Thng d bnh phng

Nguyn Vn Sn A1K40
Trng THPT chuyn Phan Bi Chu Ngh An

Chuyn ny vit v mt khi nim kh th v ca s hc, l
Thng d bnh phng. Chuyn trnh by mt s khi nim c
bn, cc v d minh ha cng cc ng dng ca l thuyt Thng d
bnh phng.
Cc bi tp c chun b tng i k lng v hn ch trnh by
li cc tnh cht, cc nh l cng cc b c bn. V th i
tng c cn c v nm vng c nhng kin thc nht nh v
l thuyt ny. Bn cnh cng phi c cc kin thc v bc, cn
nguyn thy, s m ng, phng trnh ng d, h thng d, nh
l phn d Trung Hoa.

I. Mt s tnh cht cn bit.
1) nh ngha 1: Cho s nguyn dng n, s nguyn a c gi
thng d bnh phng modn ( hay s chnh phng modn) nu tn
ti s nguyn x sao cho:
2
x a
( )
modn .
2) nh ngha 2: Gi s p l mt s nguyn t l, a l mt s
nguyn. K hiu Legendre
a
p
| |
|
\ .
c xc nh nh sau:
( )
( )
=

| |
= =

|
\ .

1 nu a, p 1 v a l s chnh phng modp
a
1 nu a, p 1 v a khng l s chnh phng modp
p
0 nu a p


3) nh l 1 ( tiu chun Euler ): Cho p l mt s nguyn t v a
l mt s nguyn. Khi ta c:
p 1
2
a
a
p

| |

|
\ .

( )
modp .
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Chng minh: Gi g l mt cn nguyn thy modulo p. Khi tp
{ }
2 p 2
1, g, g ,..., g

l h thng d thu gn modulo p. Do ta ch cn
chng minh cho a e
{ }
2 p 2
1, g, g ,..., g

.
Gi s
{ }
i
a g , i 0,1, 2,..., p 2 = e . Ta cn chng minh
rng:
p 1
2
a
a 1 1
p

| |
= =
|
\ .
.
Tht vy, gi s :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
p 1 p 1
i
2 2
p 1
a g 1 modp i. 0 modp 1 i 0 mod2
2

=
Suy ra tn ti
( )
2
* j
a
j : i 2j a g 1
p
| |
e = = =
|
\ .

Ngc li, nu
a
1
p
| |
=
|
\ .
th tn ti
{ }
j 0,1,..., p 2 e sao cho
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
j i j
a g modp g g modp i 2j modp 1 i 0 mod2 Do

( )
( )
( )
p 1 p 1
p 1 k
i
2 2
a g g 1 modp

= =
Vy nh l trn c chng minh.

4) nh l 2 ( b Gauss ): Cho p l mt s nguyn t v a l
mt s nguyn. Khi ta c:
( )
p 1
2
k 1
p 1 ka
2 p
a 1

=
(
(

( )
modp .

5) Lut tng h Gauss ( lut thun nghch bnh phng): Cho p, q
l hai s nguyn t l phn bit. Khi :
1. Nu c t nht mt trong hai s c dng 4k 1 + th p l s chnh
phng
( )
modq khi v ch khi q l s chnh phng
( )
modp .
2. Nu c hai s u c dng 4k 3 + th p l s chnh phng
( )
modq khi v ch khi q l s khng chnh phng
( )
modp .
V di k hiu Legendre, Lut tng h Gauss c vit di dng:
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( )
( )( )
p 1 q 1
4
p q
1
q p

| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .

Chng minh:
t
( )
x A
pq 1
A a | a, pq 1,1 a , B x
2
e

= = s s =
`
)
[

Nhn xt 1:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
p 1
2
q 1
2
q
B 1 modp
p
p
B 1 modq
q

| |

|

\ .

| |

\ .

t
( )
pq 1 p 1
C a | a, p 1,1 a , D q, q.2,..., q.
2 2

= = s s =
` `
) )

Nhn thy C l hp ri ca A v D nn:
( ) ( )
p 1
2
x C
p 1 q p 1
x B.q ! modp B. ! modp
2 p 2

e
| | | | | |

| | |
\ . \ . \ .
[

M
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
q 1
q 1
2
2
x C
p 1 p 1
x p 1 ! ! modp 1 ! modp
2 2

e
| | | |
(
=
| |

\ . \ .
[

nn
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
q 1 p 1
2 2
q p 1 p 1 q
B. ! 1 ! modp B 1 modp
p 2 2 p

| | | | | | | |

| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .

Tng t ta c:
( ) ( )
p 1
2
p
B 1 modq
q

| |

|
\ .

Vy nhn xt 1 c chng minh.
T y ta c: nu
( )
B 1 modpq th
( ) ( )
p 1 q 1
2 2
q p
1 1
p q

| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
hay
( )
p 1 q 1
2 2
p q
1
q p

+ | | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .

Nhn xt 2:
( ) ( )
B 1 modpq p q 1 mod4
Vi a A, e tn ti duy nht a' A e v
{ }
a
S 1;1 e tha mn:
( )
a
a.a' S modpq . y l song nh trn A nn
x A
B x
e
= = o
[
, trong o
l tch cc phn t ca tp
{ }
E a A | a a' = e = .
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Theo nh l phn d Trung Hoa th phng trnh
( )
2
x 1 modpq c 4
nghim 1,-1,
( )
N, N N 1 = .
Gi s
( )
p q 1 mod4 . Khi phng trnh ng d
( )
2
x 1 modpq c
nghim I v t suy ra ton b nghim va n l: I, I, NI, NI . Do
( ) ( )
B 1.N.I.NI. 1 modpq .
Gi s
( ) ( ) ( )
p, q 1,1 mod4 = . Khi phng trnh ng d
( )
2
x 1 modpq
v nghim. Do
( ) ( )
B 1..N. 1 modpq =
Nhn xt 2 c chng minh.
Nh vy nu
( ) ( ) ( )
p, q 1,1 mod4 = th
( ) ( ) ( )
p 1 q 1 p 1 q 1
2 2 2 2
p q p q
B 1 modpq 1 1
q p q p

+ + | | | | | | | |
= = =
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .

Nhng d thy rng nu
( ) ( ) ( )
p, q 1,1 mod4 = th
( ) ( )
( )( )
p 1 q 1
p 1 q 1
2 2 4
1 1 1


+
= =
v nu
( ) ( ) ( )
p, q 1,1 mod4 = th
( ) ( )
( )( )
p 1 q 1
p 1 q 1
2 2 4
1 1 1


+
= =
Do vy ta lun c
( )
( )( )
p 1 q 1
4
p q
1
q p

| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
.
Ngoi ra nh l trn cn c chng minh bng b Gauss, bn c
c th xem chng minh y ti 5 (

.
Lut tng h Gauss c ngha v cng quan trng trong cc bi ton
v thng d bnh phng v c bit n gip ta bin i v tnh ton
cc k hiu Legendre mt cch hp l. iu ny s c th hin r
trong cc v d v bi tp phn sau.

6) nh ngha 3: Cho a l mt s nguyn v b l mt s nguyn
dng l. Gi s
1 2 r
1 2 r
b p p ...p
o o o
= l s phn tch chnh tc ca b. K
hiu Jakobi c xc nh nh sau:
1 2 r
a
1 2 r
a a a a
...
b p p p
o o
| | | | | |
| |
=
| | |
|
\ .
\ . \ . \ .

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v
i
a
p
| |
|
\ .
c xc nh theo k hiu Legendre nh trn.
Ch : K hiu Jakobi c y cc tnh cht nh k hiu Legendre.
c bit Lut tng h Gauss c m rng di k hiu Jakobi nh
sau:
Nu m, n l cc s nguyn dng l v nguyn t cng nhau. Khi :
( )
( )( )
m 1 n 1
4
m n
1
n m

| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .

7) Tnh cht: Gi s n l mt s nguyn l v a l s nguyn vi
( )
a, n 1 = . Khi ta c:
i. Nu
( )
a b modn th
a b
n n
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .

ii.
a b ab
n n n
| | | | | |
=
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

iii.
( )
n 1
2
1
1
n

| |
=
|
\ .

iv.
( )
2
n 1
8
2
1
n

| |
=
|
\ .

v. 2 l s chnh phng mod p khi v ch khi
( )
p 1 mod8
vi. -2 l s chnh phng mod p khi v ch khi
( )
p 1, 3 mod8
vii. 3 l s chnh phng mod p khi v ch khi
( )
p 1 mod12
viii. -3 l s chnh phng mod p khi v ch khi
( )
p 1 mod6

II. Mt s bi ton ng dng.
Bi ton 1. Cho a thc
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
P x x 2 x 3 x 6 = . Chng minh
rng vi mi s nguyn t p, u tm c s nguyn dng n sao
cho
( )
P n p .
Li gii:
Vi p 2, 3 = tng ng ta chn n 2, 3 = , hin nhin tha mn.
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Gi s tn ti s nguyn t p 3 > sao cho
( )
P n p n e .
hay
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
n 2 n 3 n 6 0
( )
modp n e .
Suy ra 2, 3, 6 u khng l s chnh phng
( )
modp , hay
( )
p 1
2
2 1 modp ,

( ) ( )
p 1 p 1
2 2
3 1 modp , 6 1 modp


Nhng r rng
( ) ( ) ( )
p 1 p 1 p 1
2 2 2
6 2 .3 1 . 1 1 modp

=
V l v p nguyn t > 3.

Bi ton 2. Xt a thc
( )
3 2
P x x 14x 2x 1 = + + .
Chng minh rng tn ti s t nhin n sao cho vi mi x e , ta c:
( ( ( ) )
n
101 | P P ...P x ... x

Li gii:
Xt hai s nguyn x, y bt k.
Ta s chng minh rng
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x y mod101 P x P y mod101 1
Hin nhin
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x y mod101 P x P y mod101
Do
( )
3 2
P x x 14x 2x 1 = + + nn ta c:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
4 P x P y 4 x y x xy y 14x 14y 2
x y 2x y 14 3 y 29
(
= + + + +

(
= + + +
(


Suy ra:
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
x y mod101
P x P y mod101
2x y 14 3 y 29 0 mod101 2

+ + +

Xt
( )
2 :
Nu
( )
gcd y 29,101 1 = th
( )
3
1 101 1 mod6
101
| |
=
|
\ .
. V l.
Nu
( ) ( ) ( )
101 | y 29 101 | 2x y 14 x y 29 mod101 + +
Nh vy ta lun c
( )
x y mod101 .
Do
( )
1 c chng minh.
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Xt 102 s:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ( ( ) )
102
P x , P P x , P P P x ,..., P P ...P x ...

Theo nguyn l Drichlet, tn ti
{ }
m, n 1, 2,...,102 , m n e > sao
cho:
( ( ( ) ) ( ( ( ) ) ( )
m n
P P ...P x ... P P ...P x ... mod101


T nhn xt trn ta suy ra:
( ( ( ) ) ( )
m n
P P ...P x ... x mod101

x e .

Bi ton 3.Chng minh rng phng trnh
2 3
x y 5 = khng c
nghim nguyn.
Li gii:
Gi s phng trnh
2 3
x y 5 = c nghim nguyn
( )
x, y .
Nu y chn th
( )
2 3
x y 5 5 3 mod8 = . V l v mt s chnh
phng ch c th ng d 0,1,4 theo modulo 8.
Do y l.
Nu
( ) ( )
2 3
y 3 mod4 x 3 5 2 mod4 . V l.
Suy ra
( )
y 1 mod4 y 4z 1 = + , z e.
Khi ta c :
( ) ( )
3
2 3 3 2 2
x 4 y 1 4z 1 1 64z 48z 12z 4z 16z 12z 3 + = = + = + + = + +
Suy ra:
( )
2 2
x 4mod 16z 12z 3 + +
S dng k hiu Jakobi ta c :
2 2
4 1
1 1
16z 12z 3 16z 12z 3
| | | |
= = =
| |
+ + + +
\ . \ .

(v
( )
2
16z 12z 3 3 mod4 + + ),v l.
Vy phng trnh cho khng c nghim nguyn.

Bi ton 4 .Chng minh rng phng trnh sau khng c nghim
nguyn dng:
2
4xyz x y t =
Li gii:
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Gi s tn ti b s nguyn dng
( )
x, y, z, t tha mn:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
2
4xyz x y t 16xyz 4xz 4yz 4zt
4zt 1 4xz 1 4yz 1 2zt z mod 4yz 1 *
= = + +
+ =

Gi s rng
k
z 2 b = , vi k l s nguyn khng m v b l mt s
nguyn dng l. T
( )
* , s dng cc tnh cht ca k hiu Jakobi
ta c:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
k
b 1 k
2
k k k
b 1 b 1
2 2
k
z 1 2 b 2 4yz 1
1 1
4yz 1 4yz 1 4yz 1 4yz 1 4yz 1 b
4.2 y b 1
2 2 1
1 1
4yz 1 b 4yz 1 b
2
T
4yz 1

| | | | | | | | | | | |
= = =
| | | | | |

\ . \ . \ . \ . \ . \ .
| |

| | | | | |
|
= =
| | |
|
\ . \ . \ .
\ .
| |
= =
|

\ .

Nu k chn th T 1 = . V l.
Nu k l th ni ring: k 1 > .
Suy ra:
( ) ( )
k
2
4yz 1 4.2 by 1 1 mod8 1 T 1
4yz 1
| |
= = =
|

\ .

V l.
Vy phng trnh ang xt khng c nghim nguyn.
Ch rng cc phng trnh sau cng khng c nghim nguyn
dng:
a)
2
4xy x 1 z =
b)
2
4xy x y z =

Bi ton 5. Chng minh rng s 4kxy 1 khng chia ht s
m m
x y +
vi mi x, y, k, m nguyn dng.
Li gii:
Gi s tn ti cc s nguyn dng x, y, k, m sao cho:
( ) ( )
m m
4kxy 1 | x y + .
Ch rng:
m m
4kxy 1, x , y i mt nguyn t cng nhau.
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t
1 1
m n
m , n
2 2
( (
= =
( (

. Xt cc kh nng sau:
a)
1 1
m 2m , n 2n = =
Khi :
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
2 2
m m
1
4kxy 1 | x y 1
4kxy 1
| |
+ =
|

\ .

V l v
( )
4kxy 1 3 mod4 .
b)
1 1
m 2m , n 2n 1 = = +
(trng hp
1 1
m 2m 1, n 2n = + = hon ton tng t)
Ta c:
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2
m n m m
y
4kxy 1 | x y x y y 1
4kxy 1
| |
+ = + =
|

\ .

Nu y l, ta c:
( )
( )
y 1
2
y 1
2
y 1 y 4kxy 1
1
4kxy 1 4kxy 1 4kxy 1 y
1
1 1
y

| | | | | | | |
= =
| | | |

\ . \ . \ . \ .
| |
= =
|
\ .

Mu thun.
Nu y chn. Ta t
t
1
y 2 y = , vi
*
t N e ,
1
y l.
Khi tng t trng hp y l, ta c:
( )
( )
2
4kxy 1 1
8
2
1 1
4kxy 1

| |
= =
|

\ .
v
1 1
t
1
y y
1
4kxy 1 2 .4kxy 1
| | | |
= =
| |
|

\ . \ .

Suy ra:
( )
( ) ( )
t
t
t
1
1
2 y
y
y 2
1 1 1
4kxy 1 4kxy 1 4kxy 1 4kxy 1
| |

| | | | | |
| = = = =
|
| |
|
\ . \ . \ .
\ .

Mu thun.
c)
1 1
m 2m 1, n 2n 1 = + = + .
Ta c:
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2
m n m m
xy
4kxy 1 | x y x x y y 1
4kxy 1
| |
+ = + =
|

\ .

Mt khc theo trng hp b) ta c :
( ) ( ) ( )
xy 1 x y
1 . 1 . 1 1
4kxy 1 4kxy 1 4kxy 1 4kxy 1
| | | | | | | |
= = =
| | | |

\ . \ . \ . \ .

Mu thun.
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Vy gi thit phn chng l sai.

Bi ton 6. Cho s nguyn t p 3 > , p 4n 1 = + . Tnh:
n
1
i 1
S ip
=
(
=

Li gii:
Trc tin ta pht biu v chng minh b sau:
B : Vi p l mt s nguyn t l th trong tp
{ }
S 1, 2,..., p 1 = c
p 1
2

s chnh phng modp v

p 1
2

s khng chnh phng

modp.
Chng minh:
Vi mi
1
p 1
i S 1, 2,...,
2

e =
`
)
, gi
i
r S e l s (duy nht) m
( )
2
i
i r modp . D thy
i j
r r i j = = . Khi tp hp
( ) { }
2
i i i 1
A r : r S, i r modp , i S = e e c ng
p 1
2

phn t.
Ta chng minh rng A l tp tt c s chinh phng modp trong S.
Tht vy, r rng mi s thuc thuc A u l s chnh phng
modp. Gi s a S e sao cho tn ti k S e tha mn:
( )
2
a k modp
Nu
1
k S e th
k
a r A = e .
Nu ke
1
S th
1
h p k S = e v
( )
2
h
a h modp a r A = e
B c chng minh.
Tr li bi ton.
t
n
i 1
S ip
=
(
=

. D thy np 2n
(
=

.
Cho x nhn ln lt cc gi tr 1, 2,..., n v vi mi x nh th, tng
ng ta cho y nhn cc gi tr:
( ) ( )
x 1 p 1, x 1 p 2,..., xp
( (
(
+ +
( (



Khi t
( )
2
r r x, y xp y = = th ta c
( )
r 0, p e .
R rng:
( )
2 2
r
r y xp y modp 1
p
| |
= =
|
\ .

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M
( )
p 1 mod4 nn
1 r
1 1
p p
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
.
Nhn xt: cc s
( )
r x, y i mt phn bit.
Tht vy gi s :
( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
r x , y r x , y =
Suy ra:
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
x p y x p y p | y y y y = +
M
1 2
0 y y 2 np 4n p
(
< + < = <

v
1 2
p y y p < < nn
1 2
y y 0 = hay
1 2 1 2
y y , x x = =
Nh vy ta c s cc s
( )
r x, y l:
( )
n
x 1
p 1
N xp x 1 p np 2n
2
=

| |
(
( (
= = = =
|
(


\ .

= s thng d bnh
phng modp trong tp
{ }
1, 2,..., p 1 ( theo b ).
Do
( )
p 1 mod4 nn
( ) ( ) ( )
p 1 p 1 p 1 p 1
p 1
2 2 2 2
r p r
r . p r r . r r 1 modp
p p

| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
Suy ra :
r p r
1 1
p p
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
.
M r rng r p r = nn tp cc thng d bnh phng modp trong
tp
{ }
1, 2,..., p 1 c th phn hoch thnh
p 1
4

cp, mi cp c tng
bng p. Suy ra :
( )
( )
( )
p p 1
r x, y *
4

.
Mt khc ta li c :
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( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
xp xp
n n
2
x 1 x 1
y x 1 p 1 y x 1 p 1
xp
n
2
x 1
y x 1 p 1
n
2
x 1 y
r x, y r x, y xp y
xp x 1 p xp y
p x xp x 1 p y
( (
( (

= = ( (
= + = +
( (

(
(

= (
= +
(

=
| | | |
| |
= =
| |
| |
\ . \ .
| |
| |
( | (
=
|
(
|

\ .
|
\ .
| |
| |
(
(
=
|
|
(


\ .
\ .

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2n
1
2n 2n 1 4n 1
p S n 1 np
6
n 2n 1 4n 1
pS 2n n 1 p * *
3
=
+ +
(
= + +

+ +
= + +

T
( )
* v
( )
* * , vi p 4n 1 = + ta suy ra :
2
p 1
S
12

= .
Nhn xt: Li gii trn thc s n tng nhng ta u nhn thy n
kh kh v mt tng v s kt ni cc s kin l hi mt t
nhin.Tuy nhin bng mt cch t duy n gin hn v s dng
nhun nhuyn cc tnh cht ca hm phn nguyn ta c th i n
li gii sau :

Li gii 2:
Gi s P l mnh no , ta a vo k hiu sau :
{ }

=

1 nu P l mnh ng
P
0 nu P l mnh sai

T vi mi i ,1 i n e s s ta c :
{ }
{ }
2
x x
ip x ip x ip
e e
(
= s = s




V i n s nn ip np s . Do nu x 2n 1 > + th
( ) ( )
2
2 2
x 2n 1 4n 4n 1 n 4n 1 np ip > + = + + > + = >
Suy ra:
{ } { } { } ( )
2n 2n
2 2 2
x x 0 x 1
x ip x ip 1 x ip
e = =
s = s = >

=
{ }
2 2n 2n
2
x 1 x 1
x
2n x ip 2n i
p
= =

> = s
`
)


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Do vy:
2 2 n n 2n n 2n
2
i 1 i 1 x 1 i 1 x 1
2 2 2n n 2n
2 2
x 1 i 1 x 1 i
x x
ip 2n i 2n i
p p
x x
2n i 2n i
p p
= = = = =
= = = e
| |

(
= s = s
|
` `
|

) )
\ .

= s = s
` `
) )

p 1
2 2 2n
2
2 2
x 1 x 1
x x
2n 2n
p p

= =
( (
= =
( (



Nh vy ta ch cn tnh tng
p 1
2
2
k 1
k
T
p

=
(
=
(

vi p l mt s nguyn t c
dng 4n 1 + .
Tnh cht c bn : Cho a, b l hai s thc tha mn
( )
a b , ab + e e . Khi ta c : a b a b 1 ( ( + = +

.
Xt b sau : Cho p l mt s nguyn t c dng 4k 1 + v m l
mt s nguyn dng nguyn t cng nhau vi p. Khi ta c :
2 2 p 1 p 1
i 1 i 1
mi mi p 1
p p 2

= =
(

=
(



Chng minh :
Do p l mt s nguyn t c dng 4k 1 + nn vi mi
{ }
i 1, 2,..., p 1 e ,
tn ti duy nht
{ }
j 1, 2,..., p 1 , j i e = sao cho
( )
2 2
i j 0 modp + . Nh
vy tp
{ }
1, 2,..., p 1 c phn hoch thnh
p 1
2

cp nh th. Khi
vi ch
( )
m, p 1 = , p dng tnh cht trn, ta c :
2 2 2 2
mi mj mi mj
1
p p p p
( (
+ = +
( (

.
Suy ra :
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 p 1
i 1 i, j i, j
2 p 1
i 1
mi mi mj mi mj
1
p p p p p
mi p 1
p 2

=
| |
( ( ( | |
= + = +
|
| ( ( (
|
\ .
\ .

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p dng b vi m 1 = ta c :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 p 1 p 1
k 1 k 1
p 1 p 2p 1 p 1 p 2
k k p 1 p 1
p p 2 6p 2 3

= =

(

= = =
(



Mt khc ta li c :
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
p 1 p 1 p 1
2
2 2 2 p 1
2 2 2
k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1
2
p k
k k k
2 p 2k
p p p p
p p 1 p 1 p 1 p 1
2T 2T
2 4 4

= = = =
| |
(

( ( (
|
(
= + = +
( ( (
|
(
|

\ .
+
= + = +


Do :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
p 1 p 1 p 2 p 1 p 5
2T T
4 2 24

+ = =
Vy
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
p 1 p 5 p 1 p 5
p 1 p 1
M 2n T 2n 2
24 4 24 12

| |
= = = =
|
\ .

Ch rng kt qu
( ) ( )
p 1 p 5
T
24

= vi
( )
p 1 mod4 chnh l tng qut
nh ca VietnamTST2005 bi 5b), bi yu cu tnh
p 1
2
2
k 1
k
P
p

=
(
=
(

vi
( )
p 1 mod8 cng cho
( ) ( )
p 1 p 5
P
24

= .

Bi ton 7.
a) Chng minh rng s
n
2 1 + khng c c nguyn t dng 8k 1 .
b) Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng n, s
n
3
2 1 + c t
nht n c nguyn t c dng 8k 3 + .
Li gii:
a) Gi s rng tn ti s p nguyn t c dng 8k 1 sao cho
( )
n
p | 2 1 + .
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Nu n chn, ta c:
( ) ( )
2
n
2
1
1 2 modp 1 p 1 mod4
p
| |
| |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
. Mu
thun.
Nu n l, ta c :
( ) ( )
2
2
n 1 p 1 p 1
2 2 8
2 1 2
2 2 modp 1 1 1
p p p
+
+ | |
| | | | | |
= = = =
|
| | |
|
\ . \ . \ .
\ .

(do
( )
p 1 mod8 ). V l.
Vy s
n
2 1 + khng c c nguyn t dng 8k 1 .

b) T chng minh trn ta nhn thy : nu n l th
n
2 1 + khng c
c nguyn t dng 8k 5 + .
Nh vy mi c nguyn t ca
n
3
2 1 + u ng d 1 hoc 3 mod8 .
Ta c :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n n 1 n 1
3 2 2.3 3 2.3 3
2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 ... 2 2 1

+ = + + + +
t
i i
2.3 3
i
s 2 2 1 = + , 1 i n 1 s s
Ta s chng minh rng : 1 i j n 1 s < s th
( )
i j
gcd s , s 3 = .
rng
( ) ( )
i i
s 1 1 1 3 mod9 3 || s i +
Gi p l mt s nguyn t chia ht
( )
i j
gcd s , s . Khi
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
j i 1
j i 1
i 1 j i 1
j j
3
3
3 3 3
i
2.3 3
j
p | s | 2 1 2 2 1 1 modp
0 s 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 modp p 3


+ +
+ =
= + + =

Vy
( )
i j
gcd s , s 3 = 1 i j n 1 s < s
By gi ly
{ }
i 1, 2,..., n 1 e . Nu mi c nguyn t ca
i
s (tr 3)
u c dng 8k 1 + th
( )
i
s 3 mod8 (ch rng
i
3 || s i ). V l.
Do vy mi
i
s u c t nht mt c nguyn t
i
p dng 8k 3 + m
i
p 3 = . Do
( )
i j
gcd s , s 3 = nn
i j
p p 1 i j n 1 = s < s .
Suy ra
n
3
2 1 + c t nht n c nguyn t dng 8k 3 + l :
1 2 n 1
3, p , p ,..., p

.

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Bi ton 8. Chng minh rng tn ti v hn s nguyn dng n sao
cho
2
n 1 + c c nguyn t ln hn 2n 10n +
Li gii:
Xt p l mt s nguyn t c dng 8k 1 + , khi 1 l s chnh
phng modp, hay phng trnh ng d
( )
2
x 1 modp c hai
nghim thuc 1, p 1 (

, ta gi hai nghim l
1 2
x , x vi
1 2
p 1
1 x x p 1
2

s s < s .
Chn
1
n x = . Khi ta c
2
p 1
p | n 1, n
2

+ s .
Ta s chng minh rng: p 2n 2n > + .
Tht vy do
p 1
1 n
2

s s nn ta t
p 1 p 1
n l, 0 l
2 2

= s < .
Do
( )
2
n 1 modp nn:
( ) ( ) ( )
2
p 1
l 1 modp p 1 2l 4 0 modp
2
| |
+
|
\ .

Suy ra:
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
*
2l 1 4 0 modp r : 2l 1 4 rp + + - e + + = .
m
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2l 1 4l l 1 1 1 mod8 rp 5 mod8 + = + +
Suy ra:
( ) ( )
( )
2
1
r 5 mod8 r 5 2l 1 4 5p l 5p 4 1
2
> + + > >
t
( )
1
5p 4 u l u 1
2
= > , ta c
( ) ( )
2
p 1 p 1 1 1 1 u 4
n l u 1 p u u
2 2 2 2 2 5
| |
+
= s = =
|
\ .

( )
( )
2
2
1
u 5u 4 10n 0 2u 5 40n 9 u 5 40n 9
2
+ > > + > + +
Mt khc do
( )
1
n p u
2
s nn
( )
1
p 2n u 2n 5 40n 9 2n 10n
2
> + > + + + > + .
Do c v hn s nguyn t c dng 8k 1 + nn bi ton c chng
minh.
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Nhn xt: Vi bi ton trn ta c mt tng qut cho bi ton
sau: Xt mnh :
( )
P n :
2
n 1 + chia ht n! . Chng minh rng tn
ti v hn s nguyn dng n sao cho
( )
P n ng v cng tn ti v
hn s nguyn dng n sao cho
( )
P n sai. (Romania National
Olympiad 2008).

Bi ton 9. Tm tt c cc s nguyn dng n sao cho
( ) ( )
n n
2 1 | 3 1 .
Li gii:
Ta s chng minh rng n 1 = nghim duy nht ca bi ton.
Tht vy gi s tn ti s nguyn n 1 > sao cho
n n
2 1 | 3 1 .
Khi r rng 3
( )
n
2 1 nn n l, do o:
( ) ( )
n n 3 n
n 3 2 8 8 2 1 4.3 12 2 1 7 mod12

> = =
Suy ra
n
2 1 c t nht mt c nguyn t p c dng 12k 5 + hoc
12k 7 + .
Hn na ta li c:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
n 1
n n
2
3
p | 2 1 | 3 1 3 3 modp 1 p 1 mod12
p
+
| |
| |
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
Mu
thun.
Vy n 1 = l s nguyn dng duy nht tha mn.

Bi ton 10. Cho
( )
P x v
( )
Q x l hai a thc h s nguyn, nguyn
t cng nhau trn . Gi s rng vi mi n e th
( ) ( )
P n ,Q n
nguyn dng v
( )
Q n
2 1 chia ht
( )
P n
3 1 .
Chng minh rng
( )
Q x l mt a thc hng.
Li gii:
Do
( ) ( )
P x ,Q x x ( e

v nguyn t cng nhau trn x (

nn tn ti
cc a thc
( ) ( )
u x , v x x ( e

v s nguyn dng d sao cho:
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( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
P x u x Q x v x d gcd P n ,Q n d n + = s e
Gi s
( )
Q x khng l hng s. Khi dy
( ) { }
Q n | n e khng b
chn, m ta li c
( )
*
Q n n e e nn degQ chn v h s bc cao
nht ca
( )
Q x dng.T ta c th chon m e sao cho :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
max P 0 ,P 1 ,P 2 ,...,P d Q m
M 2 1 3 = >
Ta c
( ) ( )
Q m P m
M 2 1 | 3 1 =
( )
* nn
( ) ( )
M, 2 M, 3 1 = =
Gi a, b tng ng l bc ca 2, 3 modulo M. T
( )
* ta suy ra
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
a | Q m , b | P m gcd a, b gcd Q m , P m d s s
t
( )
gcd a, b s = . Khi tn ti cc s nguyn
0 0
x , y sao cho
0 0
s ax by = + .
Do 1 s d s s nn tn ti k , 0 k d e s < sao cho s d k = .
Ta s chng t rng tn ti cc s nguyn x, y sao cho:
0 m ax by d s + + s . Tht vy chn
0 0
x tx , y ty = = .
Ta c :
( )
0 0
0 m ax by d 0 m t ax by d s + + s s + + s hay
( )
0 m t d k d s + s
m d m
t
d k d k

s s


Do
d m m d
1
d k d k d k

= >

nn tn ti s nguyn t tha mn.
Nhn xt trn c chng minh.
Ta c
( )
Q x x ( e

nn :
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
Q m ax Q m
Q m ax Q m moda 2 2 1 modM
+
+
hay
( ) ( )
Q m ax P m ax
M| 2 1 | 3 1
+ +

Tng t , ta c :
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
P m ax by P m ax
P m ax by P m ax modb 3 3 1 modM
+ + +
+ + + Suy
ra :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { } ( )
max P 0 ,P 1 ,...,P d P m ax by Q m
M 3 1 3 1 2 2 M 1
+ +
s s s = . V l.
Vy
( )
Q x Const .

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Bi ton 11. Cho a, b l hai s nguyn dng tho mn ab khng l
s chnh phng. Chng minh rng tn ti v hn s nguyn dng
n sao cho
( ) ( )
n n
a 1 b 1 khng l s chnh phng.
Li gii:
B : Cho a l mt s nguyn dng khng chnh phng. Khi
tn ti v hn s nguyn t p sao cho a khng l s chnh phng
modp.
Chng minh :
Do a l mt s nguyn dng khng chnh phng nn ta t :
2
a b c = , trong
( )
*
1 2 m
b , c q q ...q m 1 e = > , vi
i
q nguyn t, i mt
phn bit.
Khi vi mi s nguyn t l p m
( )
p, a 1 = , ta c :
2 m
i
i 1
q
a b c c
p p p p
=
| | | | | | | |
= = =
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
[

Xt cc kh nng sau :
1)
1
q l
Chn
1 2 m
r , r ,..., r tha mn
1
r khng l s chnh phng
1
modq v
i
r l
s chnh phng
i
modq vi mi i 2,..., m = .
Theo nh l thng d Trung Hoa, tn ti s nguyn
0
p tha mn:
( )
( )
( )
0 i i
0
p r modq i 1, 2,..., m
I
p 1 mod4

D thy
( ) ( ) ( )
0 i 0 0 1 2 m
p , q p , 4 1 i 1, 2,.., m p , 4q q ...q 1 = = = =
M ta c
( )
0 1 2 m
p p 4q q ...q t = + cng l nghim ca
( )
I vi mi t e .
Nhng theo nh l Drichlet, ta c th chn c v hn t sao cho
p l s nguyn t, hay tn ti v hn s nguyn t p tha
mn:
( )
( )
i i
p r modq i 1, 2,..., m
p 1 mod4

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Suy ra:
i
i i
r 1, khi i 1 p
q q 1, khi i 2,..., m
| | | | =

= =
| |
=

\ . \ .

Do
( )
p 1 mod4 nn theo lut tng h Gauss, ta
c:
i
i
q
p
i 1, 2,..., m
q p
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .

Suy ra:
m m
i
i 1 i 1
i
q
a p
1
p p q
= =
| | | | | |
= = =
| |
|
\ . \ . \ .
[ [

2)
1
q 2 =
Chn
i
r l s chnh phng
i
modp vi mi i 2,..., m =
Tng t ta c v hn s nguyn t p tha mn:
( )
( )
i i
p r modq i 2,.., m
p 5 mod8

Suy ra:
i
i i
r
p
1 i 2,..., m
q q
| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .

Do
( )
p 5 mod8 nn
( )
i
i
q
p
p 1 mod4 1 i 2,..., m
p q
| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .

M
( )
2
p 1
1 8
q 2
1 1
p p

| |
| |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .
( do
( )
p 5 mod8 )
Suy ra:
m
i
i 1
q
a
1
p p
=
| | | |
= =
|
|
\ . \ .
[
.
B c chng minh.
Tr li bi ton.
Theo gi thit ta c ab khng l s chnh phng nn theo b ta
c tn ti v hn s nguyn t p sao cho:
ab a b
1 1
p p p
| | | | | |
= =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

T khng mt tnh tng qut ta c th gi s:
a b
1, 1
p p
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
.
Hay
( ) ( )
p 1 p 1
2 2
a 1 modp , b 1 modp


Suy ra: p khng chia ht
p 1
2
b 1

. Xt cc kh nng sau:
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1)
p 1
2
p
v a 1

| |

|
|
\ .
l.
Khi
p 1 p 1
2 2
p
v a 1 b 1

| |
| | | |
|
| |
| |
|
\ . \ .
\ .
l, do
p 1 p 1
2 2
a 1 b 1

| | | |

| |
| |
\ . \ .
khng l s
chnh phng.
2)
p 1
2
p
v a 1

| |

|
|
\ .
chn
( )
2 > .
Theo nh l v s m ng ta c:
p 1 p 1
p
2 2
p p
v a 1 v a 1 1

| | | |
= +
| |
| |
\ . \ .
l
mt s l. Hn na ta li c :
( )
p 1
p p
2
b 1 1 1

( )
0 modp
Suy ra
p 1 p 1
p p
2 2
p
v a 1 b 1

| |
| | | |
|
| |
| |
|
\ . \ .
\ .
l, do
p 1 p 1
p p
2 2
a 1 b 1

| | | |

| |
| |
\ . \ .
khng l
s chnh phng.
Ch rng mt trong hai kh nng s xy ra vi v hn p.

Vn m rng: Cho a, b l hai s nguyn dng phn bit 1 > ,
chng minh rng tn ti s nguyn dng n sao cho
( ) ( )
n n
a 1 b 1
khng l s chnh phng.
Nhn xt: B c pht biu v chng minh trong li gii trn
thc s tt v c nhiu ng dng gii cc bi ton p v
thng d bnh phng. Sau y l mt s v d minh ha.

Bi ton 12. Cho
( )
f x l mt tam thc bc 2 vi h s nguyn tha
mn vi mi s nguyn t p u tn ti t nht mt s nguyn n
sao cho
( )
p | f n . Chng minh rng
( )
f x c nghim hu t.
Li gii:
t
( ) ( )
2
f x ax bx c a, b, c = + + e .
R rng ta ch cn chng minh rng :
2
b 4ac l s chnh phng.
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Ly p l mt s nguyn t bt k, theo gi thit tn ti s nguyn
n sao cho :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
p | f n an bn c 0 modp b 4ac 2an b modp + + +
Do :
2
b 4ac
1
p
| |

=
|
\ .
.Khi theo b bi 11 ta c
2
b 4ac l s
chnh phng.
Do vy
( )
f x c nghim hu t.

Bi ton 13: Gi s rng
1 2 2004
a , a ,..., a l cc s nguyn khng m
tha mn:
n n n
1 2 2004
a a ... a + + + l s chnh phng vi mi s nguyn
dng n. Tm s nh nht cc s bng 0 trong cc s
1 2 2004
a , a ,..., a .
Li gii:
Ly s nguyn t
{ }
i
p N max 2004, a | i 1, 2,..., 2004 > = = v ly n p 1 = .
Khi ta c:
( )
2004 2004
n p 1
i i
i 1 i 1
a a k modp

= =
=

, trong k l s s hng ca
dy
1 2 2004
a , a ,..., a khng chia ht cho p. Theo trn ta c 0 k p < < . M
n
n
i
i 1
a
=

l s chnh phng nn ta c
k
1 p
p
| |
=
|
\ .
nguyn t ln hn N.
p dng b bi 11 ta c k l s chnh phng.
t
2 2 2
k l l 2004 l 44 k 44 1936 = s s s = .
Do c t nht 2004 1936 68 = s bng 0 trong dy
1 2 2004
a , a ,..., a .
Mt khc ta xt dy:
2
i i
a m i 1,1936 ; a 0 i 1937, 2004 = = = = .
Khi
( ) ( )
n
n 2
n 2 n
i
i 1
a 1936 m 44m
=
= =

.
Vy 68 l gi tr nh nht cn tm.

Bi ton 14. Cho a, b, c l cc s nguyn v p l mt s nguyn t l
3 > . Chng minh rng nu
( )
2
f x ax bx c = + + l s chnh phng ti
p 5
2
+
gi tr nguyn lin tip ca x th
( )
2
p | b 4ac .
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Li gii:
B 1: Cho
( )
f x l mt a thc h s nguyn c deg f k = . t
p 1
r
2

= , v
( )
r
kr
0 1 kr
f x a a x ... a x . = + + + Khi ta c:
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
p 1
p 1 2 p 1 l p 1
x 0
f x
k
a a ... a modp , l
p 2

=
| |
(
| + + + =
(
|

\ .

.
Chng minh:
t
( )
p 1
n
n
x 0
s x , n

=
= e

.
D thy
( )
0 n
s p, s p 1 1 modp = vi n 0 > v p 1 | n .
Xt n 0 v n >
( )
p 1 , ta gi g l mt cn nguyn thy ca p, khi
{ } { }( )
2 3 p 1
g, g , g ,..., g 1, 2,..., p 1 modp

,
( )
p 1
g 1 modp

v
n
g 1
( )
0 modp .
Suy ra:
( )
( )
( )
n p 1
p 1 p 1 p 2
i
n ni n n n
n n
x 0 i 1 i 0
g 1
s x g g g g . 0 modp
g 1

= = =

= = =

.
( ) ( )
( )
n
1 modp khi n 0, n p 1
Vy s
0 modp khi n=0 n 0, n
>

v >

( )
p 1

Do :
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
p 1 p 1 p 1 kr
r
kr
0 1 kr i i
x 0 x 0 x 0 i 0
p 1 2 p 1 l p 1
f x
f x a a x ... a x a s
p
a a ... a

= = = =

| |
| = + + + =
|
\ .
+ + +


B 1 c chng minh.

B 2: Cho a, b, c l cc s nguyn bt k v p l mt s nguyn
t khng chia ht a . Khi ta c:
2
2 p 1
x 0
a
khi b 4ac
p
ax bx c
p

=
| |

|
| |
+ +
\ .
=
|
\ .

( )
2
p
a
p 1 khi b 4ac p
p

| |

\ .

Chng minh. Ta c:
www.VNMATH.com
( )
( )
2
2 p 1 p 1
2
x 0 x 0
2 2 2 p 1 p 1 p 1
x 0 x 0 x 0
2ax b D
4a ax bx c
, D b 4ac
p p p
x D ax bx c a x D

p p p p

= =

= = =
| |
+
| | | | + +
|
= =
| |
|
| \ . \ .
\ .
| | | | | | | | + +
= =
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .



t
2 p 1
x 0
x D
S
p

=
| |

=
|
\ .

. p dng b 1 cho
( )
2
f x x D = ta c:
( ) ( )
p 1
S a 1 modp

= , m S p s nn
{ }
S 1, p 1 e .
Nu S p 1 = , th c duy nht mt s
{ }
0
x 0,1,..., p 1 e sao cho
( )
( )
( )
2
2
0
0
2
0
p | x D
x D
0
p
p | p x D

| |

=
|

|

\ .


Suy ra nu
0
x 0 = th
( ) { }
0
p x 0,1,..., p 1 e v
( )
0 0
p x x = . Mu
thun tnh duy nht ca
0
x . Do
0
x 0 p | D = .
Ngc li nu p | D, suy ra
2 p 1
x 0
x
S p 1
p

=
| |
= =
|
\ .

.
Nh vy:
( )
2 p 1
x 0
ax bx c a
p | D S p 1 p 1
p p

=
| | | | + +
= =
| |
\ . \ .

Nu S 1 = th Dp v
2 p 1
x 0
ax bx c a
p p

=
| | | | + +
=
| |
\ . \ .

.
B 2 c chng minh.
Tr li bi ton.
Gi s rng tn ti s nguyn
0
x sao cho:
( ) ( )
0 0 0
p 1
f x , f x 1 ,..., f x
2
| | +
+ +
|
\ .
u l s chnh phng. Xt cc kh
nng sau:
1) a chia ht cho p.
Nu b khng chia ht cho p th tp
0 0 0
p 3
bx c : x x , x 1,..., x
2
+
+ = + +
`
)

l mt h thng d khng y modulo p gm
p 5
2
+
phn t m
www.VNMATH.com
( ) ( )
f x bx c modp + nn tp
( )
0 0 0
p 3
f x : x x , x 1,..., x
2
+
= + +
`
)
cng l
mt h thng d khng y modulo p gm
p 5
2
+
phn t
nhng r rng mt s chnh phng ch c th ng d vi ng
mt s trong
p 1
2
+
s l
2
2 2
p 1
0 ,1 ,...,
2
| |
|
\ .
. Nh vy ta c iu mu
thun.
Do b chia ht cho p. Vy
2
p | b 4ac .
2) a chia ht cho p.
Gi s rng: p khng chia ht
2
b 4ac .
Khi theo b 2, ta c:
2 p 1
x 0
ax bx c a
p p

=
| | | | + +
=
| |
\ . \ .

.
Suy ra:
0
0
x p 1 2 2 p 1
x x x 0
ax bx c ax bx c a
1
p p p
+

= =
| | | | | | + + + +
= = s
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

.
Mt khc d dng thy rng khng tn ti 3 s nguyn phn bit
{ }
1 2 3 0 0 0
x , x , x x , x 1,..., x p 1 e + + sao cho
( )
2
i i
ax bx c p i 1, 2, 3 + + = nn
0
0
x p 1 2
x x
ax bx c p 5 p 5
2 p 3 1
p 2 2
+
=
| | | | | | + + + +
> = >
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

. Mu thun.

Ch rng: y l mt m rng kh mnh ca bi IMO Shortlist
nm 1991 do Polish ngh nh sau:
Cho a, b, c l cc s nguyn v p l mt s nguyn t l. Chng
minh rng nu
( )
2
f x ax bx c = + + l s chnh phng ti 2p 1 gi tr
nguyn lin tip ca x th
( )
2
p | b 4ac .

Bi ton 15. Vi mi s nguyn a , hy tnh s nghim
( )
x, y, z ca
phng trnh ng d:
2 2 2
x y z 2axyz + +
( )
modp
Li gii:
Ta c :
www.VNMATH.com
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x y z 2axyz modp z axy a x 1 y x modp 1 + + Suy
ra vi mi cp x, y c nh thuc tp
{ }
0,1,..., p 1 th s nghim
{ }
z 0,1,..., p 1 e tha mn
( )
1 l:
( )
2 2 2 2
a x 1 y x
1
p
| |

|
+
|
\ .
.
Do vy s nghim ca phng trnh
2 2 2
x y z 2axyz + +
( )
modp l:
( )
2 2 2 2
p 1 p 1
2
x 0 y 0
a x 1 y x
N p
p

= =
| |

|
= +
|
\ .

Xt cc kh nng sau:
1) a chia ht cho p.
Khi p dng b 2 Bi 14 ta c:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 p 1 p 1 p 1 p 1
2 2
x 0 y 0 x 0 y 0
2 2 2 p 1 p 1 p 1
2
y 0 x 1 y 0
p 1
2 2 2
x 1
y x 1 y x
N p p
p p p
1 y y x
p
p p p
1 1 1
p p 1 p p 1 p 1 p
p p p

= = = =

= = =

=
| | | | | | +
= + = +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
| |
| | | | | | +
= + +
|
| | |
|
\ . \ . \ .
\ .
| |
| | | | | |
= + + = + + + =
|
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
\ .

2) a khng chia ht cho p.
D thy tn ti duy nht cc s nguyn
{ }
1 2
x , x 1, 2,..., p 1 e sao cho:
( )
( )
1
2 2 2 2
1 2
2
ax 1 modp
p | a x 1, p | a x 1
ax 1 modp

Do vy p khng chia ht
( ) { } { }
2 2 2
1 2
4x a x 1 x 0,1,..., p 1 \ 0, x , x e
T p dng b 2 Bi 14, vi ch 0
p
| | o
=
|
\ .
nu p o , ta c:
www.VNMATH.com
( ) ( )
( )
( )
1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 p 1 p 1 p 1
1 1 2 2
2
y 0 y 0 y 0
2 2 2 2
2 2 p 1 p 1 p 1
2
x 1 y 0 x 1
x x ,x x x ,x
2
a x 1 y x a x 1 y x
y
N p
p p p
a x 1 y x
1 1 a x 1
p p 1 2p
p p p p
1
p p
p

= = =

= = =
= =
| | | |

| |

| |
= + + +
|
| |
\ .
\ . \ .
| |

| | | | | |
|
+ = + + +
| | |
|
\ . \ . \ .
\ .
|
= +

\


2 2 2 p 1
2
x 0
2
1 a x 1 1 a
2p p 3p
p p p p
1
p 3p 1
p

=
| | | | | | | | |
+ = + +
| | | | |
. \ . \ . \ . \ .
| |
= + +
|
\ .

Vy
2
2
p khi a p
N
1
p 3p 1 khi a
p
=
| |
+ +
|
\ .

Bi ton 16. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng n, u tn
ti cc s nguyn >1, i mt nguyn t cng nhau:
0 1 n
k , k ,..., k , sao
cho:
0 1 n
k k ...k 1 l tch ca hai s nguyn lin tip.
Li gii:
B : Cho p l mt s nguyn t c dng 3k 1 + . Khi tn ti s
nguyn dng r sao cho
( )
2
p | r r 1 + + .
Chng minh: p l mt s nguyn t c dng 3k 1 + nn
( )
p 1 mod6 ,
suy ra 3 l s chnh phng modp, hay tn ti s nguyn dng x
sao cho:
( ) ( )
2
x kp 3 modp k + e .
R rng tn ti k e sao cho: x kp 2r 1, + = + vi r nguyn dng no
. Suy ra:
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
p | 2r 1 3 4 r r 1 p | r r 1 + + = + + + + .
Tr li bi ton.
Vi mi s nguyn dng n, r rng tn ti cc s nguyn t i
mt phn bit
0 1 n
p , p ,..., p c dng 3k 1 + .
Khi theo b ta gi
0 1 n
r , r ,..., r l cc s nguyn dng tha mn:
( )
2
i i i
p | r r 1 i 0,1,..., n + + = .
www.VNMATH.com
Theo nh l thng d Trung Hoa, tn ti s nguyn dng a tha
mn:
( )
i i
a r modp i 0,1,..., n =
Suy ra:
( )
2
0 1 n
p p ...p | a a 1 + +
Vi mi i : 1 i n s s , ly
i
k l ly tha ln nht ca
i
p chia ht
2
a a 1 + + v t
2
0
1 n
a a 1
k
k ...k
+ +
= .
Khi r rng
0 1 n
k , k ,..., k i mt nguyn t cng nhau v
( )
2
0 1 n
k k ...k 1 a a a a 1 = + = +
Nhn xt: Bng cc tnh cht ca Thng d bnh phng v nh l
Thng d Trung Hoa ta cho mt li gii p vi bi ton trn.
Tuy nhin d dng nhn thy tng trn ch nhm mc ich a
v kt qu sau:
t
( )
2
f x x x 1 = + + . Khi tn ti v hn s nguyn t p sao cho
phng trnh ng d:
( ) ( )
f x 0 modp c nghim.
Ta chng minh kt qu ny.
Gi s ta c m s nguyn t tha mn l:
1 2 m
p , p ,..., p .
Theo nh l Thng d Trung Hoa ta tm c s nguyn dng b
sao cho:
( ) ( )
i
f b 0 modp i 1, 2,..., m = .
Ta c:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
gcd f b , f b 1 gcd b b 1, b 3b 3 + = + + + + =1
M
( )
f b 1 + > 1 nn n c mt c nguyn t
m 1
p
+
m
m 1 i
p p i 1, 2,..., m
+
= = . pcm.
Ta c kt qu tng qut: Cho a thc h s nguyn
( )
f x khc hng
s. Khi tn ti v hn s nguyn t p sao cho phng trnh ng
d:
( ) ( )
f x 0 modp c nghim.
Hin nhin vi kt qu ny bi ton ban u ca ta c th c m
rng thnh tch ca k s nguyn lin tip, vi k l s nguyn dng
ty .

www.VNMATH.com
Bi ton 17. Cho cc s nguyn dng m, n tho mn:
( )
n
m 3 1
A
3m
+ +
= l s nguyn. Chng minh rng A l.
Li gii:
Nu m l th
( )
n
m 3 1 + + l, suy ra A l.
Nu m chn th do A l s nguyn nn
( ) ( ) ( )
n
n
0 m 3 1 m 1 mod3 gcd m, 3 1 + + + =
suy ra:
( )
n 2k 1, m 1 mod3 . = +
Ta xt cc kh nng sau:
1)
*
1 1
m 8m , m = e . Khi ta c:
( ) ( )
n
n 2k 1
m 3 1 3 1 3 1 4 mod8
+
+ + + = + v
( )
1
3m 0 mod8 . mu thun
vi A l s nguyn.
2)
1 1
m 8m +2 8m +6, = v hay
( )
m 2 mod4 . Khi ta c:
( ) ( ) ( )
n n
m 3 1 2 3 1 2 mod4 + + + + v
( )
3m 2 mod4 . Suy ra Al.
3)
1
m 8m 4 = + . Khi do
( )
m 1 mod3 nn
( )
1
m 1 mod3 , suy ra
tn ti s nguyn t p l c ca
1
m sao cho
( )
p 1 mod3 . Do A l
s nguyn nn
( ) ( ) ( )
n
n 2k 1 2k 1
0 m 3 1 3 1 3 1 modm 3 1 modp
+ +
+ + + = +
hay
( ) ( ) ( )
2
k 1
3
3 3 modp 1 p 1 mod6
p
+
| |
=
|
\ .
, mu thun.

Bi ton 18. Chng minh rng khng tn ti cc s nguyn dng
a, b, c sao cho
( )
2 2 2
a b c
3 ab bc ca
+ +
+ +
l mt s nguyn.
Li gii:
Gi s rng tn ti cc s nguyn dng a, b, c, n sao cho :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
a b c 3n ab bc ca a b c 3n 2 ab bc ca + + = + + + + = + + +
www.VNMATH.com
R rng phi tn ti mt c nguyn t p ca 3n 2 + sao cho
( )
p 2 mod3 v
( )
p
v 3n 2 + l. Ta gi s
( )
2i 1 *
p || 3n 2 , i

+ e no .
Ta c :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2i 1 i
2
2i
2
2 2 2
3n 2 | a b c p | a b c p | a b c
p | a b c p | ab bc ca p | ab c a b
p | ab a b a b do p | a b c
3
p | 4 a ab b 2a b 3b 1 p 1 mod6
p

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
| |
+ + = + + =
|
\ .

Mu thun.
Nhn xt : y l mt bi ton kh c nhng va ri n li xut
hin trong k thi Iran TST 2013 : Tm tt cc s nguyn dng
a, b, c tha mn :
2 2 2
a b c + + chia ht cho
( )
2013 ab bc ca + + .

Bi ton 19. Tm tt c cc s nguyn dng k tha mn vi k s
nguyn t l u tin
1 2 k
p , p ,..., p , tn ti cc s nguyn dng a, n
( )
n 1 > sao cho:
n
1 2 k
p p ...p a 1 = + .
Li gii:
Gi s k l s nguyn dng sao cho tn ti cc s nguyn dng
a, n
( )
n 1 > tha mn:
n
1 2 k
p p ...p a 1 = + , vi
1 2 k
p , p ,..., p l k s nguyn
t l u tin. Xt cc kh nng sau:
1) n chn. Ta c
( )
2
n
2
i
i
1 1
1 a modp i 1, k 1 i 1, k 1
p 3
| | | |
| |
= = = =
| |
|
|
\ .
\ . \ .
. V l.
2) n l.
Gi s tn ti
{ }
i 1, 2,..., k e sao cho
i
p | n.
Khi ta c:
i
i
p
n
p n
i
p | a 1 a 1
| |
| + = +
|
\ .

www.VNMATH.com
M theo nh l nh Fecma ta c:
i
i i i
p
n n n
p p p
i i
p | a a p | a 1
| |
| +
|
\ .

Do :
( ) ( )
i
i i
i i i i
p
n n
p p n 2 n
p p p p i i
v a 1 v a 1 v a 1 v p 2 p | a 1
| |
| | | |
|
| | + = + = + + > +
|
| |
|
\ . \ .
\ .

Suy ra:
2
i 1 2 k
p | p p ...p . V l v cc
j
p nguyn t i mt phn bit.
Kt hp vi n l, n 1 > ta suy ra tt c cc c nguyn t ca n u
ln hn
k
p . Do
k
n p > . Gi s a khng c c nguyn t l th
m * mn
1 2 k
a 2 , m p p ...p 2 1 = e = +
Nu m chn th
i
1
1 i 1, k
p
| |

= =
|
\ .
. V l.
Nu m l, ta c:
( )
2
2x 1 0 mod5 + (v d thy k 2 > ), vi
mn 1
2
x 2

=
Suy ra:
( )
2
2
x 2 mod5 1
5
| |
=
|
\ .
. V l.
Vy tn ti p nguyn t l sao cho p | a m
( )
i
a, p 1 i 1, k = = nn
k
p p > .
Suy ra:
k
p n
1 2 k k
p p ...p a 1 p = + > . V l.
Vy khng tn ti s nguyn dng k tha mn bi ton.

Bi ton 20. Cho s nguyn dng a . Xt dy s nguyn
{ }
n
x xc
nh bi:
1 n 1 n
x a, x 2x 1 n 1
+
= = + > . t
n
x
n
y 2 1 = . Tm s nguyn
dng k ln nht sao cho tn ti s nguyn dng a
1 2 k
y , y ,..., y
u l s nguyn t.
Li gii:
Nhn xt 1: Nu
m
2 1 l s nguyn t th m cng phi l s nguyn
t.
Nhn xt 2: Nu p l s nguyn t c dng 4m 3 + v q 2p 1 = +
cng l mt s nguyn t th
p
q | 2 1 .
Chng minh:
www.VNMATH.com
Theo nh l nh Fecma ta c:
( ) ( )
q 1 2p p p
q | 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1

= = +
Gi
( ) { }
q
ord 2 | 2p 2, p, 2p o = o o e .
Nu
2
2 q | 2 1 3 q 3 p 1 o = = = = . V l.
Nu 2p q| o =
( )
2
p 1
p p
2
2 1 q | 2 1 2 2 modq
+
| |
+
|
|
\ .
hay
2
1
q
| |
=
|
\ .

nhng q 2p 1 8m 7 = + = + . V l.
Vy
p
p q | 2 1 o = .
Tr li bi ton.
Vi k 2 = . Chn a 2 = ta c
1 2 3
y 2, y 31, y 2047 23.89 = = = = .
Gi s tn ti k 3 > sao cho tn ti
*
a e tha mn
1 2 k
y , y ,..., y u
l s nguyn t. Khi theo nhn xt 1 ta c
1 2 k
x , x ,..., x cng l s
nguyn t. Ni ring
3
y l s nguyn t nn theo trn ta c: a 3 >
m
1
a x = nguyn t nn a l, suy ra
( )
n
x 3 mod4 n 2 > .
Ta c:
( )
2 3 2 2 3
x 3 mod4 , x 2x 1, x , x = + nguyn t nn theo nhn xt 2
ta c:
2
x
3
x | 2 1 nhng
2
x
2
2 1 y = l s nguyn t nn
2
x 2a 1
3
x 2 1 4a 3 2 1
+
= + = . V l v a 3 > .
Vy k 2 = l gi tr ln nht cn tm.

Bi ton 21: Cho dy
{ }
n
n 1
u
+
=
xc nh bi:
1 2
*
n 2 n 1 n
u 1, u 11
u u 5u n
+ +
= =

= + e

Chng minh rng
n
u khng l s chnh phng vi mi n 3 > .
Li gii:
Trc tin bng quy np ta chng minh c rng: vi mi s
nguyn dng n ta c:
( )
k
*
n 2k n n k k
u 5 u u u k
+ +
= + e .
Tip tc ta chng minh bng quy np cc kt qu sau:
( ) ( )
6k 2 6k 4 6k
u u 1 mod4 , u 2 mod4 k
+ +
= e .
Vi k 0 = , d thy ng
Gi s ng vi k. Xt vi k 1 + , ta c:
www.VNMATH.com
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
6k 6 6k 4 6k 2 6 k 1
6k 8 6k 6 6k 4 6 k 1 2
6k 10 6k 8 6k 6 6 k 1 4
u u 11u 25u 11 25 2 mod4
u u 11u 25u 11.2 25 1 mod4
u u 11u 25u 11 25.2 1 mod4
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
= = +
= = +
= =

Nh vy kt qu trn cng ng vi k 1 + .
Do
2n
u khng l s chnh phng vi mi
*
n e .
Ta s chng minh
4n 1
u
+
khng l s chnh phng vi mi
*
n e .
Tht vy gi s tn ti
( )
*
m , m 1 mod4 e sao cho
m
u l s chnh
phng.

t
r *
m 1 3 .2k, r , k , 2 | k, 3| = + e e k. Ta c:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
r
r r r
r
k 2k 3 k
m 1
1 3 .2k 1 3 1 .2k 1 3 2 .2k
3 k
k
u u 5 u 5 u ... 5 u
5 modu
+ + +
=


Gi p l mt c nguyn t bt k ca
( )
k
u p, 5 1 =
(v
( )
*
n
u , 5 1 n = e )
Ta c:
( ) ( )
r
3 k
m
u 5 modp m k chn,
m
u l s chnh phng nn
( ) ( )
k
1
1 p 1 mod4 u 1 mod4
p
| |
=
|
\ .
. V l v k chn nn
( )
k
u 1, 2 mod4 .
Ta s chng minh
4n 3
u
+
khng l s chnh phng vi mi n e
Tht vy gi s tn ti
( )
*
m , m 3 mod4 e sao cho
m
u l s chnh
phng.
t
r *
m 3 3 .2k, r , k , 2 | k, 3| = + e e k . Ta c:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
r
r r r
r
k 2k 3 k
m 3
3 3 .2k 3 3 1 .2k 3 3 2 .2k
3 k
k
u u 5 u 5 u ... 5 u
16. 5 modu
+ + +
=


Gi p l mt c nguyn t bt k ca
( ) ( )
k
u p, 5 1, p, 2 1 = =
www.VNMATH.com
(v
( )
*
n
u , 5 1 n = e v 2 | k, 3|
( )
k
k k 2, 4 mod6 u l )
Ta c:
( ) ( )
r
3 k
m
u 16. 5 modp m k chn,
m
u l s chnh phng nn
( ) ( )
k
1
1 p 1 mod4 u 1 mod4
p
| |
=
|
\ .
. V l v k chn nn
( )
k
u 1, 2 mod4 .
Vy
n
u khng l s chnh phng vi mi n 3 > .


Bi ton 22. Cho hai hm s
* *
f, g : tho mn ng thi:
i) g l ton nh.
ii)
( ) ( )
2 2
2 *
2f n n g n n = + e
Chng minh rng nu
( )
*
f n n 2013 n n s e th f c v s im
bt ng.
Li gii:
Theo nh l Dirichlet, tn tai dy v hn cc s nguyn t
( )
i
p vi
i
p c dng 8k 3 + .
V g l ton nh nn ta tm c dy v hn cc s nguyn dng
{ }
n
n 1
x

=
sao cho
( )
n n
g x p n = .
Theo iu kin ii) ta c:
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
n n n n n n n
2f x x g x x p x modp = + = +
Do
( )
n
p 3 mod8 nn 2 l s khng chnh phng
n
modp
Suy ra :
( ) ( )
n n n
f x x 0 modp .
Do tn ti 2 dy v hn cc s nguyn dng
{ } { }
n n
n 1 n 1
a , b

= =
sao
cho :
( )
n n n
n n n
x a p
n 1, 2,...
f x b p
=

Khi ta c :
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 n
n
n n n n n n n
n
n
a 1
b
2b p a p p 2b a 1
a
2a
+
= + = + =
rng
n
limx = +.
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Theo gi thit ta c :
( )
( )
2
n
n n
2
n n n
n
f x
b a 1 2013 1
f n n 2013 n 1 1 1
x a a
x 2
+
s > = =
Suy ra:
2
n
2
n
n
a 1 1 2013
0 lim 1 lim 0
a
2 x
+
s s =
Do :
2
n
n 2
n
a 1
lim 2 lima 1
a
+
= =
M
( )
n
a l dy v hn gm cc s nguyn dng nn
*
0 n 0 n 0
N : a 1 n N b 1 n N . - e = > = >
Do vy :
( ) ( )
n n n 0
f p f x p n N = = > , tc l hm f c v s im bt
ng.

Bi ton 23. Cho p l mt s nguyn t l v t:
( )
p 1
i 1
i 1
i
f x x
p

=
| |
=
|
\ .

a) Chng minh rng
( )
f x chia ht cho
( )
x 1 nhng khng chia ht
cho
( )
2
x 1 nu v ch nu p 3
( )
mod4 .
b) Chng minh rng nu p 5
( )
mod8 th
( )
f x chia ht cho
( )
2
x 1
nhng khng chia ht cho
( )
3
x 1 .
Li gii:
a) Do
( )
p 1
i 1
i 1
i
f x x
p

=
| |
=
|
\ .

nn
( )
p 1
i 1
i
f 1 0
p

=
| |
= =
|
\ .

(Vi p l mt s nguyn
t l th trong tp
{ }
S 1, 2,..., p 1 = c
p 1
2

s chnh phng modp

v
p 1
2

s khng chnh phng modp B bi 5a). Suy ra

( )
f x
chia ht cho
( )
x 1 .
Ta c:
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( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
p 1 p 1 p 1
i 1 i 1 i 1
p 1
p 1 p 1 p 1
2
i 1 i 1 i 1
p 1 p 1
p 1
2 2
i 1
i i i
f ' 1 i 1 i f 1 i
p p p
p i i i
p i p i 1 p i
p p p
i
1 pf 1 i 1 f ' 1
p

= = =

= = =
+

=
| | | | | |
= = =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
| | | | | |
= = =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
| |
| |
= =
|
|
\ .
\ .

Nu
( )
p 1 mod4 th theo trn ta c :
( ) ( ) ( )
f ' 1 f ' 1 f ' 1 0 = = m
( )
f 1 0 = nn
( )
f x chia ht cho
( )
2
x 1 .
Nu
( )
p 3 mod4 , vi ch
( )
i
1 mod2 i 1, 2,..., p 1
p
| |
=
|
\ .
,ta c:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
p 1 p 1
i 1 i 1
p p 1
i
f ' 1 i i 1 mod2 f ' 1 0
p 2

= =

| |
= = =
|
\ .


M
( )
f 1 0 = nn
( ) ( )
f x x 1 nhng
( )
f x
( )
2
x 1 .
Nh vy
( )
f x chia ht cho
( )
x 1 nhng khng chia ht cho
( )
2
x 1
nu v ch nu p 3
( )
mod4 .

b) Ta nhn thy rng :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
p 1 p 1
2
i 1 i 1
p 1 p 1 p 1 p 1
2 2
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
i i
f '' 1 i 1 i 2 i 3i 2
p p
i i i i
i 3 i 2f 1 i 3 i do f 1 0
p p p p

= =

= = = =
| | | |
= = +
| |
\ . \ .
| | | | | | | |
= + = =
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .



Gi s rng
( )
p 5 mod8 . Khi theo cu a) ta c :
( ) ( )
2
f x x 1 v
( )
p 1
i 1
i
i f ' 1 0
p

=
| |
= =
|
\ .

Suy ra
( ) ( ) ( )
p 1 p 1
p 1
2 2
2 2
2
i 1 i 1 i 1
i 2i 2i 1
f '' 1 i 2i 2i 1
p p p

= = =
| | | | | |
= = +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .


Mt khc do
( )
p 5 mod8 nn
2
1
p
| |
=
|
\ .
,
1
1
p
| |
=
|
\ .
. Khi :
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( ) ( )
( ) ( )
p 1 p 1 p 1 p 1
2
2 2 2 2
2
2 2
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
p 1 p 1
2 2
2
i 1 i 1
2i 2 i p 1
2i 4 i 4 i 4 i 4 4 mod8
p p p 8
2i 1 2i 1
2i 1 mod8
p p

= = = =

= =

| | | | | |

= =
| | |

\ . \ . \ .

| | | |

| |

\ . \ .

Hn na do
( )
f 1 0 = nn ta c :
p 1 p 1 p 1 p 3 p 3
2 2 2 2 2
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
p 1 p 1 p 1
3 3 2
i 1 i 1 i 1
p 1
2 i
2 2i 1 2i 2i p 1 2i
1
p p p p p p
p 2i 1 2i 1 2i 1
1 1
p p p

= = = = =

= = =
| |
| |

|
|
| | | | | | | | | |
\ .
|
= = = + = +
| | | | |
|
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ .
|
\ .
| | | | | | +
= + = + =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .



Suy ra :
p 1
2
i 1
2i 1
0
p

=
| |
=
|
\ .

.
Do :
( ) ( )
p 1 p 1
2 2
2
i 1 i 1
2i 1 2i 1
2i 1 0 mod8
p p

= =
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .


Nh vy
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
f '' 1 4 mod8 f '' 1 0 f x =
( )
3
x 1
Vy nu p 5
( )
mod8 th
( )
f x chia ht cho
( )
2
x 1 nhng khng
chia ht cho
( )
3
x 1 .

IV. Bi tp t luyn
Bi ton 1. C tn ti hay khng mt tam thc bc hai
( )
f x vi h
s nguyn sao cho vi mi s t nhin n, tt c cc c nguyn t
ca
( )
f n u c dng 4k 3 + .

Bi ton 2. Cho cp s nguyn dng
( )
m, n tha mn:
( )
m n
5 1 5 1 | = . Chng minh rng
( )
gcd m, n 1 > .

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Bi ton 3. Cho n, a l cc s nguyn dng.
Chng minh rng:
( )
n
2a 3 1 6a n + + l v
n
3 1
a |
4
+
.

Bi ton 4. Cho dy
{ }
n
x c xc nh bi:
1
x 7 = v
2
n 1 n
x 2x 1 n 1
+
= > . Chng minh rng 2003 khng chia ht bt k s
hng no ca dy trn.

Bi ton 5. Cho dy s
{ }
i
i 0
L
+
=
c xc nh nh sau:
0 1
n 2 n 1 n
L 2, L 1
L L L , n 0,1,...
+ +
= =

= + =

Chng minh rng vi n 1 > th
n
L l s chnh phng khi v ch khi
n 3 = .

Bi ton 6. Cho dy s
{ }
n
n 0
x

=
c xc nh bi:
0
2
n 1 n
x 3
x 2x 1
+
=

.
chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng n, nu p l mt c
nguyn t ca
n
x th
( )
n 2
p 1 mod2
+


Bi ton 7. Cho dy s
{ }
n
n 0
x

=
c xc nh bi:
1
2
n 1 n
x 4
x x 2
+
=

Cho n 3 > , n l, chng minh rng
n n
n 1
x 2 1 2 1

l s nguyn
t.

Bi ton 8. Cho a, b l hai s nguyn dng nguyn t cng nhau v
{ } { }
n n
a , b l dy cc s nguyn dng tha mn:
( )
2n
n n
a b 2 a b 2 + = + . Tm tt c cc s nguyn t p sao cho tn ti
s nguyn dng n p s tha mn
n
b chia ht cho p
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V. Ti liu tham kho.
1 (

. Titu Andreescu, Dorin Andrica, Number theory.
2 (

. Titu Andreescu, Gabrien Dospinescu, Problems from the book.
3 (

. Dusan Djukic, Quadratic Congruences_Olympiad Training
Materials.
4 (

. Nguyn Vn Mu, Mt s vn s hc chn lc.
5 (

. Din n ton: www.mathlinks.ro
6 (

. thi t cc nc trn th gii.

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