BIS3043 CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF DRAMA

DRAMA/PLAY A drama is a story performed on stage for an audience although a genre called closet drama is meant to be read only. A drama, like any other work of fiction, is usually a work of the imagination of the writer. The writer of drama is called a playwright or dramatist. Nowadays, a playwright sometimes collaborates with a director to produce the play on stage. And more often than not, the director will present the drama on stage according to his understanding of its meanings and themes. A drama is usually composed of acts and scenes although some drama may have only scenes. Compared to Greek or Shakespearean drama, which use verse form, modern drama normally uses prose. Some of the main genres of drama are tragedy, comedy, tragicomedy, farce, dark comedy, history, musical and documentary drama.

Helmer and Nora arguing in A Dolls House The play A Dolls House by Henrik Ibsen is a realist drama. What this means is that, among others, the play is written in prose instead of in verse, the characters involve common people instead of the nobility and issues presented are more everyday instead of the higher concerns such as the issues of

human destiny and purpose of existence.

DRAMA SUBGENRES AND PERFORMANCE SPACE INTRODUCTION

When we talk about drama or play we always associate the art with what we understand the drama as is shown on television or the theatre. We know that the actors on stage perform fictionalisation of ideas or issues or, at other times, a dramatisation of real events. Drama was supposed to tell a story through play acting and normally there are messages presented through the themes of the drama. It is only partly the real story. In fact, drama had not begun as the generalised fictionalisation of human conflicts and concerns. It has a long tradition and history and at the beginning it was more theological than secular. What this means is that early Western drama was performed as part of religious activities in worshipping the gods. Initially Western drama was performed in order to reflect religious beliefs and values. In Greece, as the cradle of Western civilisation, drama started as a performance to worship Dionysius, the Greek god of wine and fertility. The annual event was staged in the hope of receiving the gods favour and avoiding his displeasure. But what started as religious rituals eventually evolved into dramatic performance for entertainment and leisure as we understand it today. Since then drama has come a long way to represent all issues affecting all walks of life of human society.

CONTENT
Possible Origins of Drama It is difficult to know how drama developed into part of human cultural activities. Therefore, we can only speculate how it became part of our artistic culture. Basically, there are three theories about the origin of drama. The first theory proposes that drama or theatre came into being due to early humans perceptions of the forces that appear to influence or control their lives. Having little understanding of natural causes, they attributed natural events that affected them to supernatural or magical forces. They began to perform
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rituals to see if the actions would affect natural events. Perceiving a connection between these actions and the results they wanted, the group began to perform these actions into rituals. Ultimately, rituals also include elements that entertain and give pleasure through performance and the skill of the participants. As people become more knowledgeable, their conception of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. As a result they may modify or abandon some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the groups oral tradition. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theatre as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical concerns.

Natural phenomena such as storms and tsunamis are fearsome to humans and, therefore, need to be appeased. The second theory of the origin of theatre is that it came about through the activity of storytelling. Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures. Thus the recalling of a significant event such as a hunt, a battle or other meritorious feats was elaborated through the narrators pantomime and eventually through each role being played by a different person. Thus, so this theory proposes, the theatre is borne. The last theory proposes that the theatre evolved out of imitations of animals or out of narrative forms of dances and songs. Admiration for the performers skills, talent and grace was seen as motivation for elaborating the activities into fully realised theatrical performances.

Which of the theory above do you feel best explains the early development of drama? Give your reason. __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________

Play, Drama and Theatre What are the differences between a play, drama and theatre? To a beginner these three terms can be confusing. When is a drama a play and when is it a theatre? The word drama is more limited in meaning. Drama comes from the Greek word dran, meaning to do. In our context, drama refers mainly to written words of a play wh ether acted or merely read. Drama is a form of literary composition where actors take the role of characters, perform the actions indicated, and utter the written dialogue. A play, on the other hand, is the physical realisation of the drama. A play, by definition is an event or an action. It is actually what happens on a stage. It involves characters, conflicts, settings, sounds, music emotion and passion. It is an interaction between all these elements and the audience. The word theatre comes from the Greek theatron, meaning seeing place. Our modern definition of theatre may vary, but in terms of performative art, theatre refers to the building or space where a play is performed. But it is not only that. When we say theatre, the word also refers to all activities related to a dramatic performance. Therefore, the theatre covers elements such as architecture, setting and acting.

drama

theatre

play

The Development of Drama into Theatrical Performance A play is also an imitation of a slice of life. What is presented on stage as conflicts brings out human problems that are somehow related to our struggles in life. The themes presented or the problems probed make us reflect on our own conditions as we grapple with our existence.

There are many dramas that have been performed on stage. Have you read and watch the same drama/play? Are there differences in your experiences between reading a drama and watching it performed? What are the differences? Explain to a friend next to you.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

Types of Drama
Like any other literary productions such as the novels or films, we can also classify plays based on certain subgenres or types.
Tragedy Social Comedy

Musical

Melodrama

DRAMA
Documentary Farce

History Dark Comedy

Tragicomedy

Types of Drama A tragedy is a play that deals with serious human issues such as suffering, downfall and more often than not, death. It normally involves the fall from grace of the main protagonist who, in classical tragedy, must be of noble birth. Tragedy brings out pity and fear in the audience as it shows how weak we are as mere mortals in the face of a greater power that determines our fate. Oedipus Rex by Sophocles is acclaimed by Aristotle as the perfect tragedy. You will read more about this play in the following chapter.

Aristotle in his literary text, Poetics, regarded Oedipus Rex as the perfect tragedy However, the concept of tragedy has changed over time. Starting with Henrik Ibsen, who is considered the father of modern drama, tragedy can also include the downfall of a common man or woman. His famous play, A Dolls House, is a modern tragedy that explores the unequal husband-wife relationship. On a broader thematic sense, Ibsen portrays the unfair treatment of women by men in nineteenth-century European culture. Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman is another good example of a modern tragedy. The play revolves around the crumbling world of an aged travelling salesman named Willy Loman that ends with his eventual suicide. The two modern tragedies are a far cry from classical tragedies that focus on characters of noble or aristocratic birth. A comedy is the opposite of tragedy. A tragedy begins with the elevation of the protagonist to a higher social or moral status and ends with his or her downfall. A comedy, on the other hand, begins with confusions and conflicts and ends happily with the resolution of the confusions and conflicts, and is usually followed with a marriage or marriages. As a subgenre it is less emotive and intense in theme since a comedy does not attempt to evoke a deep sense of pity and terror but more to elicit laughter than shock. The Taming of the Shrew by Shakespeare is an example of comedy. It tells of Katharina who is shrewish in nature so much so that no man wants to take her as wife. Baptista the father announces that his younger daughter, Bianca, will not be wooed until her elder sister is married. Eventually Petruchio manages to tame Kate to be a submissive wife. Therefore, the drama ends happily when everything goes back to normal as Katharina and Bianca are married.

The Taming of the Shrew A melodrama is a serious play with unimportant theme. The protagonists are more likeable than heroic and the villains are too obvious in their wickedness. In terms of messages and themes melodrama presents to the audience a simplified version of life of good versus evil and good against bad. It seldom delves into the more complex human issues as in a tragedy and a play of this genre normally ends pleasantly. Intellectually a melodrama is empty but it is compensated by pleasurable and amusing endings. A farce is a comical and humorous play on a trivial theme. The most common plots of a farce will be mistaken identity, illicit romance and elaborate misunderstandings. Identical twins, lovers in closets, full stage chases, switched potions, switched costumes (often involving man and woman), and misheard instructions are the often used methods to produce outrageous situations and uproarious response from the audience. The Bear by Anton Chekov is an example of a farce. It is about a young widow named Popova who vowed never to marry again after the death of her husband. One day a man named Smirnov comes to collect his debt from her late husband. After some quarrel between them that leads to an eventual duel Smirnov and Popova ends the play with them kissing each other. It is an amusing play with the insignificant theme of love to break mans (and womans) resistance to it.

Tragicomedy is often called a tragedy that ends happily. As a subgenre it attempts to bridge between tragedy and comedy. Tragicomedy maintains the serious mood and tone throughout the play but it always ends happily. Dark comedy is the opposite of tragicomedy. If tragicomedy ends happily, dark comedy is a comedy that ends tragically. The history play deals with dramatisation of historical personalities and the events that surround their lives. As a subgenre it was established by William Shakespeare. Shakespearean history plays normally deal with English kings especially from 1377 to 1547 such as kings Richard II, Henry IV, Henry V, Henry IV, Richard III, and Henry VIII. Most of these plays maintain a serious tone but with sprinklings of humour thrown in.

Richard ll by William Shakespeare

The documentary genre is a fairly recent subgenre. In such plays plots are taken from trial transcripts, news reports, personal and official records. These materials are then brought on stage to highlight particular issues and points of view.

The musical play, as its name implies, relies on extensive use of music and songs. Usually the musical aspect is combined with another genre to create musical comedy, a musical documentary or a musical history.

The famous Broadway musical cats. It was the second longest running show that ran from 1982-2000. Social dramas, sometimes called problem plays, evolved in the nineteenth century and dominated the stage through the early part of the twentieth century. This type of drama explores social problems and the individuals place in society; the plays can be tragic, comic or mixed. Examples of social drama are Susan Glaspells Trifles, Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman and Henrik Ibsens A Dolls House.

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PERFORMANCE SPACES There are many different types of performance spaces. This section looks more closely at the more common stages and types of production within them.

Ampitheatres

Open stage

Theatre in-the-round/arenas

Thrust stage

Proscenium arch theatre

Different types of performance spaces

The Amphitheatres Amphitheatres were of Greek origin and were slightly modified by the Romans. These theatres normally accommodate a large number of audiences for large scale productions. Plays that are full of ceremony and movement are suitable for these theatres.

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The Amphitheatres The Proscenium Arch Theatre This type of theatre is the most recognisable form of dramatic performance space. The proscenium is a space in front of the back scenery. The word proscenium now means the front opening of the stage and the area around it. The arch is the frame surrounding the front of the stage. It is normally constructed as a permanent structure. The impression this type of theatre gives is that the audience is watching the play through a picture frame.

The Proscenium Arch Theatre

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The Open stage The open stage has the audience facing the stage whereby the stage is at one end of the building. Modern and school theatres are open or a mix between this and proscenium. The advantage of these theatres is that they suit many kinds of production with their simplicity in conceptual framework.

The Open Stage The Thrust stage This type of stage has a raised platform that thrusts out into the audience, who sits on all three sides. This theatrical set-up allows for excellent actor-audience contact and which draws in the audience into the action.

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The Thrust Stage Theatre in-the-round/arenas In this form of theatre the audience is not necessarily seated in a circle; it could be seated in a square, for example. However, as the name implies, it does surround the acting space. This form of theatre is ideal for close, intimate contact with the audience without requiring much setting or scenery preparations.

The Theatre in-the-round/arenas

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UNDERSTANDING DRAMA
Drama and fiction are different. Undoubtedly, the best way to understand and appreciate a drama is to watch it performed on stage. Watching a life performance and reading a drama are two different experiences. In a theatre performance there is a close relationship between audience and actors. What is more important is that there is no narrator to direct our understanding of the drama. Instead, the audience has to observe and come to his own conclusion about what is presented on stage. Therefore, it is very important that you, as a student studying drama, know some of the technical aspects and conventions of a play presentation.

Performing a Play
The play you read is only the first half of understanding and appreciating the drama. The written text is merely a blueprint for the performance before an audience. The second half of appreciating a drama is to see it performed on stage. When you begin reading a drama you are also asked to think like a director. Unlike a novel that provides the reader with detailed explanation of plot, settings and characters, a drama only provides him with dialogues and stage directions. The reader, thus, has to imagine the stage, settings, costumes, lighting, actors and their voices and movements. For example, when the text says: Mrs Linde (in a dispirited and somewhat hesitant voice): Hello, Nora Nora (uncertain): Hello the reader has to imagine the line being spoken by the characters as the bracketed stage directions instruct. As the reader continues reading he will build up a more complete picture of the play derived from how he imagined the scene should be played out. Therefore, it is necessary for the reader to understand some of the conventions and technical aspects of a dramatic performance.

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A play is a performance art. Unlike a written text, the audience has to make his own assumptions based on what he sees Verse and Prose A play may be written in verse or in prose. What do they mean? Verse writing tends to be more poetic. On the other hand prose writing is more colloquial, which means that it is used more frequently by the common folks as opposed to the nobility. The use of verse writing is much more evident in earlier plays. Modern plays, more often than not, use prose writing. In Shakespearean plays, verse is spoken by more noble and serious characters and prose by commoners or low characters. Compare Macbeths soliloquy in Act 2, Scene 1 with the porters dialogue in Act 2, Scene 3. Macbeth: Is this a dagger which I see before me, The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee. I have thee not, and yet I see thee still. Art thou not, fatal vision, sensible To feeling as to sight? or art thou but A dagger of the mind, a false creation, Proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain?
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(2.1.52) Porter: Marry, sir, nose- painting, sleep, and urine. Lechery, sir, it provokes and unprovokes; it provokes the desire, but it takes away the performance. Therefore, much drink may be sai to be an equivocator with lechery: (2.3.54) Acts and Scenes Plays are usually divided into acts and scenes. During Shakespeares time plays are divided into five acts with several scenes in each act. Later on, plays had three acts and some contemporary plays do not have acts, but mere successive scenes. A Dolls House is a play with three acts. A scene is understood to define an action at a particular place and time. The scene ends and another begins to indicate the shift in time and place mentioned.

Stage Directions A written drama has only the dialogues and stage directions. The stage directions are very important because they tell how various aspects of the play should appear- how the characters should look and sound, the place of the action, the time of the action, the weather or any other thing that the dramatist feels are necessary to the understanding of the play. Some playwrights give brief stage directions while others may provide detailed descriptions.

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The Stage You have been introduced to different types of stages where a play can be performed. Understandably, some plays are more suitable to some types of plays. Shakespearean plays were normally staged on the thrust stage with the stage protruding towards the audience, allowing for audiences to sit around three sides of the stage. This type of stage brings the audience closer to the actors. However, this kind of stage allows for minimal settings, if at all. Therefore, dialogues are very important to indicate aspects that settings could not provide. Since all of Shakespearean plays were stage during the day, for a night scene an actor has to mention that it is night. The proscenium stage is commonly found in contemporary theatre. As technology becomes more sophisticated, proscenium stage allows for these modern gadgets to be used to their full advantage. The Setting If you wish to stage a play you must pay attention to the setting. Of course, minimal stage directions allow you to be more imaginative on how to design the setting. Detailed stage directions, however, minimise your ability to be imaginative but they provide precise settings the way the dramatist wishes them to be.

Setting can be minimal or it can be spectacular. Most often it is the directors imagination that creates the setting especially with a play that provides minimal stage directions.

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Costume Costumes also play a very important function in a play. Costume may indicate the time period of the drama, social class or personality of characters. Oedipus in Oedipus Rex will be suitably attired in kingly fashion that is different from his lesser subordinates and subjects. The costumes worn by the characters on stage also tell us of the time period and country of origin of the drama. Similarly, a playboy will wear his attire differently from a businessman, a farmer or a beggar. A dramatist may be precise in his descriptions of what each character wears or he may not indicate detailed descriptions of what the characters should wear. Under this circumstance you should try to fulfil the spirit of the dramatists instructions and have the actors give the correct impression.

A scene from the play The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde. The costume indicates the characters as being from the middle-class Victorian society

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Movement In a play each character should move appropriately to the role given to him. Characters with power, such as kings or overbearing husbands, may move with certain confidence and arrogance. An old tramp may move with certain clumsiness and a worried father may walk with a particular haste and alacrity. Movement, or positioning of characters, may indicate relationships too. A king heads a procession and his seat is raised on a dais with his subjects standing humbly around him. A crowd on one side and a solitary man on the other may indicate a conflict between these two sides. Every movement and every grouping presented on stage gives some meaning to the audience. It is up to you to interpret their meanings. Lighting Stage lighting can also be a useful tool in a play. Lighting can be used realistically or metaphorically. Realistically, light can be dimmed or brightened to suit the time of day. A dimmed lighting may indicate night time and a brightened lighting can imply the day time. In Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett, the night settings may indicate the dilemma and uncertainty faced by the two tramps over the existence of Godot. Similarly, a modern director may want to play with red lighting and darkness to indicate the dark themes of Shakespeares Macbeth. Sound Effects Sound effects may be used realistically or metaphorically to enhance the audiences understanding of scenes in the play. The screeching sound of a car may indicate Willy Lomans last moment in life as he crashes his car or the sound of clashing swords may indicate a battle. Metaphorically, the rumbling sound of thunder may imply troubles that a character may soon face or the chirping of a bird may indicate N oras condition in her relationship with her husband, Helmer in A Dolls House.

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ELEMENTS OF DRAMA INTRODUCTION

Drama, as a literary production, is quite unique. It is written to be performed on stage. There are plays that are meant to be read only but most playwrights write their drama for the enjoyment of a live audience. Because of this unique characteristic, students wanting to learn about drama must understand its elements and conventions. Some of the elements of drama are familiar to students because these elements overlap with other literary genres such as diction, symbolism and plot. But there are also other differences that separate drama from other forms of literature. For example, the audience must determine the personality of a character by watching how he plays the role in the drama and by comments by other characters. This is very different from fiction, for example, because the narrator will normally describe the character for the reader. In this unit, you will learn about the many elements of drama and some of the similarities and differences with other forms of literature.

ELEMENTS OF DRAMA

setting point of view

diction tone

character

symbolism

plot

drama

theme

Similar to prose and poetry, there are many elements of drama.

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Elements of drama
Plot The Plot Structure of Drama Like any other literary genres a drama consists of a structured sequence of particular elements. Basically a drama follows four standard dramatic sections. Climax

Rising action

Falling action

Exposition Figure 1.8 Freytags Pyramid of Plot Structure

Denouement

The Exposition: The exposition introduces important early information about the play where characters, situations and conflicts are introduced. In Oedipus Rex, we are introduced to Oedipus the King and the crisis faced by the city of Thebes in the form of the plague. We are also introduced to some of the major characters such as Jocasta, Creon and Tiresias. The Rising Action/Conflict/Complication: In this stage conflicts are beginning to develop. Conflicts can be internal and/or external. Internal conflicts occur within a character. In Macbeth, Macbeth is torn between his guilty conscience of the killings that he committed and the need to preserve himself from his enemies. On the other hand, external conflicts happen between a character and outside forces. These forces may be another character (protagonist), a society, fate or against natural forces such as a storm or an earthquake.
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In Oedipus Rex, Oedipus is in conflict with Creon and Tiresias whom he accuses as trying to usurp the throne. The Climax: Conflicts or complications in a drama cannot remain unresolved. As the conflict heats up it will reach a climax when something occurs that sets the turning point to the conflicts or complications. In Macbeth the climax is when Macbeth murders King Duncan after which he will have to face the consequences of his deed. In Oedipus Rex, the play reaches its climax when Oedipus realises that he had inadvertently committed the two sins as prophesied by the Oracle of Apollo. The Falling Action: The falling action stage happens after the climax when the following events are set to reach the resolution or denouement. Again by using Macbeth as an example, falling action is when Macbeth tries to forestall the witches prophecies by killing those he feels threaten his kingship. The realisation of the prophecies also forms part of the falling action in the drama. In Oedipus Rex, the falling action reaches its conclusion with Jocasta hanging herself and Oedipus stabbing his own eyes with Jocastas brooch. The Denouement: In this stage the conflicts are resolved and life goes back as normal. With reference to the same drama Macbeth, the denouement would be the death of Macbeth at the hands of Macduff and Malcolm is installed as the new king of Scotland. In Oedipus Rex, the denouement is when Oedipus is exiled and the city returns to normal.

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Character A character in a play is the actor who is given the role to imspeakerte the fictional figure of the drama. The actor who acts as the character will perform the actions and dialogues, and display emotions of the given dramatic character. A character in a drama, like a fictional character in prose, may be human or nonhuman. There are two types of characters- round characters and flat characters. Round characters are fully developed and they normally undergo some change in the course of the play. Basically, the audience is given more elaborate descriptions of round characters than flat characters. Round characters are usually the major characters and flat characters play minor roles in the drama. Since round characters play major roles, the central plot and events of the play normally revolves around them. Flat characters, on the other hands, serve as additional characters to sustain the plot of the play. They are normally static- that is these characters do not undergo any changes throughout the course of the play. A drama always has conflicts within the plot. The conflicts are usually between a protagonist and antagonist. A protagonist is the main character of the drama and the antagonist is the character who is opposed to the protagonist. Although a protagonist is sometimes called a hero, he or she may not have the necessary characteristics to be described as a hero. In Death of a Salesman, the protagonist of the play is Willy Loman but he lacks the heroic characteristics necessary to be deemed a hero. Similarly, the main character Macbeth in Shakespeares Macbeth is a protagonist who is a traitorous villain. Another dramatic character is a foil. A foil serves to contrast with the protagonist in terms of behaviour and attitudes. In Macbeth, Macduff functions as a foil to Macbeth in his loyal and heroic qualities to the traitorous Macbeth.

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FOIL

PROTAGONIST

CHARACTER

ANTAGONIST

Basic Types of Character

Point of View Unlike prose fiction and poetry, drama does not have a specific point of view. Therefore, what we have learnt about first-person or third-person point of view does not apply to drama. Instead, it has what is called dramatic point of view. In drama, the audience (or reader) is given only actions and words of characters without any particular perspectives given by the playwright. Therefore, the audience has to draw his own conclusion based on the points of view of the many characters in the play. However within the dramatic limitation above, characters (heroes or villains alike) do have the opportunity to present their specific perspectives. The first is by the use of soliloquy, a device whereby a character reveals his or her thoughts directly to the audience. One of the most famous soliloquies is Hamlets To Be or Not to Be, a monologue about a decision he should make in the face of the apparent immorality that surrounds him. Usually, there will be only the character on stage to tell the audience what his thoughts and feelings are. Another similar device is aside, a brief remark made by a character to the audience with the understanding that other characters on stage do not hear his thoughts.

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Setting Setting in drama or play functions to indicate the specific time and place of events. For example, the play Hang Jebat: The Death of a Warrior by Usman Awang has its setting in and around the fifteenth-century Malacca palace. This setting tells us that the play was set at an era of the glorious Malacca sultanate. But the same setting also gives the reader the context from which the play is written. During those days the sultan had full power over his subjects and to disobey him, let alone to dishonour him, would mean certain death. Setting can also help to create a suitable mood for the play. A dark and sombre background may indicate a sense of foreboding or evil of a particular scene in a play. In Macbeth, the appearance of the three witches in a dark and gloomy weather suggests the sinister nature of their meeting. Setting can be realistic or non-realistic. A realistic drama or play will pay attention to details in how the stage is set. This is in order to produce an actual real life setting. The drama Trifles by Susan Glaspell is one example of a drama that attempts to produce a realistic setting for the play. Unlike realistic setting, a non-realistic setting is more symbolical or representational. It pays less attention to real life details than to the meaning behind such setting. In Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett, the only conspicuous details are a tree with two leaves and a mound. Similarly, in The Sandbox by Edward Albee the setting consists of a few chairs and a sandbox. In these two plays the sense of realism is less important than the symbol that the settings represent.

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REALISTIC

SETTING

UNREALISTIC

Different types of setting Thinking about drama:

Read the setting of the play Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett and determine whether the setting is realistic or non-realistic. What do you think is the significance of the setting to the theme of the play?

A country road. A tree. Evening.

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Exercise 2 And now read the setting from Trifles by Susan Glaspell. Is the setting realistic or nonrealistic? Discuss within your group the significance of the setting to the theme of the play. Compare the effects of the two settings on your expectations of the plays.

SCENE: The kitchen in the now abandoned farmhouse of John Wright, a gloomy kitchen, and left without having been put in order unwashed pans under the sink, a loaf of bread outside the breadbox, a dish towel on the table other signs on incompleted work. At the rear the outer door opens and the Sheriff comes in followed by the County Attorney and Hale. The Sheriff and Hale are men in middle life, the County Attorney is a young man.; all are much bundled up and go at once to the stove. They are followed by the two women- the Sheriffs wife first; she is a slight wiry woman, a thin nervous face. Mrs. Hale is larger and would ordinarily be called more comfortable looking, but she is disturbed now and looks fearfully about as she enters. The women have come slowly, and stand close together near the door

The setting of Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett

The setting of Trifles by Susan Glaspell

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Diction Play and drama are basically about words. These words carry the meaning of the play and drama as they are spoken by characters or as the reader read the printed text. The diction of drama can be formal or informal, rich in details or in can be simple in factual information. For example, the play Oedipus Rex by Sophocles is very formal in sentence structure and word choice . The Death of Salesman by Arthur Miller, on the other hand, is very colloquial. Playwrights must choose their words carefully. First of all, the words used should be suitable to the time, place and even characters. Playwrights also use rhetorical devices to project emotions and themes of their drama or play. In drama, as in prose or poetry, words can have many layers of meaning. A doll in A Dolls House is both physical and symbolical. Symbolically, it tells of Noras circumstance of living with her husband, Helmer.

Tone Tone relates to mood and attitude. In our everyday lives we understand the mood and attitude of someone by the tone of his or her voice. A pleased teacher and an angry mother use different tones of voice to show their moods and feelings. It is similar to drama (or prose and poetry). A playwright conveys his attitude to certain issues by way of the tone of his literary work. In Jebat: The Death of a Warrior the playwright informs the reader/audience of his notion of the idea of loyalty in the dialogue between Jebat and Tuah while they duel to the death. The tone of this play is of sadness and also sympathy for natural justice and anger at the abuse of power. However, the reader or audience should be aware of the difference between the tone of individual characters and that of the play as a whole. Jebat and Tuah may project different tones in their viewpoints on justice and loyalty. The tone of a play is derived from our overall understanding of the play and the feeling it impresses on our sensitivity, whether sad, cynical, tragic, reflective or resentment. And by that definition tone in literature can be endless.

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wistful scornful sympathetic

melancholy ironic

romantic

playful

disgusted

tone

joyful

The different shades of tone

Symbolism Symbols are one of the most usual literary devices used in drama (as well as prose and poetry). A symbol in a literary text goes beyond its natural meaning into ideas beyond it. Symbols can be in many formsobjects, persons, settings, actions, or even situations. There are two types of symbols- universal symbols and private symbols. Universal symbols are those representing ideas that are collectively accepted by the audience or general reading public. A rose is universally accepted as representing love and dove as a symbol of peace. The same rule applies to darkness, a scale, a lion or a crown (respectively signifying ignorance/evil, justice, courage and monarchy). Private symbols derive their meanings within the context of the drama or play only. The dead bird in Trifles is not merely a dead bird but it signifies the oppressive marital state of Mrs. Wright. Similarly, in The Death of a Salesman, Willy Loman symbolises the illusory nature of the American Dream.

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These are universal symbols. What do you think are their meanings? Can they have more than one universal meaning?

_________________

_________________

_________________

_________________

_________________

_________________

Can you think of other universal symbols that are commonly used? List out as many universal symbols as possible in five minutes. Compare your symbols with your friends. Are there symbols that your friends do not recognise?
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List out your universal symbolisms here SYMBOLS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. MEANINGS

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Theme When a playwright puts pen to paper he already has an issue which he wishes to express in his play. It is normally an issue related to the society the playwright lives in. He could be endorsing or criticising the issue involved. The issue could be about womens fight to gain equal rights with men as in A Dolls House, mans powerlessness against fate in Oedipus Rex or the sense of purposelessness of human existence in Waiting for Godot. These are the themes of the plays. Playwrights do not normally state the theme(s) of their play. This issue that the playwright wishes to highlight is weaved into the plot to become the theme of the play. As a reader/audience we are expected to recognise the main theme of the play. However, a play or drama does not usually have a single theme. Within the main theme there could be several minor themes embedded in the play or drama. Therefore, while the main theme may be obvious to the audience or reader, other minor themes are dependent on the ability of the audience or reader to perceive them.

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UNDERSTANDING DRAMA THROUGH TEXTS

INTRODUCTION The previous unit introduces students to some of the basic facts about drama. This and the following units will try to explain the elements of drama based on the play Oedipus Rex by the Athenian playwright Sophocles. This play is chosen for three main reasons. Firstly, it is acknowledged as a tragedy of enduring quality that is still studied and performed. The play also exhibits universal values that even Malaysian students can relate to. Secondly, the drama is quite short and can be read in a single sitting. It is, therefore, not a burden for students to read. Lastly, it is not difficult to understand the play and its underlying theme. Therefore, students will find it accessible as well as engaging. However, students are advised to read the play in The Bedford Introduction to Literature given in the module which is easier to understand and appreciate. In this unit we will analyse some of the elements of drama based on the play Oedipus Rex. However, it is important that students read the drama before they continue. Students will also be asked to analyse the play A Dolls House by Henrik Ibsen as a form of analytical exercise.

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CONTENT Plot, Action and Conflict in Oedipus Rex Like any typical prose or drama, the play Oedipus Rex also follows Freytags plot structure. This means that the play follows the five basic plot developments of exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and denouement. Here, we will try to explain the plot structure of Oedipus Rex so that students can get some understanding of how the structure functions. Climax (Oedipus knows the truth)

Rising action (conflicts between Oedipus/Tiresias, Oedipus/Creon, Oedipus/Jocasta) Exposition (characters and circumstances in Thebes introduced)

Falling action (Oedipus blinds himself)

Denouement (Oedipus exiled from Thebes)

Exposition: In exposition the reader is introduced to the main characters, circumstances and conflicts that they face. In Oedipus Rex, the reader is presented with the characters Oedipus, Creon, Tiresias, Jocasta, and other minor characters. Oedipus is portrayed as a caring king who wishes to find the solution to the misery of his city-state. It appears that the city-state has been ravaged by a plague. Oedipus has sent his brother-in-law Creon to the temple of Delphi to seek the answer to the cause of the plague. Creon comes back to tell Oedipus that the plague is because the murderer of Laius, the previous king, has not been brought to justice and the only way to rid of it is to bring the perpetrator to justice. Hearing this, Oedipus resolves to find and punish the murderer of Laius.

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Rising action: At this stage, conflicts begin to take shape. We must understand that conflicts can happen between characters, between a character and other elements or even within a particular character. There are many types of conflict in this play. For example, it is a conflict between characters (Oedipus/Tiresias, Oedipus/Creon, and Oedipus/Jocasta). In the broader picture there is also a conflict between a character and supernatural forces (Oedipus/Fate). One of the most significant conflicts between characters is between Oedipus and the blind prophet, Tiresias. Their conflict begins when Tiresias refuses to tell Oedipus the answer that could lead to Laiuss murderer. Moreover, Tiresias advises Oedipus not to pursue the matter further. This enrages Oedipus who accuses Tiresias of conspiring with Creon to undermine his kingship. Climax: The conflicts that are described above will eventually lead to a climax as a way to resolve all the conflicts. In Oedipus Rex the climax is when Oedipus realises the sins that he has inadvertently committed. He now realises that all the prophesies have come true- he has killed his father and married his own mother. Falling action: After the climax, the plot will go downhill as conflicts are disentangled to be eventually resolved. Falling action in this play is when Oedipus laments his fate and as an act of redemption blinds his eyes with the pins taken from his dead mother/wifes dress. Denouement: This last part of the plot serves as a closure to the play. As a form of further self-punishment Oedipus asks to be exiled from Thebes. His exile brings things back to normal in the city-state. The play fulfils neatly all the constructs of the plot structure indicated in Freytags model. Ho wever, a play does not clearly indicate where the structure is separated. What we have given above as example is our view of the plot structure of the play. When students begin to read this play (and any other plays or prose) they have to find out for themselves the formation of the plot structure. This is where students ability to recognise literary elements is tested.
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Setting in Oedipus Rex Oedipus Rex is a Greek drama that goes back to the earliest period of Western stage performance. In one version the drama opens with time and scene described as below:

Time and Scene: The royal house of Thebes. Double doors dominate the facade; a stone altar stands at the centre of the stage. Many years have passed since Oedipus solved the riddle of the Sphinx and ascended the throne of Thebes, and now a plague struck the city. A procession of priests enters; suppliants, broken and despondent, they carry branches wound in wool and lay them on the altar. The doors open. Guards assemble. Oedipus comes forward, majestic but for a telltale limp, and slowly views the condition of his people.

This description of the setting contextualises the play to a specific time and space. The scene is outside the main gate of the royal house of Thebes. It provides the reader with a wealth of background information. Previously it was terrorised by the Sphinx but Oedipus managed to save the city-state from furthering suffering by the Sphinx. But from the description we also know that the city is currently suffering from a plague the cause of which baffles the citizens. Therefore, the people slowly marches to the palace to seek protection and guidance form Oedipus, the king who had saved them once. There is also information that we can deduce from the setting. It tells us of some of the beliefs of that society. For example, the citizens of Thebes still believed in the supernatural forces that could affect their immediate wellbeing. It is their belief that the plague is caused by a wrongdoing committed by an unknown perpetrator who is yet to face justice. Therefore, the setting plays the role of contextualising the play within a world where gods and humans are closely bound to an extent that a displeased god could inflict immediate misery to humans. The explanation above shows how important setting is in providing information in order for the reader to contextualise the play. Once we understand the background setting it is easier for us to analyse the play.

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The setting for A Dolls House is late 1800s Norway (the play is published in 1879). What does it tell you about women of that era?

___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

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Character in Oedipus Rex There are major as well as minor characters in the play. In this section we will discuss some of the major characters based on our understanding of the play. Remember that in drama a playwright does not provide his opinion of characters. Whatever we understand of characters is through their actions and opinion about them by other characters. We as reader/audience make deductions based on these two sources. Character and characterisation depends on audiences perception. A playwright may want to project his ideas of characters in their characterisations but eventually it is the audience, based on her life experience, to decide the nature of the characters speakerlities. For example, one audience may feel that Jocasta is a heartless mother who gives away her son to be abandoned Mount Cithaeron. Another audience may decide that she is merely a victim of circumstance in a culture still steep in superstitious beliefs and the power of supernatural forces. As a student, you should not merely parrot what other critics say about each of the characters in a play. Instead, you should draw on your own life experience to determine the qualities, be they good or bad, of the characters. Below are the attributes of some of the major characters in Oedipus Rex. You may or may not agree to these interpretations. However, as a literature student your argument must be supported by a close analysis of the play. What this means is that you should be able to identify the lines from the play that support your argument about characters (or any other argument related to the play).

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Oedipus In this play we can perceive how in the early part of the play the playwright paints a positive view of Oedipus. As early as the beginning of the play the reader is presented with a compassionate nature of the Theban king.

Oedipus: Oh my children, the new blood of ancient Thebes, why are you here? Huddling at my altar, praying before me, your branches wound in wool. Our city reeks with the smoke of burning incense, rings with cries for the Healer and wailing for the dead. I thought it wrong, my children, to hear the truth from others, messengers. Here I am myself you all know me, the world knows my fame: I am Oedipus. Helping a Priest to his feet. Speak up, old man. Your years, your dignity- you should speak for the others. Why here and kneeling, what preys upon you so? Some sudden fear? Some strong desire? You can trust me; I am ready to help, Ill do anything. I would be blind to misery not to pity my people kneeling at my feet.

This extract reveals the softer side of Oedipus character. As a king he is wise and just. Oedipus is also shown as a compassionate ruler who is willing to speakerlly hear about the misery that befalls his subjects. In this instance, the reader is introduced to Oedipus characteristics by way of his words and actions. Oedipus is also persistent in his effort at finding the truth although Tiresias and Jocasta advise him against it. This shows his strong sense of justice and responsibility. He wants to do what is right for the citystate and for natural justice. But Oedipus personality is much more complex than that. As we read on we will notice that he is also a temperamental king and quick to make hasty judgments. For example, in an argument with Tiresias,
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Oedipus accuses him of conspiring with Creon to take over the throne. Later on, Oedipus also confronts Creon on his perceived traitorous intention. Oedipus also intends to have Creon executed for this misplaced judgement.

Jocasta As a wife and mother Jocasta shows a less exemplary personality if we judge her by our standard. She is someone who only obeys decisions made by her husband even with regard to the life of her own son. She is also used to the life of comfort and ignorance. Therefore, once she realises the truth of Oedipus background she tries to stop him from pursuing the truth for fear of the unimaginable shame. Once she realises that he would not stop until the truth is revealed she runs to her room and kills herself rather than face the reality. However, we must not denounce Jocasta as someone who is selfish and weak. We should also try to understand her from the perspective of the culture that she is in. In those days women were still regarded as inferior to men. The right to rule was in the hands of men, whether it be of the city-state or a household. As a wife and mother Jocastas actions are restricted by the cultural norms of her society. Creon Creon is a co-ruler Thebes but he also respects Oedipus as a good ruler. From the play we know that Oedipus is the more dominant of the two rulers. When the people come to the palace it is Oedipus that the regard as our greatest power. Creon is a loyal friend to Oedipus and he still maintai ns the loyalty even though Oedipus accuses him of treachery.

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Tiresias Tiresias is the blind prophet who knows the unspeakable truth. However, he initially refuses to reveal it to Oedipus thereby incurring Oedipus anger. Although Tiresias is a subject to Oedipus he shows uncanny courage in debating with Oedipus about the truth that Oedipus forces him to reveal. Note the angry retorts of the two characters.

Tiresias: Id rather not cause pain for you or me. So why this ... useless interrogation? Youll get nothing from me. Oedipus: Nothing! You, You scum of the earth, youd enrage a heart of stone! You wont talk? Nothing moves you? Out with it, once and for all! Tiresias: You criticise my temper ... unaware Of the one you live with, you revile me.

This extract reveals Tiresias independent nature although faced with the power of a king. But it also tells us that Tiresias is a kind man who does not wish to cause Oedipus to suffer had he known the truth. However, pushed by Oedipus, Tiresias eventually reveals that Oedipus is the murderer that he seeks.

Why do you think Tiresias has such courage? Consider his status as the Apollos priest. Do you think that is the reason why Tiresias is able to speak freely to Oedipus? What does it tell you about the role of religion in Greek politics.

Before you read further think of some of the major characters such as Oedipus, Jocasta, Tiresias and Creon. What is your opinion of each of them? Discuss these characters with your friends. You will find that there are differences of opinion about the same characters. Why?
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Write down some of the personalities of the major characters of the play A Dolls House. Discuss with your friends whether you have the same descriptions of their personalities. What are the similarities and differences?

Nora

Helmer Characteristics: 1. 2. 3.

Characteristics: 1. 2. 3.

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Mrs. Linde Characteristics: 1. 2. 3. Characteristics: 1. 2. 3.

Krogstad

Point of view in Oedipus Rex As has been mentioned earlier, drama or play does not have point of view as there are no narrators to tell the story. But in drama there is what we call dramatic point of view which is information told by characters. Therefore, in Oedipus Rex the reader/audience is presented with as many points of view as there are characters. Each character offers his or her point of view. The reader has to make his own conclusions based on the individual perspectives of the characters. Consider this scene:

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Jocasta: No, listen to me! Please! Dont do this thing! Oedipus: I will not listen; I will search out the truth. Jocasta: My thinking is for you- it would be best. Oedipus: This best of yours is starting to annoy me. Jocasta: Doomed man! Never find out who you are! Oedipus: Will someone go and bring that shepherd here? Leave her to glory in her wealthy birth! Jocasta: Man of misery! No other name shall I address you by, ever again.

In this heart-rending scene, Jocasta begs Oedipus not to seek the truth further as she already knows the consequence of it. As Oedipus keeps on insisting to know the truth Jocasta is left with only one option-to kill herself. When she says, Man of misery! No other name shall I address you by, ever again, she is, in fact, pronouncing her intention to commit suicide. Here we are presented with the points of view of Oedipus and Jocasta in relation to Oedipus insistence to know the truth as opposed to Jocastas pleading for him not to pursue it. Both of them have their own reasons for their views and we as readers may agree or disagree with any one of them.

. regard to Nora?

Consider this scene from A Dolls House. What do you think is Helmers point of view with

HELMER: [walking about the room] What a horrible awakening! All these eight years- she who was my joy and pride- a hypocrite, a liar- worse, worse- a criminal! The unutterable ugliness of it all! For shame! For shame! [Nora is silent and looks steadily at him. He stops in front of her.] I ought to have suspected that something of the sort would happen. I ought to have foreseen it. All your fathers want of principle- be silent!- all your fathers want of principle has come out in you. No religion, no morality, no sense of duty-. How I am punished for having winked at what he did! I did it for your sake, and this is how you repay me.

NORA: Yes, thats just it

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Diction and Language in Oedipus Rex The language used in the play is formal. There is a reason to it. Sophocles Oedipus Rex is a tragedy in the classical tradition. What we define as tragedy now is different from the concept of tragedy during Sophocles or even Shakespeares time. In those days dramatic tragedy was meant to dramatise the rise and fall (usually ending with exile or death) of characters of noble birth only. Hence, convention requires that the language used be formal and dignified. Compare this with the contemporary tragedy Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller. In this more recent drama we will notice that the language used is less formal because the definition of tragedy has changed- a tragedy can even happen to a common man. Therefore, it is not realistic and suitable for Death of a Salesman to use formal and elevated language as was commonly used for classical plays.
Compare between the two excerpts taken from Oedipus Rex and Death of a Salesman. Do you notice the difference in terms of diction and language used? Which is more formal and poetic and which is more informal and colloquial? What are their impacts on your reading experience?

Oedipus Rex
Oedipus: ... I will speak out now as a stranger to the story, a stranger to the crime. If Id been present then, there would have been no mystery, no long hunt without a clue in hand. So now, counted a native Theban years after the murder, to all of Thebes I make this proclamation: if any one of you knows who murdered Laius, the son of Labdacus, I order him to reveal the whole truth to me. Nothing to fear, even if he must denounce himself, let him speak up and so escape the brunt of the chargehe will suffer no unbearable punishment, nothing worse than exile, totally unharmed.

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Death of a Salesman

Willy: Remember, Christmas time, when you had the party here? You said youd try to think of some spot for me here in town. Howard: With us? Willy: Well, sure. Howard: Oh, yeah, yeah. I remember. Well, I couldnt think of anything for you, Willy? Willy: I tell ya, Howard. The kids are all grown up, yknow. I dont need much anymore. If I could take home- well, sixty dollars a week, I could swing it. Howard: Yeah, but Willy, see IWilly: I tell ya why, Howard. Speaking frankly and between the two of us, yknow- Im just a little tired.

Tone in Oedipus Rex As we have discussed tone refers to the attitude of the playwright to the issue presented in the play. In this play the playwright gives a sense of tragic hopelessness of man against fate as exemplified by the rise and fall of Oedipus. The play reminds us that as humans we are mere mortals who have limited power over our destiny. Even a good intention can turn out badly as in the fact that the servant, out of pity, gives Oedipus to a shepherd who then presents him to his Corinthian king. The adult Oedipus will eventually return to complete the prophecy. But the play also reflects the noble nature of man even though he has no control over his destiny. That nobility comes out of Oedipus steadfastness in pursuing the truth as well as in punishing himself by blinding his eyes for a sin he inadvertently committed. Therefore, another tone is one of defian ce against the all-powerful Fate.

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Chorus: Dreadful, what youve done ... how could you bear it, gouging out your eyes? What superhuman power drove you on? Oedipus: Apollo, friends, ApolloHe ordained my agonies- these, my pains on pains! But the hand that struck my eyes was mine, mine alone- no one elseI did it all myself! What good were eyes to me? Nothing I could see could bring me joy.

This scene reveals to us how Oedipus has a strong sense of duty and justice. Although he did not commit those sins knowingly he still accepts his punishment. It is this fact that partly brings out the t ragic but defying tone stated above. What do you think is Oedipus tone in this scene? Where does it take place? Who is the accused?

Oedipus: You- here? You have the gall to show your face before the palace gates? You plotting to kill me, kill the kingI see it all, the marauding thief himself scheming to steal my crown and power! Tell me, in gods name, what did you take me for, coward or fool, when you spun out your plot? Your treachery- you think Id never detect it creeping against me in the dark? Or sensing it, not defend myself? Arent you the fool, you and your high adventure. Lacking numbers, powerful friends, out for the big game of empireyou need riches, armies to bring the quarry down!

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Symbolism in Oedipus Rex There are many symbolisms in this play but we will discuss only two. The first symbolism is sight against blindness. In fact the audience is reminded of this dualistic symbolism throughout the play. And it is more apparent in the argument between Oedipus and the blind seer, Tiresias. In this scene the two characters abuse each other over sight and blindness. In his rage, Oedipus accuses Tiresias of being blind, both physically and of knowledge. He also boasts of the advantage of sight over blindness by acusing Tiresiass physical blindness is also the cause of his diminishing prophetic power.

Oedipus: It does but not for you, old man. Youve lost your power, stone-blind, stone-deaf senses, eyes blind as stone! Tiresias: I pity you, flinging at me the very insults each man here will fling at you as soon. Oedipus: Blind, lost in the night, endless night that nurse you! You cant hurt me or anyone else who sees the lightyou can never touch me.

In this scene, Oedipus mocks Tiresias for his blindness and tells me him that because of that he can never do anyone any harm (or any good either). Tiresias, on the other hand, mocks Oedipus back by stating that his sight is of no use to him when he cannot see what he has done. As Tiresias explains:
Tiresias: So, you mock my blindness? Let me tell you this. You with your precious eyes, youre blind to the corruption of your life, to the house you live in, those you live withwho are your parents? Do you know? All unknowing you are the scourge of your own flesh and blood, The dead below the earth and the living here above, and the double lash of your mother and your fathers curse will whip you from this land one day, their footfall treading you down in terror, darkness shrouding your eyes that now can see the light!

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This scene focuses on the idea of physical sight and prophetic blindness as opposed to physical blindness and prophetic vision. What the play suggests is that our physical sight has its limitation. Oedipus might boast that since he has sight he is better than Tiresias who lives in his blind world. But we know how wrong Oedipus is. It is actually the blind Tiresias who knows the real murderer and sinner. His initial refusal to tell the truth is because it will hurt Oedipus more than he can imagine. The other symbolism is the crossroads. Actually the crossroads is only mentioned in the play. It is mentioned when Oedipus relates the circumstance behind how he kills a stranger (Laius, his father) at a crossroads. How is the crossroads a symbolism? In a sense, the crossroads symbolises Oedipuss fate. Imagine for a while what would have happened had things go out differently at the crossroads. Our assumptions is had he not killed the stranger his fate would have been different. He might still solve the Sphinxs riddle and save Thebes from the murderous Sphinx but he might not have been chosen as king since Laius might have still been alive.

A three-way crossroads

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However, Oedipuss murder of Laius has become a self-fulfilling prophecy that leads from one revelation to another that Oedipus could never have known. As Oedipus laments his past deed at the fateful crossroads:

Oedipus: O, triple roads- it all comes back, the secret, dark ravine, and the oaks closing in where the three roads join... You drank my fathers blood, my own blood spilled by my own hands- you still remember me? What things you saw me do? Then I came here and did them all once more!

It is this explanation that makes the crossroads into a symbolism of our unknown future. We might prefer one decision over another without really knowing the consequences of the decision that we have made.

Can you think of other symbolisms in this play? What about symbols associated to the sea such the tides and harbours? Could they have any significance in explaining the play? What do you think?

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Describe some of the symbolisms used in A Dolls House. What do they symbolise?

the tarantella dance

the skylark

the Christmas tree

the macaroons

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Theme in Oedipus Rex Themes are the universal ideas that the playwright wishes to draw attention to. In Oedipus Rex the major theme is light and darkness. This theme is closely related to the symbol of sight and blindness mentioned above. In the play, light (or sight) does not necessarily reveal the truth and darkness (or blindness) does not essentially mean ignorance of truth. In this play it is actually the other way around. Lets analyse this scene where the Messenger narrates what he sees in Jocastas chamber:

Messenger: ... He rips off her brooches, the long gold pins holding her robes- and lifting the high, looking straight up into the points, he digs them down the sockets of his eyes, crying, You, youll see no more the pain I suffered, all the pain I caused! Too long you looked on the ones you never should have seen, blind to the ones you long to see, to know! Blind from this hour on! Blind in the darkness- blind!

In this scene Oedipus realises that his sight (therefore, light) has failed him because it did not see what he should have seen. Instead, Tiresias who is blind is able to see what is going on. Since his sight has failed him Oedipus feels that it is useless and he is better off without it- to be in darkness and knowing is better than to be with light but still not able to see/know. It is for that reason that he blinds his eyes. Another apparent theme of this play is the question of free will as opposed to the future that is determined by fate. This theme is very predominant in Greek drama. In Oedipus Rex, the question of free will and the power of fate is pivotal. Throughout the play there is no protagonist-antagonist conflict of the usual sense. The play is not about hero against villain. In fact, there are no bad guys that we can identify in the play. The play is even full of well-meaning characters whose actions, unintentionally or otherwise, lead to undesirable results. It is free will against fate. Hence, the action of the servant who gives the baby Oedipus to a shepherd out pity eventually leads to disastrous results. Oedipuss action of running away from his adopted city-state in order to avoid the realisation of the oracle is actually playing to the script of destiny when he wanders to his own city-state that leads to the murder of his father and the incestuous relationship with his mother. Oedipuss well-intentioned pursuance of justice, inadvertently, leads to the exposure of his sins. Succinctly, these instances of free will against the power of fate lead to the theme of
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the limited power of humans as mere mortals to determine their own destiny. Humans are helpless against the all-encompassing supernatural power of Fate in influencing the future.
What do you think of Oedipus at the end of the play? Is he heroic or simply foolish? Do you sympathise with him or feels that he is too arrogant? Justify your opinion of him.

CONCLUSION In drama the audience is given more freedom to make his own conclusions on characters and themes. This freedom is much more restricted in reading a novel because the author directs the reader to the characterisation and themes by way of point of view of the narrator. As a critic we must be able to analyse the play from various perspectives and weight them based on our understanding of relevant human issues. We may want to study only characters and analyse their actions and decisions or we may want to focus on certain aspects of the play that is worth discussing. For example, a critic may wish to analyse how a contemporary feminist may judge on Noras actions and decision to leave her family or that Helmer is also a victim of circumstance as much as Nora is. But at the end of the day, your analysis must be based on a close analysis of the text.

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WRITING A CLOSE ANALYSIS OF TEXT

The close analysis of text is very important in literary criticism. Writing a close analysis of the text indicates that you understand the text and is able to discuss, academically, issues presented in the text. A close analysis of text means that you discuss certain issues based on your close reading of the text and by providing excerpts to support your argument. For example, in your reading of Oedipus Rex, you may want to argue that Jocasta is selfish in her attempt to stop Oedipus from continuing with his investigation. Therefore, in your essay you must indicate the excerpt that shows that Jocasta is what you claim she is. The same rule applies with other thrusts of your arguments, always justify you view with excerpts from the text. This unit will show you how to apply a close reading to text be it poetry, fiction or drama. ASPECTS OF CLOSE ANALYSIS: READING AND WRITING There are two important aspects of close analysis: close reading- in close reading you focus on a passage to get a more complete and in-depth understanding of the text. writing a close analysis- writing a close analysis of one or more passages is a basic skill in literary studies. It is very common for student to be asked to write an analysis on a part of the text in detail as this is the best way to provide supporting evidence for an interpretation of the texts wider meaning. CLOSE READING In close reading, try to identify elements that deserve comment in an analysis. You can do this in many ways: by studying and discussing the opening passages of a text to see how narrative voice, characters, setting, ideas and values might be presented. by reading and comparing the beginning and the ending of a text to find changes that might occur. by studying key scenes or passages to consider their literary importance in terms of character development, narrative importance, emergence of views and values and use of language and special literary techniques.

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CLOSE ANALYSIS Close analysis of text helps you to understand the text better. By doing a close analysis you will understand how the author constructs the text with all the principal elements that create meaning. Once you have understood how the text is constructed, you will be able to discuss and analyse it much more confidently. HOW TO WRITE A CLOSE ANALYSIS? There are several ways in which you can write a close analysis of a text: You could also compare and contrast between passages within the same text. You could analyse a passage to find its significance to the whole text. Or you could analyse two or three passages to identify their significance to the overall theme or underlying views and values. This method is the most effective way of close analysis of text.

HOW TO READ A PASSAGE CLOSELY You can start to read and analyse a passage by using the What? Where? How? and Why? questions. By asking these questions you are actually moving progressively from what is obvious in the passage to the more complex ideas and issues reflected in the text. What- What happens in the text? What is the conflict? Between whom? Over what? What is the ending? Where- Where is the setting? What do we know about the setting? Does it have any impact on the ideas and values in the text? How- How is language used in terms of tone, sentence structure, choices of words and images and how they affect the reader. Why- Why does the writer write in such a way? What is/are his views with regard to certain issues? Why does he use this particular language? Why is the ending written in such a way. This is the most important question because it relates to the themes, ideas and values inherent in the text and its broader implication for meaning.

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A THREE-STAGE PROCESS OF TEXTUAL ANALYSIS As with any other reading exercises you must have a plan of action for writing a close analysis of a text. Basically it involves identifying, arranging and writing. Below is the process that you can follow to begin writing an academic criticism: 1. Do a close reading of the passage and identify features o the text that will be useful in your analysis. The features such as language use, characterisation, setting and imagery are useful to understanding the themes and key ideas in the text. 2. Once you have identified the features related to your scope of analysis, you should arrange your material to form a logical sequence of ideas. The arrangement should be from specific features of the text to its broader ideas, views and values. 3. Now you can begin writing the analysis. Remember that the basic rules of essay writing also apply in your academic writing. You must have an introduction that states the thesis statement of your essay, each of your ideas must be in its own paragraph and finally there is a conclusion to put a neat close your to your argument and criticism.

READ ARRANGE WRITE

The Three- stage Process of Textual Analysis

CONCLUSION Literature is like fashion, its definition changes over time. However, there are some things about literature that remain constant. Literature teaches us about ourselves as human, not through preaching but through
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stories and reflections. It is mostly about the play of words that appeals to our sense of beauty. And good literature should be like onions; it should have many layers of meaning that provides the reader with new insights each time it is read. Understanding literature is about understanding how the text is written and to relate to what issue. It can be about something speakerl, social, political or ecclesiastical. Those issues in the texts are the concerns of the author and it is our job as a literature student to make academic criticisms of those issues. We may agree or disagree with those values portrayed. What is important is that it allows for a discussion and criticism with the eventual purpose of making us a better individual after an encounter with the text. The contemporary world has seen literature blossoming into different genres. Besides the traditional genres of fiction, play and poetry there are also new genres as the product of modern inventions. Movies, television shows and biographies can also be considered into the realm of literature.

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Sample Essay: The Fate of the Mortal: The Limitation of Oedipus Power to Chart His Own Destiny in the Play Oedipus Rex by Lajiman Janoory The Play Oedipus Rex by Sophocles puts into center stage the issue of fate, or destiny of man. Is man the master of his own fate, or is there a power, omnipresent and omnipotent, that decides on his actions and future? This issue has always been discussed, especially in philosophy, concerning the existence of man. Is our existence accidental in a ready-made world so perfect in its formation and equilibrium? Or are we the creation of the Supreme Being whose existence is felt but never seen by naked eyes like the wind that touches us but never able to see. Oedipus Rex is another text that deals with the religious connotation of man the mortal against Fate, or God the Immortal. In this text, Fate makes itself present in the form of the Oracle and its fulfilment. In fact, the central plot of the play itself is about the attempt by man to elude the Oracles prophcies. It is an attempt by man to cheat Fate by doing whatever within his power to make it possible to avoid his predestined future. The Oracle and Oedipuss pride will set the chains of events in motion and the influence of Fate on the whole text is so pervasive that we cannot fail to notice it. Throughout the text, there are three oracles that foretell basically the same prophesy. First, it is revealed to Laius, the ruler of Thebes and the father of Oedipus. He is told in the oracle that his son will kill him and marry his wife. As a result, Laius orders the infant to be left to die in the nearby Mt. Cithareon. But before that his feet is pinioned to prevent him from crawling to safety. Human kindness(or Fate?) has it that the shepherd takes pity on the baby and instead of leaving him to die, gives the boy to another shepherd from Corinth, a city on the other side of the mountain. The Corinthian shepherd then presents the infant to his king, Polybus, who raises him as his own son and names him Oedipus or Swollen Feet due to the deformed limbs. This first Oracle reveals to Laius the nature of the childs future. Laius is aware that Fate should
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be equated to the will of the God and as a mere mortal he is supposedly unable to change it or prevent it from happening. But such is the propensity of man not to merely lament over what is yet to happen but try to do something about it. He hopes that his action will break the Oracle and deny Fate its divine course. Laius order for the boy to be killed is an attempt to avoid the horr ifying fate. He is threatened by the existence of his son so he tries to have him killed, thus ending his and his wifes problem and deny Fate its course. This is the unconscious effort of pitting himself against Fate to decide the better entity, man or God? It is a test at how far man can go against the will of Fate. Is he independent In his actions, and if he is, can his actions bring about the changes that he desires as oppose to the will of Fate? Fortunately for Laius, he is not able to see how wrong he is and how Fate is able to show to him that a mere mortal is no match for Fate. The second Oracle is revealed to Oedipus. Oedipus travels to Delphi to confirm his parentage at the Oracle of Apollo. The Oracle, however, reveals to him a horrific prediction that he will kill his father and sleep with his mother. Oedipus, like his biological parents, tries to avoid Fate. Since he believes that his foster parents are his natural parents, he runs away. Fate has it that he is running away to complete the prophesy itself. This instance reflects to us the issue concerning knowledge. A mere mortal is shallow in his knowledge, especially about his fate in the future and that Fate is all knowing, thus to go against Fate is sheer foolishness. Nothing but Fate could have arranged the meeting between Oedipus and his father at the three-junctioned road since the Oracle states specifically that that is the place where Oedipus will kill his father. It should be noted that at this period the city of Thebes is still under the spell of the Sphinx. The fact that Laius is able to avoid the Sphinx and leaves the city, hence his meeting with Oedipus, reveals to us the inexplicable workings of Fate. Oedipus meanwhile who is running from Fate encounters his father and his entourage in a chariot. They force him off the road and a fight breaks up between them with Oedipus inadvertently killing his father and all but one of the guards. Fate also shows its force here when Oedipus is able to defeat all of them. This is a feat against all odds. It can only be explained if we refer back to the Oracle. In order for the Oracle to be completed, Oedipus has to fulfil another abominable task of sleeping with his mother. Had he been killed in the encounter,
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Oedipuss fate would not have been fulfilled. We can assume then that Fate is actually protecting Oedipus for his second fulfilment of the Oracle. Oedipus goes on to confront the riddles set by the lethal Sphinx. He is able to solve the riddle, becomes the King of Thebes and unknowingly marries Jocasta, his mother-wife. The fact that Oedipus manages to solve the riddle can also be deduced by the fact that he walks using a staff due to the mutilated feet caused by his father. A normal man, who lacks the experience of having to use a staff for walking will lack the mentality for answering the riddle. It is then fated that Oedipus should have mutilated feet to be able to have hindsight on the answer. And it is also the will of Fate that the cause of the mutilation itself is caused by his father the king. And the mutilated feet is, indirectly, the cause for him being able to be enthroned as the King of the Thebes and as a reward the hand of his mother as wife. Such is the power of Fate that no mere coincidence could be as uncanny as these incidences. The third oracles is revealed after many years passed and when Oedipus has already had children with his mother-wife Jocasta. Gradually, Thebes succumbs to a vile plague, which kills animals, children and crops. Oedipus promises to save the city as he once did. He sends Creon, his brother-in-law, to seek the Oracle for help. The Gods answer is that the plague is caused by an unpunished murder- that of Laius. In the end, the murderer whom Oedipus has cursed so much turns out to be himself. Oedipus pride is partly the working of Fate. When he was told that his parents in Corinth are not his real parents, his pride forces him to seek the truth by going to seek the Oracle. The Oracle presents him the fact that he will kill his father and sleep with his mother. It is strange for a man with Oedipus will to seek the truth and not to sit awhile and ponder over the Oracle. If he is a foster child, surely the Oracle does not mean his foster parents. Thus, Fate has blinded Oedipus to the truth when his characteristics show that he is an intelligent and perceptive man. Oedipuss pride also forces him to kill his own father because he refuses to give way to his fathers entourage. Under normal circumstances, a lone stranger would surely give way to a group of people, as when a man on foot gives way to a passing car. Oedipuss pride, once slighted, does not tolerate other than revenge. This hubris then results in his murdering not only his father but also other
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lives. And when the truth is slowly revealing itself Oedipus could have listened to Jocastas advice not to seek for the truth further and stops it now and then. But Oedipuss pride gets the better of him and only the bottom of the truth will satisfy his pride. Thus, it is fated that his pride will reveal his horrible fate. And as Jocasta says; Chances rule our lives, and the future is all unknown. Best live as best we may from one day. Nor need this mother-marrying frighten you; Many man has dreamt as much. Such things Must be forgotten, if life is to be endured. (p 52) All the revelations of the first to the third Oracles reveal that mans fate is predestined and that he is merely a puppet with God playing the role of the master puppeteer. However hard one tries to avoid the predestined fate, he is still not able to avoid it. Fate will have the better of him in ways that man could not imagine for he has neither the strength nor the knowledge to elude it. How uncanny it is that a man such as Laius could have killed his infant son with a single strike of a sword, yet he sends him away for another person to kill him. Human conscience in his part is surely not the cause since he himself pinned both Oedipuss ankles. The single stroke that could have contradicted the Oracle is avoided by one man who trusts others to do his orders. It is strange that he would not do it himself and will then know for certainty that the Oracle is contradicted instead of expecting others to do it and will never be sure of the killing. Only Fate could have a hand in it. Another set of question is although his fate is predestined, does he have the mortal capability or freedom to determine his own future? As a puppet of Fate, all the characters like Laius and Oedipus cannot affect the future that the Oracle has predicted for them. No matter what they do Fate will have a way of getting the Oracle realised. However, man as an individual is not fully determined in his action by Fate. He has his freedom of action. Thus he is responsible for his deeds and misdeeds. In Christianity or in Islam, for example, the belief is that God is omnipotent. He knows everything about man- his feelings, his actions and even his future. Some arguments forward the idea that if that is the case, it seems that Fate determines mans actions. Thus, heaven and hell serve no purpose in
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punishing or rewarding man because his actions are predetermined. If a man commits murder, isnt it what Fate wills him to do and to punish him for the deed which is predetermined will be an injustice? But then the opposing argument states that man is not in totality determined in his action, at least not the minute detail of all his actions. He still has the freedom to choose the good and the bad. This is due to the advantage given to man which no other beings are given- the will to think. Since man is able to think and to decide his actions he should be responsible for them. Without the power of thinking, man will be like other animals whose existence is merely to satisfy its basic needs of eating and procreating, both of which are instinctive. A cow, for example, will always graze the grass, produce the milk and bear a calf because Fate has decided that that is the life of a cow. It is unable to think and try to improve on its life. Once it has the thinking ability the cow will also be responsible for its actions. Thus, heaven and hell will serve a purpose as to motivate him to do good deeds and avoid misdeeds. In Oedipus Rex man is not a mere puppet who always has to dance to the tune of the puppet master. There is a certain freedom or action that is exclusively his, the action that is not determined by Fate but by his own free will. In Oedipus it is his errors of judgement or hamartia. He seems to make important mistakes of judgements that set the events of the story into action. His pride, blindness and foolishness all play a part in the tragedy that befalls him. Even from the opening dialogue we sense the pride in Oedipus. When consulted by his subjects praying for relief from the plague he reacts kingly and gr aciously, saying - I, Oedipus, whose name is known afar (p 25). Oedipus is a good king but he is also proud. Perhaps this attitude is deserved, for Oedipus had solved the Sphinxs riddle, an apparently heroic feat, and is seen to be the greatest of men (p 26) but Oedipus still possesses the hubristic tendencies which will doom him. This is emphasized by the chorus in saying; Who walks his own high-handed way, disdaining True righteousness and holy ornament, Who falsely wins, all sacred things profaning; Shall he escape his doomed prides punishment? (p 50)

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Oedipuss pride certainly sets it all off. When a drunken man tells him that he is a mere foster child of King Polybus, his pride is so wounded that he will not let the subject rest. It sets him on a journey to Delphi to ask for the truth based on a drunken mans words. Being drunk is being in a state of half consciousness and half unconsciousness and to take the words seriously show the flaw of pride in Oedipus. Had he left the matter to rest the chain of events would not have occurred. His foolishness shows when the Oracle is revealed to him which states that he will kill his father and sleep with his mother. It is the reason for his leaving Corinth and travels to Thebes and in the process embarks on the journey of fulfilling the Oracles prophecy. Oedipus comes to Delphi with a question but he was given the wrong answer. His foolishness could not tell whether his question is properly answered. Had he been more calm and a little less proud he would have thought objectively and realize the true meaning of the answer. He would have stayed in Corinth where it is safer knowing that his foster parents are not his natural father and mother. Even until nearly the end the answer to his question (his true father) is not answered. That is the reason why he refuses to go home to Corinth after he receives the news of his foster fathers death because he still has what he believes his natural mother. A cleverer man would think that half a truth fulfilled is not the work of Fate. Fate cannot have him not fulfilling both misdeeds, the murder of his father and marrying his mother. To skip one and commit another would be to say that Fate is not that omnipotent after all, thus indicating the weaknesses of God. Oedipus should have realised that, (if he has faith in Fate) Polybuss natural death means that the king is not his father. Oedipuss pride continues to be a flaw that leads to the storys tragic ending. He is too proud to consider the words of the prophet Teiresias. Teiresias warns him not to press into these matters for It will be easier thus for you to bear your burden, and me mine. (p 34). But pride in his intelligence leads Oedipus to continue his search. Oedipus must have thought that, he, a man who solved the riddle of the Sphinx has more substance compared to a blind seer whose words are of no practical use. He values truth attained through scientific enquiry over words and warnings from the gods. This is the result of his overweening pride. Practicality against prophecy must have been at the back of Oedipuss mind and he believes that he is by far a better man than Teiresias. Through the character of Oedipus, Sophocles shows to us the futility and consequences of defying the divine order. Oedipus, who is exemplary in character and who is a good leader of his family as well as his people, succumbs to the one sickness of the heart which is hubris or pride. What makes
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it tragic is that Oedipus, whose sickness is inherent in all men, is punished so horrifyingly by Fate. The wisdom he has gained through the ordeal has exposed him to the power of God as well as the acceptance that though we cannot control Fate we do have control over our own actions. REFERENCES Sophocles, 1947, The Theban Plays, Penguin Books Inc., Middlesex, England.

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