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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Particle Theory of Matter

Matter 1. Any substance that has mass and occupies space. 2. Made up of a large number of tiny and discrete particles. Atom (Neutral) 1. Smallest particle of substance. 2. Can participate in chemical reaction. 3. Atoms are built up of electron, proton and neutron. Atom 8 neutron 8 proton 8 electron

Molecule (Neutral) 1. Larger particle of two or more atoms which are chemically bonded together. 2. May be an element or compound (Hydrogen / Carbon dioxide) Ion 1. An ion is a charged particle formed when an atom loss (positive ions) or gain (negative ions) one or more electrons. 2. Cations Positively charged ions 3. Anions Negatively charged ions 4. Only found in compound. Compound 1. A pure substance formed by chemically combining at least two different elements by chemical bonds. 2. Can be made into smaller by means of a chemical reaction. 3. Made up of molecules or ions. Compound Covalent Compound Made up of molecules Formed by sharing electrons Velocity of particles increases when: a) Temperature increases b) Kinetic energy increases Ionic Compound Made up of ions Formed by transfer electrons

Kinetic Theory of Matter

Diffusion 1. Movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. 2. Occurs when the particles of the substance move through the space between the particles of another substance. 3. The rate of diffusion is highest in gas and lowest in solid. CHEMISTRY (FORM 4) | 1

CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 4. Diffusion is the proof of the particle theory of matter. State of Matter Characteristic Arrangement of particles Forces of attraction Solid Are Packed Closely Together In An Orderly Manner Strong FORCES Liquid Are Packed Closely Together But Not In Orderly Manner Strong FORCES BUT WEAKER THAN THE FORCES IN A SOLID Particles VIBRATE, ROTATE AND MOVE THROUGHOUT THE LIQUID. They COLLIDE AGAINST EACH OTHER - Has A Fixed Volume And Follows The Shape Of The Container Cannot BE COMPRESSED EASILY Gas Very Far Apart And In A Random Motion Weak FORCES Particles VIBRATE, ROTATE AND MOVE FREELY. The RATE OF COLLISION IS GREATER THAN IN LIQUID Does Not Have A Fixed Shape Of Volume Can BE COMPRESSED EASILY

Movement of particles

Particles VIBRATE AND ROTATE ABOUT THEIR FIXED POSITON - Has A Fixed Volume And Shape Cannot BE COMPRESSED

Shape / Volume Compressibility

Melting Point, Boiling Point and State of Matter

25oC is optimum room temperature. A substance is in solid state if it exists at a temperature below its melting point. (x < 25oC) Solid A substance is in liquid state if it exists at a temperature above its melting point but below its boiling point. (25oC~) Liquid A substance is in gaseous state if it exists at a temperature above its boiling point. (x > 25oC) Gas

Inter-conversion between States of Matter

Melting Definition Melting is the process where a solid changes to its liquid state at a certain temperature (called the melting point) when it is heated. When a solid is heated, the particles obtain energy and vibrate at a faster rate. As the temperature increases, the vibration of the particles increases until they reach the melting point where the particles obtain enough energy to overcome the forces that hold them in their fixed positions. The solid then changes into a liquid. During melting, the temperature remains constant. This is because the heat CHEMISTRY (FORM 4) |

CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM energy is taken in by the particles to overcome forces between them instead of being used to raise the temperature. The freezing and melting points of a pure substance are the same.

Definition Freezing is the process where a liquid changes to its solid state at a certain temperature (called freezing point) and pressure when it is cooled. Freezing When a liquid is cooled, the temperature drops as heat energy is released to the surroundings. As heat energy is released, the kinetic energy of the particles in the liquid decreases, causing a slower movement of particles. The particles lose their energy and are pulled closer by the strong forces between the particles. As the temperature keep on dropping until it reach the freezing point, the liquid start changing into solid. The temperature stays constant while the liquid freezes because heat energy is released when the particles slow down to take up fixed and orderly positions in the solid.

Definition Evaporation is the process whereby atoms or molecules in a liquid state gain sufficient energy to enter the gaseous state. Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid at a certain temperature (the boiling point) and pressure when heat is applied to it. Evaporation Evaporation occurs below the boiling point of the liquid. The particles escape from the surface of the liquid to form gas. Evaporation differs from boiling in that it only takes place at the surface of the liquid and it is very slow. On the other hand, boiling takes place throughout the liquid and is very fast. Evaporation Factors influencing rate of evaporation Humidity of the air. Temperature of the substance. Flow rate of air. Inter-molecular forces. The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid or solid state the more energy that must be input in order to evaporate them. If conditions allow the formation of vapour bubbles within a liquid, the vaporization process is called boiling. Boiling

When a liquid is heated, the particles gain energy and move faster. As heat energy is keep on supplying to the liquid, the particles will eventually obtain enough energy to completely break the forces in between molecule. The liquid then changes into a gas and particles are now able to move freely CHEMISTRY (FORM 4) |

CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM and are far apart. The temperature at which this happens is called the boiling point. The temperature remains constant during boiling because heat energy that is absorbed by the particles is used to break the forces holding them together.

Definition Condensation is the process by which a gas or vapor changes to liquid state at certain temperature and pressure when it is cooled. Condensation

When a gas is cooled, the particles lose kinetic energy. As a result they move slower and this will cause the forces between them grow stronger. At this point, the gas changes into liquid. During condensation, heat is given out to the surroundings. Condensation can occur at or below the boiling point of the substance

Definition Sublimation is a process of conversion of a substance from the solid to the vapour state without its becoming liquid. Sublimation

Some solids change directly into gas without becoming a liquid. This process is called sublimation. When heated, the particles of the solid gain enough energy to break the forces between them and move freely as a gas. When cooled, the gas changes straight back to solid. Examples of substances which sublime are solid carbon dioxide (dry ice), ammonium chloride and iodine.

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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Heating Curve

A-B

B-C

C-D

Naphthalene is in solid state at any temperature below its melting point. The particles are very closely packed together in an orderly manner. The forces between the particles are very strong. The particles can only vibrate at a fixed position. As the naphthalene is heated, heat energy is converted to kinetic energy. Kinetic energy increases and the molecules vibrate faster about their fixed positions and the temperature increases. Naphthalene is still in solid state. Naphthalene molecules have received enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction between them. Some of the particles that gain enough energy begin to move freely. Naphthalene starts to melt and changes into a liquid. Naphthalene exists in both solid and liquid states. The temperature remains constant because the heat that supplied to naphthalene is used to overcome the forces of attraction that hold the particles together. The constant temperature is called the melting point. The heat energy that absorbed to overcome the intermolecular forces is named as the latent heat of fusion. All the naphthalene has completely melted. Solid naphthalene has turned into liquid. Naphthalene is in liquid state. As the liquid naphthalene is heated, the molecules gain more heat energy and the temperature continues to increase. The particles move faster and faster because their kinetic energy is increasing. CHEMISTRY (FORM 4) |

CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

D-E

E E-F

Naphthalene still exists in liquid state. Naphthalene molecules have received enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction between the particles in the liquid. Some of the naphthalene molecules start to move freely and liquid naphthalene begin to change into gas. Naphthalene exists in both liquid and gaseous states. The temperature remains unchanged. The is because the heat energy absorbed is used to overcome the intermolecular forces between the particles of the liquid rather than increase the temperature of the liquid. This constant temperature is the boiling point. All the naphthalene has turn into gas. The gas particles continue to absorb more energy and move faster. The temperature increases as heating continues.

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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Cooling Curve

P-Q

Q-R

The substance exists in gaseous state. The particles have very high energy and are moving randomly. The intermolecular forces between the particles are very weak and can be ignored. The substance is in gaseous state. The particles lose kinetic energy during cooling, the particles getting closer to each other and the temperature drops. The substance still exists as a gas. As the molecules are close enough, stronger forces of attraction result in forming of intermolecular bonds. The gas begins to condense and become liquid. The process of condensation going on. Stronger bonds form as gas changes into liquid. The substance exists in both gaseous and liquid states. The temperature remains unchanged. This is because the energy produced during the formation of bonds is equal to the heat energy released to the surroundings during cooling. This constant temperature is the boiling point. The heat energy that releases during this condensation process is called the latent heat of vaporization. The substance exists only in liquid state as all the gas particles have condensed into liquid. 7 The substance exists as a liquid. As the temperature falls, the naphthalene molecules lose heat energy. Their movement shows down and they move closer to each other. CHEMISTRY (FORM 4) |

R-S

CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

S-T

T T-U U

The substance still in liquid state. The particles have very little energy and begin to move closer towards one another as it starts to freeze into solid. The liquid is changing into solid form. Molecules rearrange to form the molecular arrangement of a solid. The substance exists as both liquid and solid. The temperature remains constant until all the liquid changes to solid. This is because the energy released is the same as the energy lost to the surroundings during cooling. This constant temperature is the freezing point. The heat energy that releases during this freezing process is called the latent heat of fusion. All the liquid freezes into solid. The particles are now closely packed in an orderly manner. Once all the liquid has become solid, the temperature falls once again until it reaches room temperature. The substance is in the solid state here. The substance reaches room temperature and remains at this temperature as long as the room temperature remains the same.

Modern Atomic Model

The central nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. It contains almost all the mass of the atom. The nucleus of an atom is very small compared to the size of the atom 3. The electrons are orbiting outside the nucleus in the electron shells 4. The electrons are moving in electron shells at a very high speed and we cannot determine the position of the electrons at a particular time
1. 2.

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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Name of scientist John Dalton

Contribution

Matter consists of solid particles called atoms. J.J Thomson

He discovers the electron. He suggested that an atom is positive charged sphere/cloud with electron embedded in it. He discovers the proton. He suggested that protons are concentrated in the center of the atom called the nucleus, with a cloud of electrons surrounding the nucleus. He suggested that the electrons are moved in definite orbits surrounding the nucleus.

Ernest Rutherford

Niels Bohr

James Chadwick He discovered the neutron. He suggested that nucleus consists of protons and neutrons, with the nucleus surrounded by electron shells.
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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

The Properties Of The Subatomic Particles: PROTONS, ELECTRONS AND NEUTRONS Subatomic Relative Symbol Charge Particle Mass Proton Electron Neutron p e n 1 1/1840 1 +1 -1 0 Location In the nucleus In orbits around the nucleus In the nucleus

Proton Element Symbol Number 1 Hydrogen H 2 Helium He 3 Lithium Li 4 Beryllium Be 5 Boron B 6 Carbon C 7 Nitrogen N 8 Oxygen O 9 Fluorine F 10 Neon Ne

Proton Number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Element Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium

Symbol Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca
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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Protons Number and Nucleon Number

1. All elements are made up of small invisible particles called atoms. 2. The proton number (also known as the atomic number) of an atom is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Proton number = Electron number. 3. The nucleon number (also known as mass number) of an atom is the sum/total of the number of protons and neutrons in the atom.
Nucleon number A Symbol of element Proton number Z

Nucleon number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

Isotopes and Their Importance

The isotopes of an element are the atoms of that element which contain a same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons.
Properties of Isotope Number of proton Equal Number of neutron Difference Chemical properties Same Physical properties Difference

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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Element

Isotopes

Hydrogen

1 1H
1 proton 0 neutron

2 1H
1 proton 1 neutron

3 1H
1 proton 2 neutrons

Carbon

12 6C
6 protons 6 neutrons

13 6C
6 protons 7 neutrons

14 6C
6 protons 8 neutrons

Oxygen

16 8O
8 protons 8 neutrons

17 8O
8 protons 9 neutrons

18 8O
8 protons 10 neutrons

Sulphur

32 16 S
16 protons 16 neutrons

34 16 S
16 protons 18 neutrons -

Bromine

79 35 Br
35 protons 44neutrons

81 35 Br
35 protons 46 neutrons CHEMISTRY (FORM 4) | 12

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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

The uses of isotopes in daily life

Field

Isotopes applications Gamma rays from cobalt- 60 are used to kill cancer cell (radiotherapy) Radioactive materials such as iodide-131 are injected into patients to detect malfunction of thyroid glands. Sodium-24 is used to detect tumors.

Medical

Archeology Radioisotope carbon -14 is used to study the age of ancient artifacts. Carbon -14 is used to study the passage of carbon in photosynthesis of green plants. Agricultural Nitrogen-15 & Phosphorus-32 can be used to see how much substances are taken up by a plant. Industrial Sodium-24 is used to detect leakage of underground pipes. Plutonium-238 is used for power generation.

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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

The Electronic Structure

First shell: 2 electrons Second shell: 8 electrons Third shell: 8 electrons

Nucleus

The electrons in the outermost occupied shell are known as valence electrons (last).

Example: Sodium atom 23 11

Electronic structure

Na
Na
14

Electron arrangement: 2.8.1 Number of valence electron: 1

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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Example: Magnesium atom 24 12

Mg

Electronic structure

Electron arrangement: 2.8.2 Number of valence electron: 2 Number of proton: 12 Number of electron: 12 Number of neutron: 24-12= 12
Mg

Example: Chlorine atom 35

17

Cl

Electronic structure

Electron arrangement: 2.8.7 Number of valence electron: 7 Number of proton: 17 Number of electron: 17 Number of neutron: 35-17= 18
Cl

15

The electron arrangement of elements with proton number 1 to 20.

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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Element

Number Number Of Of Neutrons Protons

Number Electron Nucleon Of ArrangeNumber Electrons Ment

Number Of Valence Electrons

Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium

0 2 4 5 6 6 7 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16 18 22 20 20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1 4 7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20 23 24 27 28 31 32 35 40 39 40

1 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8 2.8.8.1 2.8.8.2

1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2
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CHAPTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

The electronic structures of elements with protons numbers 1 to 20

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium

Beryllium

Boron

EA : 1 NVE: 1 Carbon

EA: 2 Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine

EA : 2.5 NVE: 5 Neon

Sodium

Magnesium

Aluminum

Silicon

Phosphorus

Sulphur

Chlorine

Argon

Potassium

Calcium

EA : Electron arrangement NVE: Number of valence electron

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