Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece

The Corfu Papers

Edited by

John Bintliff Hanna Stger

BAR International Series 2023 2009

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Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece: The Corfu Papers

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Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece: The Corfu Papers

Introduction
John Bintliff
It is a pleasure to be able to present a series of papers in the Medieval and Post-Medieval Archaeology of Greece, based on a conference organised at the University of Corfu in 1998. Although this publication has been longdelayed, the editors were able both to extract totallyupdated chapters and also to elicit additional material to mark new developments since the initial conference. The financial and intellectual support provided at Corfu by Dimitris Tsougarakis and Kostas Sbonias made the meeting a stimulating and sociable event. The bulk of the work of extracting revised chapters and corresponding with the authors, and all the technical work of preparing this book for publication, has been in the very capable hands of Hanna Stger. As can be seen from this volumes contents, in the last generation, Post-Roman Greece has been one of the most exciting growth fields in Greek Archaeology. Great credit goes to the stimulus provided by the conference organised by Peter Lock and Guy Sanders, later published (1996) as The Archaeology of Medieval Greece. Peter Lock has reinvigorated archival research into the High Medieval era with his classic textbook The Franks in the Aegean (1995), whilst Guy Sanders and Charles Williams have made the Corinth urban excavations a new treasurehouse of insights into Byzantine and Frankish townlife (Williams and Bookidis 2003). Not long afterwards, the excellent long-term project of mapping the Byzantine Empire, based in the Austrian Academy of Sciences, further encouraged new approaches to Byzantium through the organisation of a conference on that civilisations historical geography Byzanz als Raum (Belke et al. 2000). Most recently, a conference at Cincinnati focussed on the Venetian and Ottoman archaeology of Greece, organised by Siriol Davies and Jack Davis, rapidly published (2007) as Between Venice and Istanbul. Over the same period, regional survey projects have been giving increasing attention to the Medieval and Post-Medieval occupation of their chosen landscapes, especially those appearing more recently (e.g. Methana Mee and Forbes (1997), Asea Forsen and Forsen (2003), Boeotia Bintliff 2000a, and projects presented in this volume).
LANDSCAPE STUDIES

strategies for its exploration, notably an extensive, targeted surface survey rather than the intensive approach more appropriate to lowland landscapes. Despite these challenges, the Dutch Aetolia Project has brought remarkable and convincing light to the long-term or Longue Dure development of Aetolia, not least in the Medieval and Post-Medieval eras which are here discussed. As with most parts of Greece, the problem of the Post-Roman/Early Byzantine era of the 7th - 9th centuries appears, and one expects that with time we shall obtain clearer evidence for this poorly-documented phase. One rather expects that large-scale immigration of highlycompetent Slav farmers (Malingoudis 1991, 1992), following a widespread depopulation resulting from the 6th century AD Plague and varied Barbarian invasions of Greece, will have brought significant elements of recovery. But our knowledge of the material culture of this era remains too limited to allow us to test this likely scenario. The rich corpus of Medieval fortified sites recorded in Aetolia certainly offers future opportunities for documenting the Post-Roman period in the Greek provinces, and one hopes that more of these sites might eventually be carefully planned, since we still possess limited corpora of architectural analyses for the development of such sites since the fine example set by Bon in the Peloponnese (1969), apart from the excellent recent work by the Minnesota team which is presented by Coulton elsewhere in this collection of papers, and individual scholars such as Sigalos and Vionis (see Vionis this volume). Later in our edited book, Peter Doorn, another member of the Dutch Aetolia Project, provides a clear example of the use of Ottoman and Early Modern population and economic records for writing the historical geography of Aetolia. Another highly-impressive regional project is that in coastal Macedonia, summarised for us in the next two papers. Archaeologist and historian Archibald Dunn skillfully combines a wide range of sources of evidence for the Medieval and Post-Medieval evolution of this landscape, likewise stressing the Longue Dure and shedding particular light on economic developments and the interaction between the district studied and the wider world. The accompanying paper by Atherden and Hall provides the essential scientific understanding of the important physical changes the landscape has undergone, both in terms of geomorphological transformations but also through measuring the history of local vegetation from palaeobotanical analyses, and inferences regarding landuse. On Crete, a further regional survey project, in the Sphakia province, here presented by Nixon et al., complements those in Aetolia and Macedonia by adding to the familiar evidence from surface pottery and archives, careful examination of surviving churches and domestic houses v

Sebastiaan Bommelj and his Dutch collaborators have for many years been pioneering the archaeology and historical geography of one of many rather neglected regions of Greece, the rugged mountainous province of Aetolia in the northwest mainland (Bommelj and Doorn 1987). This is primarily an inland district dominated by agropastoral economies and difficult communications between patchy expanses of fertile land and good grazing. For field research this is certainly a difficult landscape, and the Dutch team has necessarily developed specific

Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece: The Corfu Papers

(vernacular architecture). The remarkable detail obtainable from Venetian and Ottoman documents is worth highlighting, a feature which also is being put to major advantage on the current Pylos Project (PRAP) presented later in the paper by Davis and Bennet. Here as in Aetolia, one wonders if the Post-Roman Dark Age is not being overestimated as a result of our restricted knowledge of contemporary material culture, and decline in datable imports and coins. Staying on Crete, Hall and Atherden have been picking up the task left by the sad early death of Sietze Bottema, to spread our data points in Greek pollen analysis wider and introduce greater chronological refinements. Here the difficulty lies in the relationship between general historic events and the reaction of the landscape, not least what sort of relationship we might expect and whether vegetational history is a simple mirror for political events. Tsougarakis and Angelomatis-Tsougarakis rightly criticize the past misuse of regional survey project results by historians, whilst noting that historians have not been sufficiently involved with archaeological projects, and show the correct way themselves, based on their extensive experience collaborating with such research for Post-Roman Crete. Moving to another large island, Cyprus, Grivaud finds that much of the preceding regional surveys on Cyprus have been problematic for assisting historical reconstructions of the Medieval and Post-Medieval eras. Using his own and others intensive research in historical archives allows him to document a general overview in the Longue Dure of a series of desertions and colonisations affecting the whole island. There are clear contrasts to the sequence on Mainland Greece, but this is in large part the consequence of divergent historical trajectories, although both share in the severity of the 14th century troubles. According to the author, even the most recent intensive survey work such as the Sydney Cyprus regional survey project (Given and Knapp 2003), falls short in his view in providing adequate detail for a historian or in relating fieldwork to the complex questions set by detailed archival sources. Gregory gives us an invaluable review of the role of regional survey in current research into Medieval Greece, discussing the potential of texts and ceramics, whilst also highlighting some limitations of method and theory in comparison to Western Europe, where such work has been much earlier established and is clearly still far more advanced than in Greece. The complexities of dealing with the debris of Medieval and Post-Medieval activity in the Greek countryside are a major current focus for research, and here parallel methodological and analytical issues are being tackled in Roman archaeology by the Eastern Corinth Survey (EKAS) on which the author is one of the project directors (Pettegrew 2007). A detailed case-study where these problems in the interpretation of surface finds are explored in great detail can be found in Fascicule 1 of our own Boeotia Project (Bintliff, Howard vi

and Snodgrass 2007). Gregory also emphasizes the need for Greece to catch up with the long-tradition in NorthWest Europe of village-origins research and the study of deserted villages. The extraordinary wealth of recentlyavailable settlement records from the Ottoman and Venetian archives and their archaeological potential is just beginning to be tapped on a general level for Greece (cf. Bennet et al. 2000, Bintliff 1995, 2000a-b, Davies 2004, Davies and Davis 2007, Kiel 1987, Karidis and Kiel 2002, Sanders 1996, Sigalos 2004, Vionis 2006a-b, Vroom 1998, 1999). Davis and Bennet, although not present at the original Corfu Conference, were invited to summarize for this volume their impressive ongoing Anglo-American project (PRAP) in the province of Messenia, South-West Peloponnese, and its role in expanding our understanding of the Post-Roman eras in this region. The already extensively-published research (see the PRAP website, Davis ed. 1998, references in Davies and Davis 2007; and in this chapter), combines detailed Venetian, Ottoman and Early Modern archival records (including invaluable cadasters) at the village and farm level with the surface archaeology of small areas. The richness of Venetian records cannot be matched in every part of Greece, where Ottoman sources are clearly less detailed for archaeological purposes, and hence the Messenia work provides invaluable understanding of the processes of landscape change at the micro-regional level.
INDIVIDUAL SITE STUDIES

Byzantine Archaeology has long been rather obsessed with churches. Bowden explains in his chapter how and why this came about. The overconcern with ecclesiastical design and decoration has indeed tended to distract Byzantine archaeologists from devoting greater time to settlements and everyday material culture, where Greek studies lag far behind those in North-West Europe. One important point made here is that we need to return to churches with a broader agenda. For example, even if many Late Roman churches were abandoned for some centuries, then reused in Middle Byzantine times (9th 13th centuries), they formed a focal point for a concept of Greekness with a special Orthodox face, something which continues to unite the Greek world inside the modern state and in the Greek global diaspora. Bowdens complaint that churches need including in the planning of new Medieval archaeology projects in Greece has already been met, notably by the intensive survey projects of the last 15 years, and examples of such work can be found in this volume in the papers by Nixon et al., Williams and Tzortzopoulou-Gregory. An interesting example of the comparative neglect till recently of the promotion of Post-Classical monuments in Greece, comes in the chapter by Platon Petridis on the post-sanctuary life of the settlement at Delphi. Visitors and presentation-media have minimal knowledge of the flourishing Late Roman and Christian phases of the town, which can be traced into the 7th century AD.

Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece: The Corfu Papers

MEDIEVAL AND OTTOMAN MYTILENE

A long-lived team-project on the North-East Aegean island of Lesbos, delivered three contributions to the Corfu papers, so deserves a special section of its own. This is collaborative Canadian research with the local archaeological authority (Ephoreia) on the Medieval and Post-Medieval phases of the town of Mytilene. Williams provides the overview of the archaeological evidence for the development of the castle and lower town in these eras, followed by insightful and almost unique studies of the castles burials by Garvie-Lok and of one very diagnostic category of Post-Medieval artefact from there, the clay tobacco- or hashish-pipe, by Humphrey, explaining its chronology and cultural significance. Lesbos and Mytilene are now even-better served thanks to another model for future researchers in Post-Roman Greece, the study of the islands Ottoman archives in relation to the plan and surviving buildings of the town and the islands villages by Karidis and Kiel (2002).
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE

firstly, the evolution and functioning of settlement-plans, and secondly, the development of individual structures. These results have been obtained through field mapping of traditional settlements, old maps and cadasters, and archives from Venetian, Ottoman and Early Modern sources. There emerges a fascinating case study of a militarised feuding society with a nested social organisation, but nuanced down this inhospitable rocky peninsula by North-South differences imposed by ecology and varying contact with the wider world. This work is so extraordinarily-detailed, that the numerous illustrations can merely, by reasons of scale, give a good impression of the intensity of knowledge achieved. The following chapter by Coulton summarizes a pioneering and desperately-needed project by a small international team, to document, village by village, the main details of surviving traditional houses in the Peloponnese. It cannot be stressed enough, that although the recent modification to Greek Antiquities legislation, protects objects and monuments more than a century old from wanton destruction, the concept that traditional houses are a central element in that heritage has yet to be implemented through a wider application of the regional recording here described. Our own parallel work in Boeotia, like the project presented here an offshoot from a regional survey project, has noted the increasingly-rapid disappearance of these traditional houses, which were ubiquitous a generation ago. Visiting the nearest modern settlement to our current archaeological focus, the city of Koroneia, the large village of Aghios Georgios, two years ago, despite archival evidence for the villages foundation by the 15th century AD, revealed less than half-a-dozen Pre-Modern houses, all in non-domestic use or ruined (Bintliff et al. 2009). One can only applaud the efforts of the Peloponnese project, and note the swift and invaluable first publication (Cooper 2002). The fortunate timing that the fieldwork has coincided with the availability of relatively inexpensive digital fieldwork hardware and software, allows a degree of speed and accuracy impossible to imagine even a decade ago, combining innovative use of GIS, GPS and digital elevation-recording. The large database leads the investigators to identify schools of itinerant builders and regional traditions. In the chapter by Vionis, later in this volume, a more fortunate situation is met, where traditional settlement forms have widely-survived from the Medieval era to today, and are now protected by heritage legislation as well as their attraction for tourism (cf. Vionis 2001).
CERAMICS AND MATERIAL CULTURE

It is in many ways ironic, that for some decades now, the most detailed information relating to everyday material culture in the Pre-Modern era of Greece has been collected by other scholars than archaeologists. Domestic houses form an immense store of preserved lifestyle traditions in every corner of the Aegean, and a varied body of researchers architects, conservators, folklorists, sociologists and anthropologists, and geographers, have drawn, photographed and catalogued a very considerable corpus of traditional homes. The excavation record remains minimal, from Byzantine to recent epochs. Despite this wealth of material, highly suitable for incorporation into an archaeological perspective, it was only recently that it began to be tied into archaeological agendas, where the ties to historical change and the meaning of material culture could be fully-explored. Indeed most of the published older vernacular studies were more concerned with house-styles and ethnicity, or doubtful origins in Classical or even Prehistoric Greek lifeways, than in dating houses and probing their social meanings. For a magnificent overview of this field, past, present and future, let us cite the excellent monograph by Sigalos (2004), one of the speakers at our Conference, but whose paper is not included as it has been superseded by his masterly publication. It is also essential to mention that polymath genius Machiel Kiel, who has combined the firsthand study of Ottoman tax records with that of Ottoman public buildings (Kiel 1990, 1996) as well as collaborating with several regional survey projects (e.g. Kiel 1997). One of the great exceptions to the typical rule noted above, that architectural handbooks of regional traditional, domestic architecture have neglected social and chronological elements, has been the long-running research of the author of our next chapter, Saitas. His dedication to the spectacular tower-societies of the PreModern Mani peninsula in the southern Peloponnese has given us an extraordinary degree of detail, concerning vii

One of the oldest areas of Post-Roman archaeology to develop in the Aegean, and one of the few which went well beyond church architecture and its art, was the study of Byzantine ceramics. Nonetheless this tended to focus on the decorated tablewares (cf. Papanikola-Bakirtizi and Mavrikiou et al. 1999) and gave much less attention to the entire assemblage used in Medieval households. Moreover, little attention was paid to the Post-Medieval period. It has been largely archaeological field survey in

Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece: The Corfu Papers

Greece which over the last generation has produced innumerable rural settlements with full assemblages of everyday pottery. The normal procedure on such projects has been to give full treatment of all forms and fabrics regardless of era or function, and since the domestic and coarse-wares, and even much of the glazed and decorated wares, in Medieval and Post-Medieval times, appear to have been regionally produced, increasing effort has gone into characterising local sequences and the full range of pottery in use in the household or institution under investigation. The three chapters in this section are by ceramic experts whose work developed out of intensive surveys. Firstly, Franziska Lang treats us to a very carefully thought-out analytical programme for interpreting the Medieval ceramic finds from the Stratike Survey in North-West Greece, allowing her to reconstruct the changing dynamics of settlement and land-use over time. Moreover intensive inter-site comparisons of shapes and fabrics not only allow the creation of local assemblages for sub-periods of the Post-Roman era, but can suggest different site functions across the landscape. Vroom summarizes her experiences on the Boeotia Survey, utilising in the absence of local, well-published excavation sequences, a method developed on this project for all period finds, that of the internal comparison of numerous surface sites of varying age, horizontal stratigraphy, so as to identify discrete assemblages for individual sub-phases of the Post-Roman era. A particular speciality of the author is also discussed, the use of ceramics to study changing dining habits and cultural connections, which allow us precious insight into wider issues of lifestyles and mentalities. The chapter by Vionis represents justly, as the author claims, a total integration of material culture, iconographic and historic sources, modelled on the holistic approach to History advocated by Fernand Braudel and the French Annales School of historians. In his research on the Medieval and Post-Medieval Cyclades, Vionis as in the previous two chapters, works with the total assemblage of ceramics from table-bowls to cooking pots, and seeks the mentalities behind functions. The changing roles of influences from the Near East or Western Europe are investigated, and here we find a remarkable expansion from analysis of ceramics into housing, settlement plans and dress-codes.
EARLY MODERN ETHNOARCHAEOLOGY

the myth of static societies over millennia or even centuries, and hence the contemporary use of traditional lifestyles never assumes that the Past can be read from the Present as a mere given fact. Rather, more subtle arguments are made concerning the valuable insights available for remoter periods by understanding the dynamics of Early Modern Greece. The first paper in this pair of chapters, by Doorn, illustrates this very well. The province of Aetolia in North-West Greece is extremely rugged and communications are problematic, whilst the resources for making a livelihood are limited and spatially stronglypatterned by physical geography. Over decades now the Dutch Aetolia Project (see also the earlier paper by Bommelj et al.) has been painstakingly mapping the roads, tracks, bridges, occupied and abandoned settlements of this remote province, at the same time carrying out a largescale programme of community interviews to record life in living memory. The availability of population and economic records from Ottoman and Early Modern times allows the team to compare the known settlement patterns and lifestyles of these periods with the deeper understanding of the constraints and possibilities offered by the regions natural geography and economic potential. Further insights into longer-term landscape dynamics naturally also emerge from the study of these recent periods of human settlement. The next chapter, by Forbes, is written by a scholar whose experience of combining Ethnography and Archaeology in the Aegean is without parallel. Since his PhD research, in which he recorded traditional society on the Peloponnesian peninsula of Methana on behalf of the South West Argolid intensive survey project (Jameson et al. 1994), the author has continued to extract deeper and deeper understanding of rural life in Early Modern Greece, as well as offering archaeologists of earlier periods advice on how to understand the countryside of Antiquity and Prehistory. The classic collaboration came with the Methana survey which he co-directed with prehistorian Chris Mee (Mee and Forbes 1997). The current chapter explores the value of linking oral history on Methana with archival records and fieldwork. A major innovation achieved here for the Aegean is to focus on the concept of the Past as lived-experience.
HERITAGE AND PERCEPTION

Ever since Western Travellers from the 17th century on toured the Aegean to rediscover ancient cities and sanctuaries known only from texts, comparisons have been made between everyday traditional life and PreModern eras. This was often done in a socialevolutionary framework, however, where Greek peasants were considered to be survivors of more primitive stages of development, preserving, with historic continuity, ancient lifestyles and cultural traditions. Social anthropologists and historians have long since punctured viii

One of the most-striking recent developments within Greek Archaeology of all periods has been the development of a reflexive approach, in which the Historiography of the disciplines of History and Archaeology has come under explicit scrutiny, in parallel with similar developments elsewhere in Social Science scholarship (cf. Fotiadis 1995, 2001; Hamilakis and Yalouris 1996, Hamilakis 2007; Morris 1994, 2004; Shanks 1997). Greece in some ways has been handicapped by the political importance of its national past, which has led to a disproportionate amount of attention being given to the highlights of indigenous

Medieval and Post-Medieval Greece: The Corfu Papers

civilisation (Bronze Age palatial culture, Archaic and Classical Greece), to the neglect of periods of foreign domination (Roman, Frankish and Ottoman). Moreover, even in the representation of Greek climax culture, it has been normal to emphasize the most positive aspects rather than probe more problematic areas. The last group of papers, significantly all by Greek researchers, raises many issues resulting from the turn to reflexivity or selfexamination of the motives and agendas at play in studying and presenting the Greek Past. Mouliou offers a deep and thoughtful discussion of the way that the national Past is displayed in Greek museums, and stresses the need for a more neutral version of a diachronic treatment, and also museums which are more interactive with their public. She wants to give the viewers more opportunity to think for themselves about presentations, and be less told what they are seeing and its significance, in what often can be characterised as a too dogmatic and didactic strategy for viewer enlightenment. Sbonias likewise raises sensitive issues regarding the creation of ethnic and national identities in Medieval to Modern Greece, which at the time of achieving its independence in the early 19th century was a very diverse mosaic of languages and cultures. Important though this theme is, it has not been well-explored by archaeologists of these eras. Given the abundant literature and growing interest in cultural and ethnic identity in contemporary Europe and in Archaeological Theory, and key relevant publications from Ancient Greece (Hall 1997, 2002, McInerney 1999, cf. Bintliff 2006), the author has correctly identified a fascinating path to further explore for the Post-Roman era. The potential is of wider interest well beyond the Aegean, given the richness of Medieval and later rural archaeology and often highly-detailed records of local populations, although sensitivity to the beliefs of contemporary inhabitants of Greece suggests that an unusual degree of care needs to be taken in the wider popularisation of such academic work (Bintliff 2003). With the final contribution by Tzortzopoulou-Gregory we are directly confronted with everyday management issues regarding the recent heritage of Greece. As Greek and foreign academics and politicians, local and national, demand greater interest in the neglected eras of the Greek Past, more and more investment in personnel and finance is required by the public regional archaeological services, to cope with site investigation and subsequent conservation of a rapidly-expanding body of archaeological sites and monuments. The pace of urban and rural development in Greece shows no sign of slackening-off, posing permanent stresses for an essentially rescue-focussed archaeological profession. Working more closely with local communities may be a major way of increasing funds and human resources in the protection and management of the Post-Roman heritage, but this only works when the various stakeholders: the Ministry of Culture, local authorities, and foreign archaeological teams, can smoothly ix

collaborate to study, protect and present to the general public the material evidence for local history.
EDITORIAL NOTE

For better reproduction and further study all images are available on the CD included with this volume.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Vroom, J.C., 1999, Medieval and Post-Medieval Pottery from a Site in Boeotia: A Case Study Example of Post-Classical Archaeology in Greece, Annual of the British School at Athens 92, 513-546. Williams, C.K. and N. Bookidis (eds), 2003, Corinth, the Centenary: 1896-1996, Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.

John Bintliff Faculty of Archaeology University of Leiden j.l.bintliff@arch.leidenuniv.nl Hanna Stger Faculty of Archaeology University of Leiden h.stoger@arch.leidenuniv.nl

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