FORGING

Forging is whereby the workpiece is shaped by compressive forces applied through various dies and tools. It is one of the oldest metal working operations, dating back at least to 4000 B.C. and, perhaps, as far back as 8000 B.C. Forging was first used to make jewelry, coins, and various implements by hammering metal with tools made of stone.

FORGING
Simple forging can be done with a heavy hand hammer and an anvil, as traditionally done by blacksmiths. Most forgings, however, require a set of dies and equipment such as a press or a forging hammer. Unlike rolling operations, which generally produce continuous plates, sheets, strip, or various structural cross-sections, forging operations produce discrete parts.

FORGING
Metal flow and grain structure can be controlled, so forged parts have good strength and toughness. Thus they can be used reliably for highly stressed and critical applications, such as landing gear for aircraft and jet-engine shafts and disks. Typical forged products are bolts and rivets, connecting rods, shafts for turbines, gears, hand tools, and structural components for machinery, railroads, and a variety of other transportation equipment. Forging may be done at room temperature (cold forging) or at elevated temperatures (warm or hot forging, depending on the temperature).

FORGING
Because of the higher strength of the material, cold forging requires greater forces, and the workpiece materials must have sufficient ductility at room temperature. Cold-forged parts have good surface finish and dimensional accuracy. Hot forging requires smaller forces, but dimensional accuracy and surface finish are not as good. Forgings generally require additional finishing operations, such as heat treating to modify properties and machining for accurate finished dimensions.

FORGING

Landing-gear components for theC5AandC58aircraft, made by forging. Source: Wyman-Gordon Company.(b) A hotforged rotor for a steam turbine weighing 300,000 kg (700,000 lb). Source: Courtesy of General Electric Company.

OPEN-DIE AND CLOSED-DIE FORGING

Open-die forging is the simplest forging process. A solid workpiece is placed between two flat dies and reduced in height by compressing it. This process is also called upsetting or flat-die forging. The die surfaces in open-die forging may have simple cavities to produce relatively simple forgings.

OPEN-DIE AND CLOSED-DIE FORGING

In close-die forging, the workpiece acquires the shape of the die cavities (impressions), while being forged between two shaped dies. During forging, some of the material flows outward and forms a flash.

The flash has a significant role in the flow of material in closed-die forging. The thin flash cools rapidly and, with its frictional resistance, subjects the material in the die cavity to high pressures, thus encouraging the filling of the die cavity.

In true closed-die, or flashless, forging, flash does not form, and the workpiece completely fills the die cavity. Accurate control of the volume of material and proper die design are essential in order to obtain a closed-die forging of desired dimensions and tolerances.

OPEN-DIE AND CLOSED-DIE FORGING

(a) Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine. Note the amount of flash required to ensure proper filling of the die cavities. (b) Fullering and (c) edging processes to distribute the material for preshaping the blank for forging.