products Ginally testing of the product confirmed choices and lead to changes The designer of the children,s games and director of the firm dra-s on himself$ his o-n children and friends$ pro*ies in the outside -orld such as e*isting children,s books$ kno-ledge about the games market$ and the concerns of many firms in creating games for boys$ the results of observations and testing of their o-n products -ith children

1.

#onclusions

This case study has introduced some of the arguments and findings from the literature on games for girls and edutainment and presented the e*periences and products of one firm that creates games and edutainment products for children$ and specifically for girls !t enables us to reflect on the games industry for boys and girls$ the -ays that computer-based content can be made to appeal to girls and boys$ either e*clusively or inclusively$ the limited a-areness in the market of the issues around girls and computers$ and the finally the -ay that -e think about play using !%Ts All play involves setting tasks and follo-ing rules$ but in much play$ making goals$ tasks and rules is part of the play$ and they can be redefined constantly 4ogel 5.//O p K 6 in 4ostetter >00>6 defines a game as " a contest of physical or mental skills and strengths$ re;uiring the participants to follo- a set of rules in order to achieve a goal# :ames are play -ithin fi*ed$ pre-determined rules$ -here there is no room for re-definition$ but en)oyment and challenge comes from playing -ithin those rules$ achieving fi*ed goals$ and even in discovering hidden variations in rules !n bet-een games and free play there are a range of play environments -here the rules and goals vary in their rigidity These can all be called play environments ! suggest -e can understand better the products and strategy of this firm as producers of play environments These designers see the attraction of their products as producing many-layered play environments -here users can e*plore$ interact and play in many different -ays$ depending on the temperament and interest A great deal of literature and the empirical e*perience of these designers sho-s that girls and boys play differently What some games designers$ including this company$ have done is to find -ays of creating computer play environments that appeal to girls$ both though the choice of content and though the interaction design style

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Gocusing on girls is a strategy for product differentiation that this firm discovered by chance$ and has e*ploited to a certain e*tent 4o-ever those -ho publish their products do not in general appear to be particularly a-are of the issues or potential for !%T play for girls !n particular the mainstream games companies$ e*cept for a fe- successes in the .//0s$ is focused on games for boys %ommercial outlets for girl games are )ust as likely to be other types of publishers !n this case -e sa- the rather unusual case of a general store being the key outlet The other main outlet is educational establishments or publishers$ -hich means that many of the products -ill be a type of +edutainment, 1 using play as a pedagogical tool$ or a selling point This clearly connects -ith the selling of computers for education$ and the tendency to promote +useful, uses of !%Ts to girls even -hen it involves play At the level of content this firm chose clearly +feminine, themes for their girl games 1 content that is developed -ith reference to secondary market research 1 building upon -hat is already consumed though maga2ines and other conventional media across Europe by girls in the target age group The products are arguably not pure games$ but play environments or tools The choice of these +girly, themes is not uncontroversial$ but although there is a strong argument a more sophisticated inclusion of positive girl themes and interests in video games$ there is e;ually a case for products that do speak to these themes The ma)ority of computer application packages are designed for -ork use -ith rather unattractive interfaces (any games 5but certainly not all6 have a particularly dark and +digital, aestheticI there is definitely a need to create applications and content that are not -ithin these categories to appeal to a -ider range of peopleI children and adult$ male and female alike for -hom leisure use of e*isting products remains largely unattractive partly due to -hat products look like As important as creating products -ith content that appeals to +all,$ it is important to create products -ith content that appeals to specific groups$ -hich are readily appropriated and speak to them in a clearly recognisable language !t is very unlikely that girls using these products -ill use them e*clusively They -ill certainly consume a -ide range of content or various types$ but it is important that there are things available that are e*clusively +theirs, The other important dimension highlighted by the designers is the interaction style$ -hich they believe to a problem -ith many mainstream products The products of this firm try not only to play to the interaction interests of girls9 a play environment -ith naturalistic interfaces and interaction$ a space to e*plore$ or a dimension of cooperation$ but to create multi-level products that provide interest for all users This is an inclusive strategy that makes for products that can be used and en)oyed by many different people in different -ays 'ne of the strengths of their products identified by this firm is that their products appealed to +non-users,$ those -ith little interest or attraction to some of the +mainstream, computer games and entertainment !n conclusion$ the market for play products for girls is different in many -ays from that of boys$ differentiated on content$ the attitudes of parents$ and the interests of girls The mainstream video game industry has traditionally not addressed many issues about its products in relation to girls$ but this is certainly changing !nstead -e have to look to alternative sources of play material to find -hat girls en)oy This can be in the form of necommunications applications on the internet$ play environments more like tools than narro-ly defined games$ and edutainment products !n summary9
:irls play differently to boys :irl games can be used as a strategy for product differentiation :ames industry is boy-focused :irl %ontent9 need to make -hat girls -ant 1 -hat is distinctly of interest to girls$ relate to their life$ rather than make pure game fantasy include girl themes

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!nteraction style and game structure involving cooperation and e*ploration in a naturalistic environment can be used to make games more inclusive 8eed to balance cooperative -ith competitive game elements$ and undirected e*ploration -ith goals to create a compelling inclusive product 3roducts can be made inclusive 1 appealing to boys and girls$ or e*clusive$ appealing to girls only :irl appeal not demanded or recognised by many of those commissioning -ork Edutainment important feature of play products for girls 1 highlighting importance of education in purchasing of computers and soft-are for children and especially girls The design process is typically is informed by o-n memories and dominant market form of entertainment for girls and traditional girl themes

2.

3iblio"raphy

Allen$ R % $ Ed .//E to be continued: soap operas around the &orld @ondon$ Routledge Agosto$ & >00.$ :irlsTech9 a Study on Evaluating Electronic !nformation Resources for :irls and Soung Women$ &ouglass %ollege$ http:%%girlstech.douglass.rutgers.edu%gtsummary.html accessed April >00D Akrich$ ( .//E9 User Representations9 3ractices$ (ethods and Sociology in Rip$ Arie$ Thomas J (isa and Johan Schot eds .//E Managing echnology in Society: he approach of Constructive echnology 1ssessment @ondonM8S9 3inter$ pp .OH-.AK <uckingham & $ Scanlon$ ( and Sefton-:reen$ J >00. " Selling the &igital &ream9 (arketing educational technology to teachers and parents#$ in @oveless$ A and Ellis$ =$>00. !%T$ Pedagogy and the Curriculum: sub2ect to change$ RoutledgeGarmer$ @ondon %assells$ J and Jenkins$ 4 eds .//A$ 3rom Barbie to Mortal 4ombat: gender and computer games$ (!T 3ress$ (ass %assells$ J and Jenkins$ 4 .//A$ "%hess for :irlsL Geminism and %omputer :ames#$ in %assells$ J and Jenkins$ 4 eds .//A$ 3rom Barbie to Mortal 4ombat: gender and computer games$ (!T 3ress$ (ass %arahar .//A !ntervie- -ith @ee (cEnany %arahar fo SE:A$ by :los and :oldin in %assells$ J and Jenkins$ 4 eds .//A$ 3rom Barbie to Mortal 4ombat: gender and computer games$ (!T 3ress$ (ass 4ostetter$ ' >00> "=ideo :ames 1 the 8ecessity of !ncorporating =ideo games as part of %onstructivist @earning#$ published on --- games-research com$ &ecember >00> 4ogel$ J : .//O "%onsidering :ames as %ognitive Tools9 !n search of Effective +Edutainment#$ University of :eorgia &epartment of !nstructional technology !&SA >00> %onsumer Survey$ >00> !nteractive &igital Soft-are Association$ (ay >00> Jenkins$ 4$ .//A$ %omplete Greedom of (ovement9 =ideo games as :endered play spaces$ in %assells$ J and Jenkins$ 4 eds .//A$ 3rom Barbie to Mortal 4ombat: gender and computer games$ (!T 3ress$ (ass Celley .//A$ !ntervie- -ith 8ancie Celley of :irl :ames in %assells$ J and Jenkins$ 4 eds .//A$ 3rom Barbie to Mortal 4ombat: gender and computer games $ (!T 3ress$ (ass

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