C2 Process Models Part I

Chng 1
iu khin qu trnh
Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh - phn I
18/08/2006
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Ni dung chng 2
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Gii thiu chung Cc dng m hnh ton hc M hnh ha l thuyt M hnh ha thc nghim
Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh
2006 - HMS
2.1 Gii thiu chung

M hnh l mt hnh thc m t khoa hc v c ng cc kha cnh thit yu ca mt h thng thc, c th c sn hoc cn phi xy dng. Mt m hnh phn nh h thng thc t mt gc nhn no phc v hu ch cho mc ch s dng. Phn loi m hnh:
M M M M hnh hnh hnh hnh ha: S khi, lu P&ID, lu thut ton ton hc: ODE, Hm truyn, m hnh trng thi my tnh: Chng trnh phn mm suy lun: C s tri thc, lut
Trong ni dung chng 2 ta quan tm ti xy dng m hnh ton hc cho cc qu trnh cng ngh.
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Mc ch s dng m hnh
1. Hiu r hn v qu trnh 2. Thit k cu trc/sch lc iu khin v la chn kiu b iu khin 3. Tnh ton v chnh nh cc tham s ca b iu khin 4. Xc nh im lm vic ti u cho h thng 5. M phng, o to ngi vn hnh
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Th no l mt m hnh tt
Cht lng m hnh th hin qua:
Tnh trung thc ca m hnh: Mc chi tit v mc chnh xc ca m hnh Gi tr s dng (ph hp theo mc ch s dng) Mc n gin ca m hnh
Khng c m hnh no chnh xc, nhng mt s m hnh c ch. Mt m hnh tt cn n gin nhng thu tm c cc c tnh thit yu cn quan tm ca th gii thc trong mt ng cnh s dng.
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Tng quan qui trnh m hnh ha

1. t bi ton m hnh ha 2. Phn chia thnh cc qu trnh c bn 3. Xy dng cc m hnh thnh phn 4. Kt hp cc m hnh thnh phn 5. Phn tch v kim chng m hnh
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Phng php xy dng m hnh ton hc

Phng php l thuyt (m hnh ha l thuyt, phn tch qu trnh, m hnh ha vt l):
Xy dng m hnh trn nn tng cc nh lut vt l, ha hc c bn Ph hp nht cho cc mc ch 1., 2. v 5.
Phng php thc nghim (nhn dng qu trnh, phng php hp en):
c lng m hnh trn c s cc quan st s liu vo-ra thc nghim Ph hp nht cho cc mc ch 3. v 4.
Phng php kt hp:

M hnh ha l thuyt xc nh cu trc m hnh M hnh ha thc nghim c lng cc tham s m hnh
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2.2 Cc dng m hnh ton hc

M hnh tuyn tnh/M hnh ph tuyn:
M hnh tuyn tnh: Phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh, m hnh hm truyn, m hnh trng thi tuyn tnh, p ng qu , p ng tn s... M hnh phi tuyn: Phng trnh vi phn (phi tuyn), m hnh trng thi
M hnh n bin/M hnh a bin

M hnh n bin: Mt bin vo iu khin v mt bin ra c iu khin, bin vo-ra c biu din l cc i lng v hng M hnh a bin: Nhiu bin vo iu khin hoc/v nhiu bin ra, cc bin vo-ra c th c biu din di dng vector
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Cc dng m hnh ton hc (tip)

M hnh tham s hng/ M hnh tham s bin thin:
M hnh tham s hng : cc tham s m hnh khng thay i theo thi gian M hnh tham s bin thin: t nht 1 tham s m hnh thay i theo thi gian
M hnh tham s tp trung/M hnh tham s ri:

M hnh tham s tp trung: cc tham s m hnh khng ph thuc vo v tr, c th biu din m hnh bng (h) phng trnh vi phn thng (OEDs) M hnh tham s ri: t nht mt tham s m hnh ph thuc v tr, biu din m hnh bng (h) phng trnh vi phn o hm ring
M hnh lin tc/m hnh gin on

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2.3 M hnh ha l thuyt

Cc bc m hnh ha l thuyt:
1. Phn tch bi ton m hnh ha
Tm hiu lu cng ngh, nu r mc ch s dng ca m hnh, t xc nh mc chi tit v chnh xc ca m hnh cn xy dng. Phn chia thnh cc qu trnh con, Lit k cc gi thit lin quan ti xy dng m hnh nhm n gin ha m hnh. Nhn bit v t tn cc bin qu trnh v cc tham s qu trnh.
2. Xy dng cc phng trnh m hnh
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3. Kim chng m hnh:

Phn tch bc t do ca qu trnh da trn s lng cc bin qu trnh v s lng cc quan h ph thuc. Phn tch kh nng gii c ca m hnh, kh nng iu khin c nh gi m hnh v mc ph hp vi yu cu da trn phn tch cc tnh cht ca m hnh kt hp m phng my tnh.
4. Pht trin m hnh:

Phn tch cc c tnh ca m hnh Chuyn i m hnh v cc dng thch hp Tuyn tnh ha m hnh ti im lm vic nu cn thit. M phng, so snh m hnh tuyn tnh ha vi m hnh phi tuyn ban u Thc hin chun ha m hnh theo yu cu ca phng php phn tch v thit k iu khin.
5. Lp li mt trong cc bc trn nu cn thit

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2.3.1 Nhn bit cc bin qu trnh

Tm hiu lu cng ngh, nu r mc ch s dng ca m hnh, t xc nh mc chi tit v chnh xc ca m hnh cn xy dng. Phn chia thnh cc qu trnh con, nhn bit v t tn cc bin qu trnh v cc tham s qu trnh. Lit k cc gi thit lin quan ti xy dng m hnh nhm n gin ha m hnh.
Phn bit gia tham s cng ngh v bin qu trnh Nhn bit cc bin ra cn iu khin theo mc ch iu khin: thng l p sut, nng , mc Nhn bit cc bin iu khin tim nng: thng l lu lng, cng sut nhit (can thip c qua van iu khin, qua thay i in p, v.v) Cc bin nhiu qu trnh
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V d bnh cha cht lng
Gi thit 0 khng thay i ng k => = 0 v c coi l mt tham s qu trnh. Da quan h nhn qu => V l mt bin ra, F v F0 l cc bin vo. Phn tch mc ch iu khin => Bin cn iu khin l V. F0 ph thuc vo qu trnh ng trc => nhiu F phi l bin iu khin.
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V d thit b khuy trn lin tc
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V d thit b gia nhit
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V d thp chng luyn hai cu t
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Phn tch mc ch iu khin

m bo cht lng: Duy tr nng sn phm nh (xD) v nng sn phm y (xB) ti gi tr t mong mun m bo nng sut: m bo lu lng sn phm nh (D) v lu lng sn phm y (B) theo nng sut mong mun m bo vn hnh an ton, n nh: Duy tr nhit v p sut trong thp (T, P), mc y thp (MB) v mc ti bnh cha (MD) trong phm vi cho php Ty theo yu cu bi ton c th m chn cc bin cn iu khin thch hp!
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Cc bin qu trnh trong bi ton tiu biu

Bin cn iu khin:
y =[x D
Bin iu khin
xB
MD
MB
P]
u = [L V
Nhiu qu trnh
D B
VT ]
d = [F
xF
TF
VF
. .. ]
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2.3.2 Xy dng cc phng trnh m hnh

Vit cc phng trnh cn bng v cc phng trnh cu thnh
Cc phng trnh cn bng c tnh cht nn tng, vit di dng dng phng trnh vi phn hoc phng trnh i s, c xy dng trn c s cc nh lut bo ton vt cht, bo ton nng lng v cc nh lut khc Cc phng trnh cu thnh lin quan nhiu ti qu trnh c th, thng c a ra di dng phng trnh i s.
n gin ha m hnh bng cch thay th, rt gn v a v dng phng trnh vi phn chun tc. Tnh ton cc tham s ca m hnh da trn cc thng s cng ngh c c t.
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Cc phng trnh cn bng vt cht

Phng trnh cn bng vt cht (ton phn)
trng thi xc lp
Phng trnh cn bng thnh phn
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V d bnh cha cht lng
Gi thit
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V d thit b khuy trn lin tc

Cn bng khi lng:
Cn bng thnh phn:
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V d thit b phn ng lin tc

Gi thit khi lng ring khng khc nhau ng k: 0 =
Cn bng vt cht ton phn
Cn bng thnh phn
Ph thu c hai PT trc uploaded by http://scribd.com/pvdai
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Cc phng trnh cn bng nng lng

Phng trnh cn bng nng lng tng qut
B qua th nng v ng nng
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Phng trnh cn bng nhit cho cht lng (n gin ha)
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V d thit b trao i nhit
Phng trnh cn bng nhit trng thi xc lp
Coi nhit dung ring khng thay i
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V d bnh cha nhit
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Cc phng trnh cu thnh

Cc phng trnh truyn nhit
Dn nhit i lu Bc x nhit
Cc phng trnh ng hc phn ng ha hc Cc phng trnh cn bng pha
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2.3.3 Phn tch bc t do ca m hnh

Bi ton m phng:
Cho m hnh + cc u vo + cc trng thi ban u Xc nh (tnh ton) din bin u ra => a v bi ton gii cc phng trnh m hnh theo cc bin u ra c lp
Vn : Cc phng trnh m hnh m t quan h gia cc bin qu trnh hay cha?

Nu thiu: S phng trnh t hn s bin ra c lp, h phng trnh c v s nghim Nu tha: S phng trnh nhiu hn s bin ra c lp, h phng trnh v nghim
Kh nng m phng c lin quan ti kh nng iu khin c.

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Bc t do ca m hnh: S bin qu trnh tr i s phng trnh c lp

S cc bin t do c trong m hnh, hay chnh l S lng ti a cc vng iu khin n tc ng c lp c th s dng
M hnh m bo tnh nht qun: S bc t do = s bin vo V d thit b khuy trn:

S bin qu trnh: 7 (h, w, w1, w2, x, x1, x2) S phng trnh c lp: 2 S bc t do: 5 => m hnh nht qun
V d thit b phn ng:

S bin qu trnh: 6 (F0, F, cA0, cA, V) S phng trnh c lp: 2 S bc t do: 3 => m hnh nht qun, nhng s bin iu khin < s bin cn iu khin
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M hnh khng nht qun: Nguyn nhn?

S bc t do > s bin vo:
M hnh cn thiu phng trnh cn xy dng, v d trong v d thit b trao i nhit cn thiu mt phng trnh truyn nhit Tha s bin ra c th iu khin c lp
S bc t do < s bin vo:

Cc phng trnh m hnh cha hon ton c lp vi nhau Qu trnh c thit k c li, cha s bin vo iu khin
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2.3.4 Tuyn tnh ha ti im lm vic

Ti sao cn tuyn tnh ha?
Tt c qu trnh thc t u l phi tuyn (t hay nhiu) Cc m hnh tuyn tnh d s dng (tha mn nguyn l xp chng) Phn ln l thuyt iu khin t ng s dng m hnh tuyn tnh (v d hm truyn t)
Ti sao tuyn tnh ha xung quanh im lm vic?

Qu trnh thng c vn hnh trong mt phm vi xung quanh im lm vic (bi ton iu chnh!) Tuyn tnh ha trong mt phm vi nh gip gim sai lch m hnh Cho php s dng bin chnh lch, m bo iu kin p dng php bin i Laplace (s kin bng 0).
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Hai phng php tip cn

Tuyn tnh ha trc tip trn phng trinh vi phn da theo cc gi thit v im lm vic:
Gi thit c nh
S dng bin chnh lch v php khai trin chui Taylor: a nng, thng dng
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Php khai trin Taylor

= f (x , u ), x (0) = x 0 x y = g (x , u ) x n , u m , f : n m n y p , g : n m p
= f (x , u ) = 0 hay x
Gi s c im cn bng (x , u ) t:
x = x + x u = u + u
Ta c:
f f = x = f (x + x , u + u ) f (x , u ) + x + u x x x , u u x , u 0
g g ( )+ x + u y = y + y = g (x + x , u + u ) g x , u x x , u u x , u y
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t cc ma trn Jacobi
A=
f , x x , u f B = , u x , u g , x x , u g D = , u x , u
A nn B nm C pn D pm
C =
Thay li k hiu x x , u u , y y
= Ax + Bu , x y = Cx + Du
x (0) = x 0 x
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V d bnh cha nhit
Ti im lm vic:
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S dng cc k hiu:
Bin i Laplace cho c hai v:
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V d thit b khuy trn

1 (w1 + w2 w ) h = f = 1 A 1 x f (w1x1 + w2x 2 (w1 + w2 )x ) = = 2 Ah
0 = w1 + w2 w
0 = w1x1 + w2x 2 (w1 + w2 )x
Phng trnh th nht tuyn tnh, ch cn vit li vi bin chnh lch: = 1 (w1 + w2 w) h A Bin i Laplace cho c hai v:
1 s H (s ) = (W1(s ) + W2 (s ) W (s )) A
t kwh =
1 A
H (s ) =
kwh ( W (s ) + W1(s ) + W2 (s ) ) s
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Khai trin chui Taylor cho phng trnh th hai:

) = x = (x x x f2 f f f f f h + 2 x + 2 w1 + 2 w2 + 2 x1 + 2 x 2 h * x w1 w1 x 1 x 2 1 1 = + + +w w x w x w w x h ( ( ) ) (w )x 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 Ah Ah w
0
x1 x x x w w w1 + 2 w2 + 1 x1 + 2 x 2 Ah Ah Ah Ah 1 (w x + (x1 x )w1 + (x 2 x )w2 + w1x1 + w2x 2 ) = Ah +
Bin i Laplace cho c hai v:
AhsX (s ) = wX (s ) + (x1 x )W1(s ) + (x2 x )W2 (s ) + w1X1(s ) + w2X2 (s )
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Chia c hai v cho w v chuyn v (ti sao li phi chia???)
Ah x x x x w w s + 1)X (s ) = 1 W1(s ) + 2 W2 (s ) + 1 X1(s ) + 2 X 2 (s ) w w w w w

K hiu cc tham s (c bit quan tm ti th nguyn):
Ah x1 x x2 x w1 w2 , kw 1x = , kw 2x = , kx 1x = , kx 2x = = w w w w w
Ta i ti dng m hnh hm truyn t quen thuc:
kw 1x kw 2x kx 1x kx 2x X (s ) = W1(s ) + W2 (s ) + X1(s ) + X 2 (s ) s + 1 s + 1 s + 1 s + 1
t li k hiu (vector):
w2 h w , u = , d = x1 , y = x x = x w1 x 2
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M hnh hm truyn t ca qu trnh c vit gn li:

y (s) = G p (s)u (s) + Gd (s)d (s)
kwh G p (s ) = s 0
kwh s , kw 1x s +1
kwh Gd (s ) = k s w 2x s +1
0
kx 1x s +1
0 kx 2x s +1
T hai phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh ha ta cng c th i ti m hnh trng thi: h 1 0 0 1 h , B = A= = Ax + Bu + Ed x Ah 0 w Ah 0 x1 x y = Cx 1 0 0 0 1 h , C = E = 0 1 Ah x 2 x w1 w2 Quan h gia hai m hnh:
G p (s) = C (s I A)1 B , Gd (s) = C (s I A)1 E
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S khi ca m hnh hm truyn t
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V d tnh ton vi cc thng s cho trc:

A = 0.8 m2 , = 1.25 kg / lt w2 = 200 kg / pht x = 0.4, x1 = 0.8, x 2 = 0.2 h = 1 mt
T cc phng trnh m hnh trng thi xc lp: Ta xc nh c cc gi tr cn li ti im lm vic:
0 0
= w1 + w2 w = w1x1 + w2x 2 (w1 + w2 )x
w1 = 100 [kg / pht] w = 300 [kg / pht]
Thay vo cc ma trn truyn t:

0.001 s G p (s ) = 0 0.001 s , G (s ) = d 0.000667 3.333s + 1 0.001 0 0 s 0.000667 0.333 0.667 3.333s + 1 3.333s + 1 3.333s + 1
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Tm tt cc bc tuyn tnh ha
1. n gin ha m hnh nh c th, nu c th nn tch thnh nhiu m hnh con c lp. 2. Xc nh r im lm vic v gi tr cc bin qu trnh ti im lm vic c m hnh trng thi xc lp. 3. i vi cc phng trnh tuyn tnh, thay th cc bin thc bng cc bin chnh lch. 4. Tuyn tnh ha tng phng trnh phi tuyn ca m hnh ti im lm vic bng php khai trin Taylor, bt u vi cc phng trnh i s v sau l vi cc phng trnh vi phn. 5. t li k hiu cho cc bin chnh lch (s dng k hiu vector nu cn) v vit gn li cc phng trnh m hnh. 6. Tnh ton li cc tham s ca m hnh da vo gi tr cc bin qu trnh ti im lm vic. 7. Chuyn m hnh tuyn tnh v dng mong mun, v d biu din trong khng gian trng thi hoc bng hm truyn t.
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2.3.5 M phng qu trnh

M phng l phng php ti to cc hnh vi ca mt h thng thc trn c s m hnh nhm tm ra cc c tnh cn quan tm. M phng cc qu trnh cng ngh phc v nhiu mc ch nh:
Kim chng m hnh ton hc Kim chng thit k cng ngh Kho st cc tnh cht ca qu trnh Thit k cu trc v thut ton iu khin Kim chng phn mm iu khin D bo din bin ca qu trnh o to c bn v o to vn hnh
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M phng da trn m hnh phi tuyn

dx = f (x , u ), x (0) = x 0 dt
Nghim ca phng trnh: Gin on ha: Phng php Euler:
x (t ) = x 0 +
0 f (x , u )dt
ti +1 ti
x i +1 = x i +
f (x , u )dt
x i +1 x i + (ti +1 ti )f (x i , u i )
Phng php hnh thang: 1 x i +1 x i + (ti +1 ti )[ f (x i , u i ) + f (x i +1, u i +1 ) ] 2 (1) (1) ph thuc vo chnh xi+1, nhng c th c lng da vo cng thc Euler (pp Runger-Kutta bc 2)
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M phng da trn m hnh tuyn tnh

dx = Ax + Bu , x (0) = x 0 dt
Gin on ha:
x (kT + T ) = e
AT
x (kT ) +
kT +T
= e AT x (kT ) +
kT kT +T kT T 0
eA(kT +T )Bu ( )d e A(kT +T )d Bu (kT )
= e AT x (kT ) + e AtdtBu (kT ) = x (kT ) + u (kT )
= e AT =
e AtdtB
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M phng s dng MATLAB/SIMULINK

Gii cc h phng trnh vi phn thng (ODE: ode23, ode45, ...) v h phng trnh vi phn o hm ring (PDE) => m phng h phi tuyn S dng Control Toolbox => m phng h tuyn tnh M phng trc quan trn c s s khi vi Simulink, cho php ghp ni nhiu m hnh thnh phn v la chn phng php gii phng trnh vi phn thch hp => m phng cc h tuyn tnh v phi tuyn
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V d m phng thit b khuy trn lin tc (m hnh phi tuyn)

y1 h y = = y2 x
1 k = = 0.001 [m/kg] A
k(w1 + w2 w ) k(w1x 2 + w2x 2 (w1 + w2 )y2 )/ y1
dy = f (y , w1 , w2 , w , x1 , x 2 ) = dt
1. Biu din o hm: function dydt = f(t,y,k,w1,w2,w,x1,x2) dydt = [k*(w1+w2-w) k*(w1*x1+w2*x2-w1*y(2)-w2*y(2))/y(1)]; 2. t cc gi tr u (trng thi xc lp): w1=100; w2=200; w =300; x1=0.8; x2=0.2; k =0.001;
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3. Gii (h) phng trnh vi phn tspan = [0:0.1:20]; y0 = [1; 0.4]; [t y] = ode45(@f,tspan,y0,[],k,1.1*w1,w2,w,x1,x2); %[t y] = ode45(@f,tspan,y0,[],k,w1,1.1*w2,w,x1,x2); %... 4. V th biu din kt qu m phng plot(t,y(:,1)); title('Step change in 10% feed rate \itw_1'); xlabel('Time (min)'); ylabel('Level h (m)'); grid on figure(2); plot(t,y(:,2)); title('Step change in 10% feed rate \itw_1'); xlabel('Time (min)'); ylabel('Composition x'); grid on
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V d m phng thit b khuy trn lin tc (m hnh tuyn tnh)

% Simulation of the blending process with linearized model w1 = 100; w2 = 200; w = 300; x1 = 0.8; x2 = 0.2; x = 0.4; k = 0.001; T = 1/(k*w); Gw1h = tf(k,[1 0]); Gw1x = tf((x1-x)/w,[T 1]); t = [0:0.1:20]; y0 = [1; 0.4]; y = step([Gw1h Gw1x],t)*w1*0.1;
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V th biu din kt qu m phng figure(1); plot(t,y(:,1)+y0(1)); title('Step change in 10% feed rate w_1'); xlabel('Time (min)'); ylabel('Level h (m)'); grid figure(2); plot(t,y(:,2)+y0(2)); title('Step change in 10% feed rate w_1'); xlabel('Time (min)'); ylabel('Composition x'); grid
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Tm tt yu cu bi ging
Nm vng ngha, mc ch s dng ca m hnh qu trnh trong cc bc pht trin h thng Nm vng cc bc xy dng m hnh ton hc bng l thuyt, ngha ca tng bc:
Phn tch bi ton, nhn bit cc bin qu trnh ( lm g? Da vo u?) Xy dng cc phng trnh m hnh (Dng phng trnh? C s no?) Phn tch bc t do ca m hnh ( lm g? Din gii ngha c th?) Tuyn tnh ha xung quanh im lm vic ( lm g? Nh th no? Kt qu l g?) Nguyn tc m phng (phi tuyn/tuyn tnh), bit cch s dng cng c MATLAB trong m phng qu trnh
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Phn t hc/t nghin cu

c thm cun sch gio trnh: C s h thng iu khin qu trnh.
Xem chng 2 v tng quan v phn loi cc m hnh ton hc thng dng trong iu khin Nghin cu thm cc v d m hnh ha trong chng 3
Cu hi, bi tp:
Cc cu hi v bi tp cui chng 3 trong sch gio trnh S dng MATLAB, chy li v d m phng thit b khuy trn lin tc T luyn tp v d m phng bnh cha nhit (phi tuyn v tuyn tnh ha) s dng MATLAB, t cho cc thng s cng ngh ph hp.
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C2 Process Models Part I

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C2 Process Models Part I

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Chng 1

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

2.1 Gii thiu chung

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

Tng quan qui trnh m hnh ha

Phng php xy dng m hnh ton hc

Phng php kt hp:

2.2 Cc dng m hnh ton hc

M hnh n bin/M hnh a bin

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

Cc dng m hnh ton hc (tip)

M hnh tham s tp trung/M hnh tham s ri:

M hnh lin tc/m hnh gin on

2.3 M hnh ha l thuyt

2. Xy dng cc phng trnh m hnh

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

3. Kim chng m hnh:

4. Pht trin m hnh:

5. Lp li mt trong cc bc trn nu cn thit

2.3.1 Nhn bit cc bin qu trnh

V d bnh cha cht lng

V d thit b khuy trn lin tc

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

V d thit b gia nhit

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

V d thp chng luyn hai cu t

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

Phn tch mc ch iu khin

Cc bin qu trnh trong bi ton tiu biu

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

2.3.2 Xy dng cc phng trnh m hnh

Cc phng trnh cn bng vt cht

Phng trnh cn bng vt cht (ton phn)

Phng trnh cn bng thnh phn

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

V d bnh cha cht lng

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

V d thit b khuy trn lin tc

Cn bng khi lng:

Cn bng thnh phn:

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

V d thit b phn ng lin tc

Cn bng vt cht ton phn

Cn bng thnh phn

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

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Cc phng trnh cn bng nng lng

B qua th nng v ng nng

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

Phng trnh cn bng nhit cho cht lng (n gin ha)

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

V d thit b trao i nhit

Phng trnh cn bng nhit trng thi xc lp

Coi nhit dung ring khng thay i

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

V d bnh cha nhit

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

Cc phng trnh cu thnh

Cc phng trnh ng hc phn ng ha hc Cc phng trnh cn bng pha

Chng 2: M hnh qu trnh

2.3.3 Phn tch bc t do ca m hnh

Vn : Cc phng trnh m hnh m t quan h gia cc bin qu trnh hay cha?