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GURGAON INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT

Subject Code: CSE-208 F Subject Na e: I!te"!et Fu!da e!ta#$ UNIT: 2 %T&e I!te"!et'

Facu#t( Na e: M") *&u+e!de" Yada,

2)-

Co +ute" Net.o"/ 0 I!te"!et

A computer network may be defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information. The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, and communication satellites can also be used. The term autonomous computers means, the computer system that can be controlled by itself by having own memory unit, control unit, and processor.

T(+e$ o1 Co +ute" Net.o"/$:


2)-)Loca# A"ea Net.o"/ %LAN'

rivately!owned networks within a single building or campus of upto a few kilometers in si"e. #A$s often use a transmission technology consisting of a single cable to which all the machines the machines are attached. Traditional #A$s run at speeds of %& to %&& 'bps, have low delay (tens of microseconds) and make very few errors. $ewer #A$s may operate at higher speeds, upto hundreds of megabits*seconds. #A$s might be related to the telephone lines. 2)-)2 Met"o+o#2ta! A"ea Net.o"/ %MAN'

A bigger version of a #A$. +t cover a group of nearby corporate offices or a city and might be either private or public. 'ight be related to the local cable television network. 2)-)3 42de A"ea Net.o"/ %LAN'

,pans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. +t contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. These machines are called as hosts. 2)-)5 I!te"!et.o"/$

+nternetwork is a collection of interconnected networks is called an Internetwork or Internet

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I!t"oduct2o! to I!te"!et

The +nternet sometimes called the +nformation ,uperhighway, is a world wide publicly accessible series of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard +nternet rotocol (+ ). +t is a network of networks that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other resources of the -orld -ide -eb. +nternet is a collection of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber!optic cables, wireless connections, etc.

2)2)- Se",2ce$ 6"o,2ded b( I!te"!et


(.overed in /nit!%)

2)3

H2$to"( o1 I!te"!et

The foundation of +nternet is found by the global interconnection of hundreds of thousands of independent computers, communication entities, and the information systems. -hat makes the interconnection possible is the use of a set of communication standards, procedures and formats in common among the networks and the various devices and computational facilities connected to them. The procedures by which computers communicate with each other are called protocols. The history of +nternet can be explained as follows0 2)3)I! -780$) +nitially the protocols used by the +nternet were the Transmission .ontrol rotocol*+nternet rotocol (T. *+ ). T. *+ is the protocol that determines how computers connect, send, and receive information on the +nternet. TCP permits communication between the various computers on the +nternet and IP specify how the data is routed from computer to computer. +n %121, the /.,. 3efense Advanced 4esearch ro5ects Agency (variously called A4 A*3A4 A), an agency within the 3epartment of 3efense, commissioned a wide area computer network called A4 A$6T, to share super!computing power. This network made use of the new packet switching concepts for interconnecting computers and initially linked computers at /niversities and other research institutions in the /nited ,tates and in selected $AT7 countries. +n %18&s, the A4 A$6T was essentially the only realistic wide!area computer network in existence with a base of several do"ens organi"ations, perhaps twice that number of computers and numerous researchers at those sites. +n Packet Switching, the data to be transmitted is divided into small packets of information and labeled to identify the sender and receiver. The packets were sent over a network and then reassembled at their destination. 2)3)2 I! -780$)

+n %19&s, as the +nternet grew, the Domain Name System (DNS) was developed, to allow the network to expand more easily by assigning names to host computers in a distributed fashion. 2)3)2 I! -770$) +n %11&s, lots of commercial organi"ations started getting online. Graphical browsing tools were developed, and the programming language HT ! allowed users all over the world to publish on what was called the -orld -ide -eb. 'illions of people went online to work, shop, bank and be entertained. The "ey reasons #or the Internet$s great s%ccess& %. :. <. =. 3ecisions were made on a technical rather than political basis. The +nternet did not re;uire a centrali"ed structure that would not scale up; it was and is a distributed operation. The +nternet allowed people to do things of inherent interest, such as sending and receiving emails. The software involved was free or very low cost.

>ased on the past history, it can be assumed that the +nternet will continue to grow, change, support new applications.

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4o"/2!9 o1 I!te"!et

-orking of +nternet can be better explained by considering various issues as mentioned below0 $etwork >enefits +nterconnected $etworks ? .ommunication hysical .omponents $etwork .onnections + Addresses + v2 -eb age 4etrieval

2)5)- Net.o"/ *e!e12t$


6"o,2de Co!,e!2e!ce: .omputers on network can backup their files over the network. A##o. S&a"2!9: $etworked computers can share resources, such as disks ? printers. Fac2#2tate Co u!2cat2o!$: videoconferencing. ,ending and receiving email, transferring files, and

Ge!e"ate Sa,2!9$: $etworked computers can provide more computing power for less money. ,everal small computers connected on a network can provide as mush as or more computing power than a single, large computer and will cost much less. Also, since resources can be shared, not everyone needs their own peripherals, which can result in a substantial cost savings. 6"o,2de Re#2ab2#2t(: +f one part of a network is down, useful work may still be possible using a different network path. S2 +#21( Sca#ab2#2t(: +t is relatively easy to add more computers to an existing network.

2)5)2 I!te"co!!ected Net.o"/$ 0 Co

u!2cat2o!

The +nternet is essentially a network of networks, the communication among which depends on a common set of protocols. The protocol that determines how the computers connect, send, and receive information on the +nternet is Transmission .ontrol rotocol*+nternet rotocol (T. *+ ). The T. permits communication between the various computers on the +nternet, and + specifies how data is routed from computer to computer. The T. *+ provides S2 +#e Ma2# T"a!$1e" 6"otoco# %SMT6' for sending an email message, and H(+e"te:t T"a!$1e" 6"otoco# %HTT6' for a -eb age re;uest. T. *+ divides the information to be sent into smaller pieces called packets and then transmit them over +nternet. Ad,a!ta9e$ o1 6ac/et$: E""o" Reco,e"() +f a packet gets corrupted, only that packet needs to be resent, not the entire message. Load ;2$t"2but2o!) +f one area of the network is congested, packets can be routed to less busy areas. F#e:2b2#2t() +f the network experiences a failure or disruption in one locale, packet can be rerouted. +n addition to the message pieces, each packet of data also contains information about the computer that sent it, the computer it is being sent to, a se;uence number indicating where the packet fits in the overall message and error checking information to ensure that packet is not corrupted while in transit. The packets are reassembled after being received at the destination computer. A message is sent from the destination computer to the sending computer to resend any missing or corrupted packets. This method of packet switching does not re;uire the packets to be sent in se;uential order. ackets + is used to % : < % : < 4oute the = @ 2 T. converts message $etwork = @ 2 8 9 1 message into 7riginal 'essage a stream of 8 9 1 packets @ ,ource % = 8 : < 2 1 9

3estination

2)5)3 6&($2ca# Co +o!e!t$


+n addition to various software protocols, +nternet includes a host of physical components as well0 ,ervers 4outers .ommunication 'edia Se",e": ,ervers are the computers that answers the re;uests for services, such as list servers, mail servers, ? news servers. Route": 4outers are the special!purpose computers that directs data packets along the network. 4outers can detect whether the part of the network is down or congested and can then reroute traffic 5ust like a traffic cop. Co u!2cat2o! Med2a: .ommunication media provides means to transport packets of information like0 .opper -ires A transmit messages as electrical impulses. Biber 7ptic .ables A uses light waves to transmit messages. 4adio waves, 'icrowaves, +nfrared #ight ? Cisible #ight A all carry messages through air.

2)5)5 Net.o"/ Co!!ect2o!$


.onnecting to the +nternet from homes generally re;uires the use of a mo'em and a reg%lar telephone line (copper wire) to connect to an +nternet ,ervice rovider (+, ). A second modem at the +, Ds end completes the connection and slower the two modem speeds determines the maximum connection speed, usually @2 kbps. o'em ('odulator A 3emodulator), is a device needed to convert data from digital to analog and analog to digital. >usiness, organi"ation, network typically uses Network Inter#ace Car's (NIC) instead of modems. These systems have a higher speed connection, usually @2 kbps or better, to their +, s. ,uch connections are usually leased from the telephone company. Another option is an Integrate' Ser(ices Digital Network (ISDN) which is slightly more expensive but uses regular telephone lines and replaces modems with special adaptors upto five times faster than traditional modems. ,enderDs .omputer $etwork $, Cia phone 'essage 'odem +, 4oute

line 'odem 'essage #ocal Area $etwork $etwork 4oute r

3estination .omputer

2)5)< C#2e!t = Se",e" Mode#


The client A server model consists of two parts0 .lient, that re;uest for some service ,erver, that serves the client for any re;uest. 4e;uest $etwork

.lient

,erver

,ervice The client A server model is based on the re;uest A serve principle as shown above. The client makes a re;uest to the server for any information or resources over network by sending a re;uest message. Then the server serves the client on his re;uest by providing the re;uired information or resources.

2)5)> I6 Add"e$$e$
6ach computer connected over a network must have a uni;ue name or address to be identified uni;uely. .omputers are best suited to manipulate numbers, thus every computer is assigned a numeric address, called IP )''ress. An + Address is a <: bit or four byte address, each byte separated by a dot. 7ne byte represent a number from & (&&&&&&&&) to :@@ (%%%%%%%%). 6ach + Address consists of a network component and a Eost .omponent.

$etwork <: bits %<:.%8&.=.%:= %&&&&%&& %&%&%&%&

Eost

&&&&&%&&

&%%%%%&&

+ Address plays an important role in the routing of packets over the +nternet. ,ource and 3estination + Addresses are included in each packet. +n essence, the address provide directions on where the packets should go. A central authority manages + Addresses; otherwise conflicts might arise. The Net.o"/ I!1o" at2o! Ce!te" %NIC' is in charge of assigning + Addresses.

+ Addresses are <: A bit numbers, whereas 3omain $ames are easy A to A remember symbolic strings. A program called a *esol(er takes care of the translation i.e., conversion of a symbolic name into its corresponding + Address. Types of + Addresses0 2)5)>)- Stat2c I6 Add"e$$) A permanently assigned + Address, one that is given to a computer or router connected to the +nternet is called a static IP a''ress. 2)5)>)2 ;(!a 2c I6 Add"e$$) +f one is connected to the +nternet through an +, , then typically each time the user connects, he will be assigned a different + address, called a 'ynamic IP a''ress, from the +, s pool of + addresses.

2)5)8 I6,> %I!te"!et 6"otoco# ?e"$2o! >'


+ v2 is the latest version of the + Feneration). routing protocol. +t was originally called + ng ($ext

The new protocol is necessary to accommodate the greater demands being placed on the +nternet. The ma5or changes will be0 ore a''resses& by increasing the + address si"e from <: bits to %:9 bits. packet will be

Simpli#ie' IP hea'ers& The number of header fields needed in an + reduced.

)''e' Sec%rity +eat%res& The new protocol will provide greater support for privacy and security.

2)5)8 4eb 6a9e Ret"2e,a#


,uppose a /4# is selected as0

http0**www.bsaitm.org*cs.php The -eb age is retrieved using following steps0 %. >ased on the actions, the browser determines that the /4# selected was http0**www.bsaitm.org*cs.php using the http protocol. :. The browser ;ueries the 3omain $ame ,ystem for the + Address www.bsaitm.org. <. ,uppose the 3omain $ame ,ystem responds with the + Address %1:.%.%:<.:@ =. The browser next establishes the T. connection to %1:.%.%:<.:@. The default port for web servers is ort 9&.

@. The browser then sends a message asking for the what part of the /4# i.e., cs.php 2. The server, www.bsaitm.org, services this re;uest and sends back the file cs.php. 8. The T. connection is closed. This ends the conversation between the client and the server. 9. The browser renders the text portion of the ET'# code contained in the file cs.php. 1. The browser repeats these steps to obtain any in A line images contained in the file cs.php. %&. The browser displays the image as they are retrieved.

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I!te"!et Co!9e$t2o!

The number of users and their demands continue to grow almost without bound, causing the congestion on the +nternet. 7nce a user get a network connection, the factor limiting how ;uickly one can view -eb ages often becomes the speed with which the computer renders the pages. The computer speed depends on a complex balance of . / speed, bus speed, memory ;uantity, disc speed, and so on. The slowest link speed involved in a connection determines the overall level of performance.

2)<)- 4o"#d 42de 4a2t 6"ob#e


-orld -ide -ait refers to the ever A increasing delays experienced when trying to access information on the +nternet. The literal translation of this phrase is wait in the world network. -ith the advent of the --- and the development of graphical browsers came a surge of interest in the +nternet. This increase in the number of +nternet users, coupled with the accompanying re;uests for -eb ages containing elaborate in A line images, sound, and video clips, has degraded the speed of the +nternet to the point where the +nformation ,uperhighway sometimes appear to have a traffic 5am.

2)<)2 Tec&!2ca# So#ut2o!$


4esearchers working in con5unction with the -orld -ide -eb .ongestion are addressing the issue of network congestion with a goal to save the +nternet from the -eb.

,ome of the solutions offered involve ETT itself, as well as improvements in the way ETT and T. *+ interact. The researchers have focused on the following issues0 +mproving the process of connecting to a -eb ,erver. +ntroducing new techni;ues to expedite -eb age re;uests. 4efining how a /4# is resolved, using persistent connections that make it more efficient to retrieve pages from the same -eb server. ,ince the -eb page content (i.e. the graphics, sound, text, and*or video) dictates download time, one recommendation is to avoid unnecessary graphics. .ascading ,tyle ,heets (.,,), -eb page design tool also has the potential to improve download time. 4esearchers recommend using $F ( ortable $etwork Fraphics) format over the F+B (Fraphics +nterchange Bormat) for images on -eb pages, since images are generally smaller than F+B and they render more ;uickly. Another step being taken is, reduction in si"e of router tables by rearranging how blocks of addresses are identified.

2)<)3 I$$ue$ 0 6"ed2ct2o!$


The various issues and predictions involved in +nternet .ongestion may be0 eople may start using +nternet during less busy periods. There may be reduced usage of +nternet due to +nternet .ongestion. >usiness or organi"ations might be using +ntranets instead of +nternets -orld -ide.

2)>

I!te"!et Cu#tu"e

+nternet has emerged from being a research medium to one that includes advertising, commerce, and forums for exchanging ideas on a nearly infinite set of sub5ects.

2)>)- C"2t2ca# E,a#uat2o! o1 I!1o" at2o!


,ince the +nternet is not regulated for content, anything and everything can be found on the -eb. To find valuable information, one needs to go through several -eb pages, and separate the useful from the useless, the valid from the invalid information. To evaluate the valuable information, one must consider several issues as mentioned below0 4&o ."ote t&e 2!1o" at2o!@ A -as the person who wrote the material knowledgeable and carefulG -as he aware of what others have writtenG .an he be trustedG I$ t&e ."2t2!9 Aua#2t( &29&@ A A document riddled with types is more likely to have inaccurate content than carefully created -eb page. I$ t&e docu e!t u+ = to = date@ A Try to determine whether the information is current or up A to A date.

A"e t&e"e ob,2ou$ e""o"$ 2! t&e co!te!t@ A Bor example, if the user knows that the same of baseball re;uires 1 players on a team and the document says it only re;uires 2 players, be varying.

2)>)2 F"eedo

o1 E:+"e$$2o!

The +nternet facilitates the interchange of ideas. Anyone with an +nternet connection can express their views globally. This also allows small groups of people with something in common to share their views. +nternet provides the facility of personal expression, but it is not necessary that everything and anything should be published. Bor example, some people find the availability of offensive material like articles encouraging violence (such as encouraging terrorism). /nfortunately, some people lose sight of all the great benefits that the +nternet provides0 'ore educational opportunities ,haring of research ideas and information. .onvenience of performing many functions, such as banking and shopping on A line. 7pportunity for entertainment like playing games, listening to music. -orld -ide discussion forums to promote solutions to global problems.

The 6#at1o" 1o" 2!te"!et Co!te!t Se#ect2o! %6ICS' provides a set of technical specifications for designating labels to identify the content of -eb pages. The +., specifications works with vendor A supplied filtering software and rating services like pop A up blockers. Although +., provides an alternative to government control of +nternet content, many are still concerned about promoting any censorship technology.

2)>)3 Co

u!2cat2o! Mec&a!2$

eople from all over the world can exchange ideas via email, +nternet 4elay .hat (+4.), +nstant 'essaging, 'ailing #ists, newsgroups, and so on. ,ince there are no facial expressions, voice inflections, or body language to convey or interpret these communications, users must avoid ambiguity or misunderstanding by either spelling things out completely or using emoticons like0 angel laugh surprise devil smile wink

-hile video conferencing is a way to include the otherwise missing audio and video, this technology is still in its infancy. To save time when typing messages, users sometimes employ a friendly shorthand for commonly used phrases like0 >4> A >e 4ight >ack >T- A >y The -ay

#7# A #aughing 7ut #oud TTH# A Talk To Hou #ater F' A Food 'orning E4/ A Eow Are Hou >eing rude or overly confrontational is called 1#a 2!9, and such messages are called 1#a e$. ,ome people find it easy to be rude when they do not have to confront a person face to face. Blaming is not considered appropriate on the +nternet; it violates the commonly accepted guidelines of neti;uettes.

2)>)5 Ad,e"t2$2!9
Ads generate huge incomes for companies like Hahoo, 4ediffmail, +ndia Times, and so on. The web pages of these companies get millions of hits per day, so an ad placed on one of their web pages has a tremendous audience and provides the marketing experts a potential consumer base. 'ost of the ads shown on web pages are clickable images. 'any of the most popular web pages have "e,o#,2!9 ad,e"t2$e e!t$; i.e. each time the user revisit the page, or while the user is visiting the page, he gets a different ad. 'any users manage to browse the web without paying too much attention to the advertisements, other than noticing that the ads slow down the loading process. 7bviously, the ads influence some people, because companies continue to invest huge amounts of money in them. The style, forms and content of ads is a rapidly emerging part of the +nternet culture.

2)>)< Soc2eta# I +act


The +nternet has had an enormous impact on society, and its influence will be continued. $early all facets of life have been affected. 'any people work in +nternet A related 5obs, either building computer network components, writing software, creating web pages, performing marketing research, designing graphics, or conducting business on the web. 'any people obtain re;uired information and perform most of their communication using the +nternet. -eather, news, stock prices, and travel information are accessed by millions of users every day.

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*u$2!e$$ Cu#tu"e

'any businesses are recogni"ing opportunities in on A line activities. ,o +nternet is being used for business purposes very widely.

2)8)- O! = #2!e *u$2!e$$


The +nternet provides a way to facilitate communications both within and between companies. +nternet is an excellent venue for advertising and conducting trade with consumers.

+t is currently possible to shop goods and services through on A line catalogs; subscribe to on A line versions of maga"ines and newspapers; and purchase software. These are 5ust a few types of business transactions taking place on the on A line market place. Bor companies, this means a greater selection of services and products. Bor consumers, this means a greater selection of services and products. +nternet provides various options for business like0 Advertising 'arketing ,oftware Availability .ommunication

2)8)2 O! = #2!e *u$2!e$$ Hu"d#e$


The most significant consumer concerns about doing business on A line are privacy and security. -hen disclosing personal information and revealing spending habits on A line, consumers want assurance that the information will go no further. ,ome users could also get nervous if their favorite on A line catalog remembers their hat si"es, shoe si"es, and credit card numbers. -hat is to prevent this information from falling into the wrong handsG These data are actually stored on the hard disk in a file usually called coo/2e$)

Coo/2e$)
,ometimes when a user visit a -eb page, information about the user is collected. +t might be the name, password, preferences, credit card number, phone number, address, etc. A web server sends this information to the userDs browser, and the data is written to the coo/2e$ file stored on the userDs disk. This process is known as $ett2!9 a coo/2e) /sing cookies file, a web server can keep track of the web page the user visits. The next time the user visit a particular web page, the server will search the cookies file, retrieve the information stored there, and use that to customi"e its web page to accommodate the user. As the amount of data that can be stored in a cookie is very limited, the server stores an id for the user, fetches that id from the cookie, and then looks up in the server database for userDs more detailed profile and history. The purpose of putting information in the cookies file on the hard disk is to reduce the serverDs search time in locating a specific cookie, as the cookies file is limited in si"e.

The information stored in cookies file may be retrieved and used to determine oneDs personal habits. .redit card security is a valid concern, but such numbers are encrypted. >ut it is generally considered to be harmful.

2)8)3 *u$2!e$$ a!d Sa1et( B Secu"2t( o! .eb


The biggest concern of consumers conducting business on A line is the issue of secure payments. +s it safe to use credit card on A lineG 'echanisms for ensuring secure payments are currently being developed in the private sector. Secu"e E#ect"o!2c T"a!$act2o! %SET' is a new technical standard to be implemented by Cisa and 'aster.ard to make credit card payments over +nternet more secure. 7ther payment option being developed includes E#ect"o!2c Mo!e() >usiness transactions over +nternet are becoming more widespread and also more secure.

2)8)5 Le9a# E!,2"o! e!t


-hile concerns about secure payments may scare some potential on A line consumers, issues concerning legal implications of doing business on A line discouraged some companies from taking their business on A line. -ithout a predictable legal structure and without a guarantee that governments will not suddenly impose taxes and tariffs on trade conducted over +nternet, a number of companies find it risky.

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Co##abo"at2,e Co +ut2!9

.ollaborative computing is defined as application that allow the sharing of information and resources between two or more people. +t is also referred to as teamware or gro%pware. The -orld -ide -eb, with its collection of -eb pages, is a collaborative computing platform that employs ET'# and -eb >rowsers. Bor example, #otus $otes, $ovellDs Froup-ise, and 'icrosoft 6xchange.

2)8)- Need 1o" Co##abo"at2,e Co +ut2!9


As business and individual must cope with more and more information and the cost of travel for face A to A face meetings continues to increase, the need for collaborative computing is clear. 6mployees spend too much time sorting through data in email, faxes, reports, and voice messages. This problem is compounded by downsi"ing and restructuring in many companies, which translates to fewer people doing more work.

7rgani"ing the information and correctly forwarding it is also time A consuming. To stay competitive, businesses and organi"ations are turning to collaborative computing to share knowledge and resources and to move information efficiently.

2)8)2 A++#2cat2o!$
Brom customer and account service to research and product development, collaborative computing can enhance many aspects of business. %. E- a2#) The most basic collaborative computing application is email. 6mail has replaced the written memo in many organi"ations, saving time (distributing the memo) as well as more (paper cost). :. I!te##29e!t Fo" . .ollaborative computing can simplify the process of filling out an expense report. /sing an intelligent form, an employee need only enter expense amount; the expense figures are then automatically calculated and the report is electronically submitted. At any point in the process, the employee can track the report to determine its status. ,imilarly, purchase orders can be filled in and dispatched. This method permits the fast and easy distribution, as well as convenient tracking. <. ?e"$2o! Co!t"o#) +n this application, the software makes it possible for more than one people to work on a document at the same time. The software keeps the track of the latest versions of the document, and updates all other copies as needed. =. ?2deo Co!1e"e!c2!9) 7ne of the most exciting applications of collaborative computing involves real A time interaction through video teleconferencing or simply videoconferencing (C.). >usiness communication has involved the exchange of data and voice information; C. enables the real A time exchange of colorful video images and audio.

2)8)3 I +act
The ma5or benefits of collaborative computing are convenience and time savings; these amount to money. %. 6mployees can examine, organi"e and rout data efficiently, while managers can have access to data easily and can find information in a timely manner. :. 6lectronically forwarding and accessing information saves time, since paper does not have to be physically distributed. <. The use of audio, graphics, and video plus text in a collaborative computing environment provides the means for clearer communications. =. This can result in fewer errors and misunderstandings. @. Travel time and expenses can be significantly reduced by collaborative computing, since being in the same location is no longer a prere;uisite for the exchange of ideas.

2)8)5 Futu"e 6"o$+ect$


.ollaborative computing may soon become a necessity for business that want to remain competitive. /nfortunately, a number of the commercial groupware products are ;uite expensive. Eowever, some applications make use of -eb technology and provide a cheaper alternative. +n addition to being cheaper, the web technology may be easier to use.

The infrastructure for a web A based collaborative computing platform is an +ntranet. Access within an +ntranet is limited to employees and business contacts only, by a security measure known as a 12"e.a##. +ntranet A to A +ntranet communication across the +nternet is possible, if the user use a technology that does not re;uire dedicated bandwidth. +n response, groupware providers are trying not to compete directly with the web technology. +nstead, they are trying to make their products compatible with the web by allowing browsers to access their databases. The ease and effectiveness with which groupware can meld with the +nternet may determine its success. 'any businesses are already improving workers productivity through the use of collaborative computing. As developers overcome some of the current hurdles, collaborative computing will become even more prevalent.

2)7

;o a2! Na e

The term do a2! !a e has multiple related meanings0

A name that identifies a computer or computers on the internet. These names appear as a component of a -eb siteIs /4#, e.g. wikipedia.org. This type of domain name is also called a hostname.

The following example illustrates the difference between a /4# (/niform 4esource #ocator) and a domain name0 /4#0 http://www.example.net/index.html 3omain name0 www.example.net

2)7)-To+-#e,e# do a2!$
6very domain name ends in a top!level domain (T#3) name, which is always either one of a small list of generic names (three or more characters), or a two!character territory code.

2)7)2Ot&e"-#e,e# do a2!$
+n addition to the top!level domains, there are second!level domain (,#3) names. These are the names directly to the left of .com, .net, and the other top!level domains. As an example, in the domain en.wikipedia.org, JwikipediaJ is the second!level domain. 7n the next level are third!level domains. These domains are immediately to the left of a second!level domain. +n the en.wikipedia.org example, JenJ is a third!level domain. There can be fourth and fifth level domains and so on, with virtually no limitation. An example of a working domain with five levels is www.sos.state.oh.us. 6ach level is separated by a dot or period symbol between them.

3omains of third or higher level are also known as subdomains, though this term technically applies to a domain of any level, since even a top!level domain is a JsubdomainJ of the JrootJ domain (a J"eroth!levelJ domain that is designated by a dot alone). Traditionally, the second level domain has been chosen based on the name of a company (i.e. microsoft.com). The third level was commonly used to designate a particular host server. The structure of domain names followed a strict hierarchy in which the top level domain indicated the type of organi"ation (commercial, governmental, etc.), and addresses would be nested down to third, fourth, or further levels to express complex structures, where, for instance, branches, departments, and subsidiaries of a parent organi"ation would have addresses which were subdomains of the parent domain. Also, hostnames were intended to correspond to actual physical machines on the network, generally with only one name per machine. -ithin a particular top!level domain, parties are generally free to select an unallocated domain name as their own on a first come, first served basis

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The ;o a2! Na e S($te (3$,) associates various sorts of information with so!called domain names; most importantly, it serves as the Jphone bookJ for the +nternet by translating human!readable computer hostnames, e.g. www.example.com, into the + addresses, e.g. 208.77.188.166, that networking e;uipment needs to deliver information. +t also stores other information such as the list of mail exchange servers that accept email for a given domain. +n providing a worldwide keyword!based redirection service, the 3omain $ame ,ystem is an essential component of contemporary +nternet use.

DNS servers
The 3omain $ame ,ystem consists of a hierarchical set of 3$, servers. 6ach domain or subdomain has one or more authoritative 3$, servers that publish information about that domain and the name servers of any domains JbeneathJ it. The hierarchy of authoritative 3$, servers matches the hierarchy of domains. At the top of the hierarchy stand the root nameservers0 the servers to ;uery when looking up (resolving) a top!level domain name (T#3).

DNS resolvers
A resolver looks up the resource record information associated with nodes. A resolver knows how to communicate with name servers by sending 3$, ;ueries and heeding 3$, responses.

A 3$, ;uery may be either a recursive ;uery or a non!recursive ;uery0


A non!recursive ;uery is one where the 3$, server may provide a partial answer to the ;uery (or give an error). 3$, servers must support non!recursive ;ueries. A recursive ;uery is one where the 3$, server will fully answer the ;uery (or give an error). 3$, servers are not re;uired to support recursive ;ueries.

The resolver (or another 3$, server acting recursively on behalf of the resolver) negotiates use of recursive service using bits in the ;uery headers. 4esolving usually entails iterating through several name servers to find the needed information. Eowever, some resolvers function simplistically and can only communicate with a single name server. These simple resolvers rely on a recursive ;uery to a recursive name server to perform the work of finding information for them.

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+n the %12&s, >ell began to digiti"e the telephone system, and developed early high!speed radio modems for this purpose. 7nce digital long!haul networks were in place, they were leased for every other purpose. 7ptic fibre manufacturing was mastered in the %19&s, and optic modems were first invented for these early systems. The first systems simply used light!emitting diodes and +$ diodes. Baster modulation was ;uickly adopted for long!haul networks. +n the %11&s, multispectral optical modems were adopted as well. 2) Na""o.ba!dB6&o!e-#2!e ;2a#u+ Mode $ A standard modem of today contains two functional parts0 an analog section for generating the signals and operating the phone, and a digital section for setup and control. This functionality is actually incorporated into a single chip, but the division remains in theory. +n operation the modem can be in one of two JmodesJ, data ode in which data is sent to and from the computer over the phone lines, and co a!d ode in which the modem listens to the data from the computer for commands, and carries them out. A typical session consists of powering up the modem (often inside the computer itself) which automatically assumes command mode, then sending it the command for dialing a number. After the connection is established to the remote modem, the modem automatically goes into data mode, and the user can send and receive data. -hen the user is finished, the escape se;uence, JKKKJ followed by a pause of about a second, is sent to the modem to return it to command mode, and the command ATE to hang up the phone is sent. 3) Rad2o ode $

3irect broadcast satellite, -iBi, and mobile phones all use modems to communicate, as do most other wireless services today. 'odern telecommunications and data networks also make extensive use of radio modems where long distance data links are re;uired. ,uch systems are an important part of the ,T$, and are also in common use for high! speed computer network links to outlying areas where fibre is not economical. 6ven where a cable is installed, it is often possible to get better performance or make other parts of the system simpler by using radio fre;uencies and modulation techni;ues through a cable.

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*"oadba!d 3,# modem A3,# modems, a more recent development, are not limited to the telephoneIs JvoicebandJ audio fre;uencies. ,ome A3,# modems use coded orthogonal fre;uency division modulation (3'T). .able modems use a range of fre;uencies originally intended to carry 4B television channels. 'ultiple cable modems attached to a single cable can use the same fre;uency band, using a low!level media access protocol to allow them to work together within the same channel. Typically, IupI and IdownI signals are kept separate using fre;uency division multiple access. $ew types of broadband modems are beginning to appear, such as doubleway satellite and powerline modems

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Coice modems are regular modems that are capable of recording or playing audio over the telephone line. They are used for telephony applications. ,ee Coice modem command set for more details on voice modems. This type of modem can be used as BL7 card for rivate branch exchange systems

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.ommunications ,oftware is a program or tool that makes it possible to send and receive data over telephone lines, modems and the internet. .ommunication software it seems like a big word, ehG +n reality, it is already part of the tools we use for our daily lives but it is not often identified as communication softwares. 2)-2)- S2 +#e Co *a'io ,a(es >asically, 4adio waves were the predecessor of mobile phone communications and though they are not as popular as the next +pod, it revolutioni"ed communication technology as we knew it. .ommunications with airplanes, boats and individual radios are still being used by the military and a lot of individuals today. obile Phone There are actually many simple kinds of communications software in the market today. Bor instance, the mobile phoneDs program that allows us to call others through the phone by remitting sound is one of the most used programs today; another set of tools are the instant messengers we use in our mobile phones and the internet. Hou see, communication software have been around for a very long time but they havenDt been recogni"ed as software since we usually regard them as hardware or physical ob5ects. >ut in reality, without the technology working hand in hand with these ob5ects, they wouldnDt be able to function properly. u!2cat2o! So1t.a"e

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There are a couple of complex communications softwares but most of them involve transferring of data from, computer to computer, human to computer and vice versa. Satellite Comm%nications 7ne of the most complex functions for me is satellite communications. +t would involve a lot of algorithm and sophisticated tools in order to make the communication work, it is one of the programs, being utili"e to make our lives easier through tracking and allowing us to connect to it and seeing through its vision. Cell Sites Bor me, .ellular technology is one of the best breakthroughs of the past :& years since it now allows us to have simple, ;uick and reliable communication between any two mobile phones and other modes of communications in a push of a button. 7verall, .ommunications software has been around for a long while and they had always been one of the most powerful programs out there however communication software always stays in the shadows of the flashy hardware that use them. Co%nter sites Bree .ounter sites also represent a good resource for webmasters and software developers. They enable you to keep track on how many visitors your are recieving while at the same time providing the visitors with feedback.

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