Shamanistic Symptoms or Symbols?

A Case of Indetermination: (The Body of the Guajiro Shaman) Author(s): Michel Perrin Source: Anthropos, Bd. 82, H. 4./6. (1987), pp. 567-580 Published by: Anthropos Institute Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40463480 . Accessed: 29/11/2013 20:13
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82.1987: 567-580 Anthropos

or Symbols? Shamanistic Symptoms A Case of Indtermination (The bodyof the Guajiro shaman)
MichelPerrin
on the The traditional controversy ethnological or of of the "normality" "marginality" question and the shaman, kept alive by the culturalists has undoubttakenup bytheethnopsychiatrists, edly helped to befog and to limit studies on The basic reason forthiscontrovershamanism. betweencollectiverepresentasy is a confusion tion and individual behaviour which can be revealed by a thorough-going study of the and categories associated indigenousconcepts willbe shownon It is this that withshamanism. case of the Guajiro, the basis of the exemplary an Indian populationof Venezuela and Colomfor bia withwhomthe authorhas been working more than three years, between 1969 and 1985. It will be seen that the Guajiro consider of the body or particular manifestations specific in of behaviour regardto food,sexualipatterns to be true symbols of the dreams and ty, shamanistcalling and function.Now, in our behaviour society, these types of significant formulations are verbal and associated patterns and those studied by psychiatry among precisely To such an extentthat, if one psychoanalysis. to describe these manifestations and happens to psychiatrists, patterns theywill regardthem straightwayas symptoms (in the medical meaningof the word), or, more precisely,as behaviourtypical of hysteria. On accountofthis "coincidence" that can certainly be foundin studies, manysocieties1- most anthropological generally relyingon external descriptionsof behaviour patterns regarded as universally i.e., expressed solely in Western significant, terms, strived to stress the deviance of the shamanin general,or, on the contrary, to question it. On the contrary, we will show in the example below that we are dealing withwhat the physicists would call a typicalcase of "indtermination." In fact,the Guajiro shamanstell the whole eventswhichbrought in themto "shamanery"2 such a conventionalway that - with a few noteworthy exceptions that we will analyse each of their autobiographiesseems to be a variant of the others. Moreover, the specific behaviourpatterns theyevoke are expressedin
1 George Devereux emphasized many a time the of models of hysterical recurrence behaviourin traditional societies. See, for example, in Devereux 1970: 44 and 67-68 (ChapterI, in Normalet anormal,translated from "Normal and Abnormal," 1956). 2 I ventured to form this neologism to translate Guajiro expressionsconveyingthe idea of "shamanistic function,"or the idea of an "alteration of behaviour characteristic of a shaman," which has the advantage of an implicitparallelismbetween an inclination underlying towards sickness and an inclinationtowards shamanism (see Perrin1986a: 119-120). In thiswaycan be distinguished these specificmeaningsfromthe fartoo generalsense to the word "shamanism." We given by anthropologists will use too the verb "to shamanize" as a littral translationof the Guajiro word outajaa, from whichderiveouts (fern.)and outshi(mase): "shaman."

Michel P. Perrin is a researcher at the Centre National de a Recherche Scientifique(France) and a of theLaboratoired'Anthropologie member Sociale, ColA in Doctor Paris. de France, Physics(1966) and in lge (1973), and 'Docteur d'Etat s-Lettreset Anthropology Sciences Humaines1(1987), he has conductedmore than three among the Guajiro of Venezuela yearsof fieldwork and Colombia, from1969 to 1985. He has publishedfive books, two of whichare "The Way of the Dead Indians" of the Guaji1987) and "Folk Literature (Englishversion, and Simonneau,2 vols., 1987), ro Indians" (with Wilbert " produceda film("The Way of the Dead Indians, 1984), numerouspapers, published as chapters in and written books and in suchjournals as L'Ethnographie,L'Homme, Social Research,Social Science and Medicine, Antropologica, etc.

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thevernacular language by meansof wordsor 1. The Principlesof Shamanism to a cultural outreferring specific expressions dimenin itstherapeutic look and symbolic essentially logic.In otherwords,their Considered and practical is a theoretical of the signsand factsthatdeter- sion, shamanism descriptions bea the and even shamanistic their mined relationship functions, establishingparticular system and of the a in tween a are these body givenrepresentation way signs named,reflect, specifiof curative cai cultural form,generallaws of "mythical disease, and a specific conception also generalin its action. and a conception, thought" shamanistic underlie Threebasic principles broad lines, of the relationsbetween"thishuman world"(or "supernaturaltheories. and an "otherworld" beingis formed Firstly, every healthis the Good a "soul." and of a is supposedto body world")on whichthe former of the body and the co-existence in hiswork harmonious forinstance, depend.Even though, leavesthe innormal G. soul,which, of North on theMohaveshamans circumstances, America, cause of alludedto a "processof bodyonlyin dreams.The immediate De vreuxconstantly of the or alteration is the sickness to a "social prestructurcultural departure fashioning," the whatever the symptoms, structured experiences," soul, whatever ing" or to "culturally causes.Deathis thepermanent he neverfullyexplainedthese concepts.He ultimate separaFor the from the of the soul tion on to in order to them shaman, body. go merely suggested in consists of sickness of "emotionalbe- then,thehealing the importance mainly emphasize it back the soul or bringing haviour"or "neuroticreasons"; and, subse- "reconstituting" the into more attitude becomes this body. patient's pronounquently, marked ofsocieties the Devereux1970[1956]and ced (see forinstance Secondly, etiologies the attribute of shamanism the 1972[1957]). presence by to causes of bodilydisorders powers It is not,of course,beingdeniedthatthe ultimate world."The shamanist an "otherfrom effects function shamanist deriving specific mayproduce these"supernain identifying consists it or thata disturbed diagnosis whofulfils on theperson denote for The which tural" be attracted Guajiro, instance, agents. by shamanism, may person and him witha "languageof the body" by the termplas this other-world the provides also designate whodwellin it. (But they to beings himto giveappropriate expression allowing in or on the as It is notdenied disorders. hismental too, plasphenomena beings "thisworld" to thehidden are believedto bear witness that relation between a that there is strong contrary, world." otherof "the and illness(see Perrin shamanism presence 1986a). It is but constant and "this world," then, that the ethnologists"The other-world" being contented merely to twolevelsofperception as much in thefirst seekto understand, should instance, correspond as to twoseparate formpart of a of "reality" manifestations how shamanist universes.) whomayon occaexist individuals of generalideas, i. e., a Thirdly, logicalpattern single, human fromordinary a coherentworld sion be distinguished system, closelyinterlinked is a A shaman the shamans. are These to view,obviously existing prior any calling. beings. of at will evidence who it will Once thishas been firmly established, supergive may person or powers. to makea morebalanced natural then becomepossible Shamans, saythe knowledge of thetruth dif- Guajiro,areplas.Theycanknow of behavioural and moreeffective analysis "the with world" social "this motivations, ferences, by communicating strategies personal the or through world," eitherdirectly or, to borrowthe very termsused by G. othercan whom of auxiliary in theadapta- intermediary involved theproblems they Devereux, spirits to the plas for neurotic ends" call up on requestto dispatch material tion "of cultural world fromwhichtheyoriginate. They thus (1972[1957]:244). world": in "this thecausesofdisorders discover the Hence calamities. and causes of diseases the on the occasionof each cure confirm shamans and compleof interdependence the relations
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betweenthe "supernatural" to certain world phobiasor genuineallergies animal mentality foods: and the worldof men. They prove by their thetruth ofthistheory successes of therapeutic Plas taminsawainr: which are thus theworld, by myths expressed the turtlewas forbiddento me (it was dangerous,it was with invested topicality. permanently taboo forme, I was allergicto it).
2. The Shamanistic Calling: Significant of the Body Manifestations
If I partookthereof I began to swell. . . . The deer too was forbidden to me, and the rabbit. The rabbitmade me itchall over. . . . I rejected themall because of the wanl, the spirit who enteredmywomb. . . in 1973) (the shaman Reeachon Jayaliyuu,

thisparticular of the shaman Plas wanee ekl smint However, faculty wanl wanainka: norhereditary. innate For theGuaji- Some foods were forbidden for me, because of is neither my shamanist ro, acquiring power,eighty per cent wanl,myspirit. intoa At thistime,I could not take milk,nor cheese. meansfitting is heldbywomen,3 ofwhich fromthe ordinary I was not able to eat beef. order different particular I could not even bear to smell these foods. social order.It meansbecoming plas. This If I smeltmeat, I died, I fainted. intothe shamanistic orderis I could insertion gradual at home. . . . onlytaste beef slaughtered in specific reactions to reflected food, I behaved in thisway in the past. . . bodily etc.Thesedeviations, wheth- (the shaman Maria Jayaliyuu, in 1975) disease, sexuality, or not,themselves attest to a calling, er desired whenthe personwill have beMoreover, conferred i. e., toa distinction upontheindivid- comea carewillhaveto be takshaman, world andrecognized ualbythesupernatural by en not to eat special not to anything, ingest"wrong ofmenbefore theworld beingauthenticated by so as we will see theessenfoods," that, later, shaman. a recognized tial actionof tobaccowill not be neutralized. have suffered from Thisuncommon all theshamans Almost to foodwhich, sensitivity prior to In certain foods. the or to is the of a allergies initiation, phobia sign calling, subsequentto certain foods ly becomesa rule of life. In relation intolerance to their Guajirolanguage, will word It be the is expressed haveto livemarginal lives:this said, bodies,shamans plas. by which can be is a fundamental for forthemto be irania, example, plastamin requirement forme"; able to communicate was prohibited as "venison translated with"the otherworld," forme to eat thesupernatural: "it is dangerous in other words, to venison." or "I was allergic These venison," to be There is the shaman who can onlyblow are henceconsidered reactions implicitely she does not pay enough attention to her food. at least of a for proofif not of communication She eats friedthings, between "the other- she eats what has spilled over onto the fire, distinctive relationship For the intolerance in and her spiritgoes away, goes away. . . . world"and the victim. is almost alwaysto meatand, forthe It is as thoughsmoke were comingout of her belly question with thesuper- and her body is swollen. . . . are associated Guajiro,animals Because of thatshe fallssick, does nottolerate world. Ifa person natural fish, she dies, she faints,constantly and her shamanery disappears. meanthathe The trueshaman,she who eats yi tobacco, thismayimplicitely forinstance, of mustbe verycarefulwithher food. out byPulowi,themistress has beensingled or by one of heremis- Otherwiseshe will see no more than he who sees withhis sea and gameanimals, fordo- eyes. . . saries(Perrin 1976).The samehappens extent. It is therefore (the shaman Too'toria Pshaina, in 1977) to a lesser mestic animals, theircalling,a not surprising that,to justify The Guajiroassign to a category known as numberof shamansclaim to have suffered wanl, of the same name as is givento the shaman'sauxiliary all woes thatcause spirit, 3 For thisreason, the shamanwill be referred distress and that are as a to here great interpreted as he or she. of the of the borne consequence soul, departure
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away by some plas being (see Perrin 1979, victimof wan1980, 1982a). To be a frequent is sicknesses therefore to /ti-type give proofof a relationship between the "other-world"and thepatientand the signof a potentialshamanistic calling.This categoryof illness can only be recognizedand cured by a shaman; its "archeis the sicknessknownas wanlsitypal"form raa, literally, "to be the hunt victim of a wanl." The latter word designates in this of case a plas being who is both an emissary Pulowi (see above) and the descendantof one who has long been dead and who, to make you die, shoots an invisiblearrowat you and takes possession of your soul. The sickness, the being who has caused it, and the supernatural of the shamanwho seeks to cure auxiliary spirit it are all, then, designatedby the same name, wanl. This homonymy,this ambiguity,is To be sick, to cause to be sick, and significant. to cure are different aspects of the relationship man to the linking plas world (see Perrin It 1976). is, therefore, logical thatthe Guajiro, in orderto justify theircalling, always referto sicknessesof theiryoungerdays, the recurrent sincetheyattestto a certain"interpntration" withthe otherworld:
This was alreadyin me when I was a child, and I grewup withit. I was ill whenI was young,I suffered many wanlsicknesses. It is whyI became a shaman, and I feel good like this. I was ill, I fainted, because of the wanlI had in me. I was veryill and I dreamed a lot in the past. . . in 1975) (the shamanMaria Jayaliyuu,

Dream integratesinto itself the souls of the dying:

Dream is the one who receivesour soul. . . . There is not one soul thatgets away fromhim: of the dogs, of the cows. the souls of the foreigners, They are all there,whereDream is. He is the only one who is in commandof this.. . . When we sing,we the shamans,we go up there, we ask to Dream, veryfaraway. . . (the male shaman Setuuma Pshaina, in 1973)

sustained integration This continually perof Dream, whichcontribthe "matter" petuates utes to the emergence of the spirits of the shamans (Perrin 1980). Thus there would apbetween pear to exista kindof consubstantiality and soul, dream, auxiliaryspirit. And, as is assertedby some shamans, the shaman's spirit or would appear to be a sort of personification of Dream: emissary
I have good dreams: - Do it thisway! I am told when I begin to sleep. I am dreaming of dances to be organized after the ... treatment. live. We do not see withour eyes whereour spirits We know it because of theirwords: - 1 am Saamati, tells us thisone. I come from Wapusanain, from "Our Dream," he says. . . . He comes out of the dream, and we dream withhim. . . (the shaman Aana Pshaina, in 1979)

Moreover, to remove "shamanery,"when it becomes harmful (see Perrin1986a), has the consequence of erasingthe dream while taking away the spirit:
When this [shamanery]came to me, I had very good dreams. because of this. But I did not want to suffer - Take it away fromme, I do not want to suffer, I said. A shaman removedit. Then, I was ill for one year, and I did not dream any more. Nothing,not a singledream. Before, mydreamswere verygood. . . in 1979) (Aura Jayaliyuu,

Lap, Dream, is also plas. Independent of man's will,he is the personified proofof the diffuse action of the supernaturalworld upon the person experiencingthe dream. For this reasonhe needs to be taken seriously.He is the world." The "word of the voice of the "otherdream" may reveal the source of the sickness, designate the supernatural being who is its ultimate calamicause or warn againsta future The consider Guajiro practically ty. frequent dreaming to be an embryonic form of the of the wanl.For, on the one auxiliary spirit, betweenthe hand,dreaming impliesintercourse dreamer's soul and Dream who stimulatesit. On the otherhand, accordingto some shamans,

However that mightbe, the shaman, accordingto the Guajiro, is a kind of dreamerto order, a wakingdreamerwho is not subject to the haphazard qualities of dreams but, on the can establishat will a communication contrary, with the supernatural. Mention should be made, lastly, of another connectionimplicitly
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madebytheGuajirobetween dreams and shaA "reversal" occurs.The pathogenic spirit manism. Dreamsare considered to be neutral is now regarded as a "good wanl," i. e., a thatcan,without intermediaries formulate future risk, auxiliary spirit. Signsinterpreted up to in a system an accusation based in parton the then as significant will be symptoms shortly and of as delegation projection responsibility. interpreted shamanistic symbols, provided in his dealings witha sickpersonor thatthisreversal is confirmed Similarly, by "the tobacco theperforming thecommunity, shamanis oth- proof." notto be themaster er. He is reputed of what he says,does,or requests. He is a mouthpiece, a mediator, a thirdpartyconsultedfor the 3. The Tobacco Ordeal: Shamanismand purposeof obtaininga diagnosiswhich he Hallucinogen obtainsfromanother thirdparty, himself his or spirits, who themselves con- Tobaccois essential inthesymbolic ofa auxiliary spirit systems of or other sultDream of Amerindian smoked beings theplasworld. largenumber societies, At the end of thisseriesof links,"wordsare or chewedas the case may be. All Guajiros from mouth: theshaman's smoketobacco,industrially made cigarettes or spoken" local cigars,but only shamansdrinktobacco We the shamans,we eat tobacco and we chant. as yimakuira. It has beenshown juice,known We keep our eyes closed and we see. . . . elsewhere that for the Guajirotobaccois indiof us. It is as thoughsomeone were in front linked to the our wanl. It is our auxiliary rectly jaguar, whichis clearly spirit, His wordspass through our mouth, associated in mythical with theextraorthought fromthe words of ordinarypeopbut theyare different dinarypower of nature(Perrin19865: 220le. .. . it, the shamanincorporates 223). By ingesting It is like a telephonethatcomes into our head. . . . into himself a the symbolic object signifying We go whereDream is. of nature. The travelscontinually, Our spirit plas power hallucinogenic veryfaraway, and he comes back immediately. effects of theplantabsorbed in largequantities as our gaze. . . He is as swift are a tangible ofthepowerassociatexpression (the shamanToo'toria Pshaina, in 1977) ed with it. These plas effects enable the shaman to see other means than the thatthosewho Hence it is not surprising by eyes,to have become shamans claim to have been penetrateto the true nature of beings, to of the "good dreamers."In earliertimestheyhad recognizethe various manifestations other and even to dominate it. It thereworld, which attracted attention to dreams therapeutic fore follows that one cannot and demonstrated their shamanistic vocathem quite naturally drink tobacco withdreams the juice without precautions, tion, generally revealing proper out and without restrictions, of and treatment childhood illnesses. consequences. diagnosis Thisis why tobaccojuice is a test-substance of an interrelaare proof These"gooddreams" at thetimeof thefainting thestateof near fit, with theother world. tionship that marks theculmination ofthis death, always of "significantslow Thus a coherent network announcedby the process,culmination and signsmaygradually be woven shaman symptoms" calledin. Whileherself chewurgently a person, his around demonstrating permeabili- ingtobacco, this"initiating" shaman introduces ty to the plas worldand revealing by the some into the mouthof the personwho has to himself andto hisentourage, sametoken, his fainted and then,blowing, some on his sprays will as a shaman. This conbe calling calling faceand body.The "dead person"comesback on the occasionof a further firmed wanl- to himself. The confirmed shaman againmakes sickness. The shaman consulted willmake himdrink type tobaccojuice. If the "patient" does itplain: nottolerate thisshowsthathe it, ifhe vomits, will experience difficulties in beinga shaman, This is not a bad sickness,a fiercewanl. that his are bad (see Perrin It is a good wanl. spirits 1980).If,on It is the desire to be a shaman: outsees. . . . thecontrary, he tolerates it, he maybecomea
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the a relationship exists between to tobacco, true shaman: "the Sometimes theroleassigned a dilation facilitate and that who has time it is is to other-world" first taken, person "opened to thatexperienced each timethathe takes comparable himself bythebodyof up." And later, into It is the "bringing tobacco,whena sickpersoncomesto consult a womanin childbirth. hidden was then that until of will himself all the shaman him, up sight" something again"open but that his body,"in the actualwordsof the in the abdomenof the new shaman, through the from from somewhere comes else, up to theplas originally Guajiro.He willopen himself whotakestobacco, The person with thesupernatu- "other-world." he willcommunicate world, himself of He his the ralworld then, up," "is splitopen," as "opens spirits. through agency bewere established a communication a willgo elsewhere triggered though during "journey" where of the shaman's inside the the He will know tween tobacco. body, bythehallucinogenic who will thetobaccois - and hence"shamanery" assistedby his spirits truth -, and directly, the plas world,accessibleonlyto thosefor it to him: reveal is established: whom thiscommunication
Those who die go towardsthe east, towardsthe roots of the sky. I see thembecause of mygood wanl,my spirit. It is he who takes me over yonder and thenI speak to those who are dead. ... I saw the wifeof Huya withher enormousvagina. - Take it easy, don't touch that! I was told by myfather Maleiwa, the CulturalHero. a hole. . . . I hid and looked through Thus is Maleiwa, he is verynice to me. . . in 1975) (the shamanMaria Jayaliyuu, He who is goingto be a shaman faints. A shaman blows on him. He preparesyi tobacco and puts it in his mouth. He makes him swallowit. Then his voice comes out of his belly. For it was takingshape there, it was swellingout in his belly. . . . There it is, he is a shaman now. . . (the male shaman Setuuma Pushaina, in 1973)

the Or else, and this is most commonly at once a "vehicle"and a Tobaccois, then, on thebody ofthetobacco theaction case, juice body(Per- is indirectly "catalyst" acting upontheshaman's with fertilization associated through of this"meet- the rin1982b).It is also thesymbol ofa to the mouth, impregnation comparable on the woman theshaman and hisspirits ing"between thesexualact:thetobacco juice, during of each cure.By meansof it,thenew occasion causes"shamanthenovice, literally ingested by shamanclearlyperceiveshis auxiliary spirits to "ripen"or "grow"in the bellyof the had beenbutdiffuse andremote ery" whountil then theGuajiroare quick shaman to be. Moreover, neverrevealing themselves directly. to stress presences for "thefirst time" tobaccojuice,just Withit, the spirit"takes bodilyshape," he as timeforthesexual the first theyemphasize "descends" upon the shamanwho sees himor act,which are women. Bothof them "pierces" feelshimoverhimself: "he who is linked tajuunakai, And both with and desire. fear,danger, over me," such indeed is the other generic of themare which strictly subjectto society, withwanl, forthe shaname,synonymous to imposerules: intervenes man'sspirit.
At the time,it was as if I had no legs. I was the victimof a snake, I was like a snake. In mydream,it coiled up all around me. . . . He said to me, showingtobacco: here is yourfood! 4. Tobacco, Fertilization, and Sexuality Are you goingto accept thistobacco forus? The wanlarrivedthen. Tobacco is an object which is ingestedby Hold it, we bringthatforyou, take it now! form to their shamans to giveconcrete power. he said to me about a greenpiece of tobacco, stillfresh. This is perhapsthe originof the correlations It was inside a littlecrochetedbag. . . . betweentobac- I took the soul of that,its image, and I ate it. established by Guajiro society and shamanism. The I was afraid,but I had a longingfortobacco, co, sexuality, fertilization, my aa'in, mysoul, myheartwas askingforit. remarks because is, overand abovethegeneral question I ate some to settlethat,and something happened. justmade,howdo theGuajiroviewtheaction I was as if I was dead. oftobaccouponthebodyof theshaman? When the sun set, I had not regainedconsciousness.

Anthropos82.1987

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or Symbols? Shamanistic Symptoms That's the way it happened when myspiritarrived.. . . who was a shaman. Then, I stillhad mygrandmother, - There is no remedyforthat,she said. It is here,in her belly,one day she will eat tobacco, told me. . . the song of mygrandmother in 1975) (the shamanMaria Jayaliyuu,

573 - We'll see if this piilashi will die, had they said to themselves. But straight away he had felta bad taste and nausea. he and then,his spiritshad protestedand knew, Already told him. - Sit down, we do not want to die, theyhad also said. Because of that,thisshamanfaintedaway. Then, he dranka lot of tobacco, and he sang again. But, afterthat,he fellsick. He stayedinsideforclose on a month,he ate onlytobacco juice. . . in 1979) (the shaman Aura Jayaliyuu,

To be sociallyuseful- not to societyin of the woman but also to the family general, concerned -, to be safe,theuse oftobaccoand of the maidenshave both to be the sexuality All themoreso bothare associated controlled. with economicalinterests. For, in Guajiro of is highly valued thevirginity thegirls society, in parand female severely adultery punished, In the same sanctions. ticular by economical can be to shamanistic function access the way, the way to a relativewealth (Perrin1986b: X). Chapter

While confirming, in a certainway, the linksbetween and virginity shamanism emphasized above, this storyreveals a relationship betweenspermand tobaccojuice. The sperm emitted finds its bythesex of themanat fault into the mouth of the shawaymetaphorically manandchokeshim.The mouth oftheshaman so to is speak likenedto the sex of a woman a bad product and beingblockedup absorbing it. a i. e., tobaccojuice, by Only good product, can neutralize this pathogenic effect. Hence 5. Shamanismand SexualityForm a System and tobaccojuice are incompatible. The sperm factof occupying the same paradigmatic posibe- tionmakesthem But thereare variousotherconnections exclusive ofone another, even so that,as we more since and sexuality shamanism tween in have front of the "otherthey so to speak. In world"a concurrent form a system, willshow,they like the tobacco position: modelof sexuality other words,a shamanistic juice, the humanspermis supposedto get its of existwhichwouldinducethe future might from theplasworld(see Perrin 1985: charac- power shamanto observecertain thepresent 118^119). each timetheyexpress attitudes teristic which, Thisis said in another wayin thefollowing of sha- tale which becomethe confirmations themselves, the previous one and complements illus- describesa more conventional The following discourse manistic qualities. situationin it: trates whichit is the guilty parties,more than the who suffer from the consequences of shaman, This shamanwas verypowerful, verypiilashi. their sexual act. But in this misplaced again He asked forhorse races and shootinggames. fullof tobacco breath, Duringthe yonna dance, he wanted only the maidens to case, it is the shaman's thepathogenic effect: participate. juice,thatneutralizes Those who already 'did the thing' with men cannot come! he said. If one claimedto be a maiden and was not, he knew it: - You, you will not dance, he said; he was very clearsighted.. . . It was dangerousforpeople to couple in his presence. If theydid so, the heartof thatshaman filledup. Plas nmin:it was dangerousforhim,it was taboo. in his mouth, like froth There was something because of whatcomes out of men, sperm.. . . This is whathappened once, because of that: - Whydid you let thementer?This had to happen! Why did you let them dance? His spiritstold him one day about two youngpersonswho had made love. 82.1987 Anthropos We are goingto have a yonna dance, said the shaman. But if the dancers do what they shouldn't,they'llswell up. . . . and the Soon, however,a woman was there,recumbent, man too. - Help them, don't let them die, people said to the shaman. Help themfastfortheyare alreadyhuge! The shaman wentand had a look at them. . . . He blew on themwithtobacco juice: Pshuuuu!. . . Then theywoke up, theywere saved. Thus are the shamanswho are veryplas, the shamanswithmuch supernatural power. . . (Sepaana Epieyuu, in 1977)

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Michel Perrin The shamanswho have husbandsare liars, and the male shaman, the one who is piilashi, has no wife. . . . If the veryplas shamantriesto copulate, her spirits say to her: - If you go on, we will kill you. We will fastenyou head down if you don't stop. headaches. Afterthat,she fallsill, she suffers Those who have men are only lying. They are like the white Doctor who is marriedto the moneyhe gets. . . (the shaman Setuuma Pshaina, in 1973). and To the female shamans, men are piilashi: forbidden dangerous. They die because of them. are plas. to copulate: these things It is forbidden Likewise withmyhusband: - You will not do thatwithme, you will be like a son. Then you will stayalive, and I will stayalive. It is whatwe say when we are together.. . in 1973) (the shaman Reeachon Jayaliyuu,

Is it this image of a female sexualityassociated with shamanism that causes Guajiros who are not shamans to say that all women shamansare man-eatersand men shamans hoIn anycase ,thissexualizedimageasmosexuals?4 sociated withthe shaman's tobacco is concomof shamanitantwith the fantasydescriptions ist sexualityput out by others, by society, a good idea of which can be formedfromthis betweentwo men: conversation
- What's best to become a shaman, to be a man or a woman? - If you're a man, you're said to be a fag, but if you're a woman, you're said to be a whore and to changemen all the time. . . . The male shaman is fucked by his spiritwho copulates withhim. But the femaleshaman too is the wifeof her spirit. And the spirithates the husband of the marriedfemale shaman;he won't let him get near her. . . . That's true,all the Guajiro say so. . . in 1979) (MakantreUliana and Moono Jinnu,

And jealous spiritsmay even, so it is said, in women shamans: preventprocreation

My littlebaby died in mywomb. ate him. . . One of myspirits in 1977) (the shaman Ouusilia Jayaliyuu,

Moreover,thisimage of a female sexuality associated with shamanismis compatible with the 'masculinestatus'of tobacco juice in Guajiro thought.For the shaman's tobacco, as has been seen, is associated withJaguarwho, as a greatseducerof maidens,symbolizesmasculine power and is opposed to the cultural hero Maleiwa, just as untamednatureis opposed to the humanizedworld. Here too a considerable degreeof coherenceis apparent. function is considthe shamanistic Anyway, ered to be incompatiblewithnormal sexuality, sexual excess, as some Guajiros say, or through as most shamansclaim: through privation,
This was a verygood shaman. Her husbandcould not sleep withher. They could not lay one beside the other, because her spiritbecame angryat once. To be able to sing, she could not have a man for a year. . . (the shamanToo'toria Pshaina, in 1979)

The Guajiro shamansfindchastety imposed world." Then theyadvocate abby the "otherstinenceand make of it, theysay, a way of life. Moreover the shaman's death is consideredto of a sexual act, refuseduntilthen, be the effect between him and one of his spirits.Formerly they lived close to one another,the life of a couple, but without there being any union between them, so is asserted by the shamans themselves. Then nothingcan neutralize the of this fatal coming together,this coueffects Tobacco juice itself with the supernatural. pling is of no avail:
A shaman dies when her spirithas copulatedwithher. She dies pissingblood. - My spirit took me, she says beforedying. He made love to her and he takes her over yonder that she may be his wife. . . (the male shaman Setuuma Pushaina, in 1973)

4 This "theoretical" position does not prevent the time: the heterosexuof manystoriesdemonstrating circulation alityof manymale Guajiro shamans (while we have never When a shaman dies, his mouthis opened wide, heard of anecdotes aiming to prove homosexual practi- liquor is poured into it and then a piece of tobacco is placed in it. ces. . .).

The tobacco will,however,be used one last

Anthropos82.1987

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or Symbols? Shamanistic Symptoms Then his jaws are shuttight.. . . Later two pieces of tobacco are placed in his hands. In thisway his soul will not reappear. Otherwiseit would keep coming back to ask for tobacco. . . (the shamanToo'toria Pshaina, in 1977)

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ally, portrayed morethana drugaddictcraving forhis drug. - somatic The victims ofthese crises passing thestrict We haveleft Guajiroshamanist logic criseswith an hysteriatype symptomatology, intotheGuajirologicof death.. . . to enter - are to a psychiatric according description to some on tobaccoas then, extent, dependent an addictwould be. For, according to them, onlytobaccocan bringthemrelief.But such 6. Shamanistic shamans soonlose their clientele and their Abnormality very that function, is, theyheld one beassuming, the curestheyeffect, the Guajiro fore.For thesespectacular crisesare regarded Apartfrom thesameas that bytheGuajiroas "abnormal" shamans lead a lifeapparently (mujus). in theirgroup.They are of the otherpersons This is not trueof the comparable crises tasksand kinship takenup by domestic roles: thatthe shamanmay undergo if his patient's does not pay in fullwhathe has asked specialists. They adopt family theyare not full-time the positionof shaman at the request,for them. On theoccasionofeach cure,theGuajiof a sickperson and hisor hergroup, ro shamanmay,then,by means of his body instance, to or ofa family be sureofthenon-evil express hisdispleasure andgoador blamethose wishing - non-plas - natureof the land whereit is who have consulted him. And thisbodilybeto settle,or, in earlierdays, of a haviour is also linked to theconsumption oftointending whowanted to knowtheoutcome of a bacco whichalone can bringback his normal "chief" withit. . . . Thus they state: war beforecontinuing to circumstances. are calledon according As a does notnormally taketobaccoexcept If I'm underpaidI get crampsin myhands, shaman a cure,hisuse of it is therefore myfeetswell up and I may faint. wheneffecting Then I quicklyswallowsome tobacco juice and thatmakes The shamanis notnormally me regulated. socially feel better.. . his willto (the shaman Aana Pshaina, in 1979) an addictor a beingsubjectagainst "shamanistic crises."If he behavesdifferently, and thisdisorder is a disorder, is expressthere These shamanist upsetsare based on the of Guajiro etiology: ira'irai- logicofa series ed by a category oflinked theoperation of debts, "to be takenbythespirit is described in thefollowing tale: waa,literally ira'irai, which who causes trembling" thespirit (Perrin1982: All thatwas missing was a cow of the colour of a squirrel 53-54).
She falls down dead, in a faint, her teeth clamped together. Tobacco mustquicklybe put intoher mouth,or else she'll die. . . . She chewsit and at once she feels better. She seizes her rattle,she shakes it vigorously. withthe rattlein her hand. She trembles And soon it stops,because of the tobacco. . . in 1975) (Isho Jayaliyuu, 82.1987 Anthropos withstraight horns. No one could findone. So I died in myhammock,I fainted. - They don't pay enough attention to you, my spirithad said to me and he had escaped at the momentthatI died. For his words and his requestshad not been respected and he did not see how he was going to be paid. I stayedtwenty days without moving.. . . My spirithad been caughtby ghostsof the dead

The ira'rai is a wanl,a shaman's spirit. If we have it, we faintaway incessantly. Then, when we sing or when we take tobacco juice, we are shakingall over, our wristsare stiff. We spit out a lot, we stayhalfdead. . . . The one who has the ira'irai is frightened of everything, the barkingof a dog, etc. But hereit is no morethanthe common- I am not afraidof this,because myspiritis good. function. It is no I feel like this only if the feast has not been organized place signof the shamanist thatpowerful substance sincehis well, which, longer I asked in order to help the sick person. . . actsupontheshaman's initiation, bodycontinu- the feast shaman Maria Jayaliyuu, in 1975) (the and the shamanhere is as no

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576 in /epira,there where the soul was of the person I was .. . tending. It was. when he came back that I came to my senses again. . . . I startedto breathe, because of the smell of the tobacco. . . in 1973) (the shamanReeachon Jayaliyuu,

Michel Perrin

of a forthepersonexhibiting themark, them, the with distinctive "supernatural," relationship the as thesignof a shamanist Secondly, calling. is consideredto be a tobacco hallucinogen substance connected with the supernatural world which,incorporated by the individual enableshim out by this"other-world," who take on the re- singled The auxiliary spirits withit, not in a haphazard of bringing soul back to have contacts the patient's sponsibility thisincorporation at will. manner but Thirdly, from worldmaketheshaman thesupernatural are associateffects tobacco and the of ensuing them. This payment is pay who summoned aswhich thus and with fertilization ed sexuality calculatedin jewels and cattle with clearly place in the representation whose"souls"willbe keptby sumean important specified qualities theshathe function. of shamanist Conversely, thespirits and whose"bodies" willbe keptby attitude to a man is obliged adopt particular informs The shaman theshaman. consequently three essential These towards proposexuality. of his of his clients of the demands thefamily constituent their are sitions interconnected; If they are notsatisfied, a crisis occurs. spirits. which Notonlywillthesickpersonnotbe able to be parts,subjectedto a way of thinking the to be seems - andthis possible seeking greatest ofthat always willbe theresponsibility cured And it is form a system. of coherence, degree fall also the shaman but may family person's dateson this evenif subject of one of his dissatisfied sick,victim spirits, likely, andethnographic that not are rare sufficient, comparable a victim of thesupernatural himself beingwho societies.5 in other can be found holdsthe sick person'ssoul. Hence thereare phenomena was noted as This bywayof introsystem, fourintermediaries, threeof whomare in the areasinwhich from its elements draws duction, of debtors one to theother. position seek to locate symptoms. They In Guajiro thecrisis then, justdescrib- psychoanalysts logic, of in the even type-attitudes the recognize of the ed is justified. But thisis theouterlimit ofa "language shamans the expressions This crisis, which is a sourceof blame Guajiro system. convulof of the characteristic hysteria: body" a forthepatient and hisgroup, is a sword with food asthenias, crisis, phobia, doubleedge. Excessive use of it maywellgive sive"pantomimic" alternation and also aches, sexuality, perturbed ofattitude towards theshaman. riseto a change to identification, tendency Frombeingthe accuserhe may become the of twopersonalities, . . . does this mean thereis a and so on. But accused.Crisesthatoccuredtoo systematically statein all the Guajiroshamans? be interpreted as thesymptom pathological would bysociety on We answered thisquestion, calling already or simply ofan ira'rai as a falsepretext sickness or "indecisiveof the idea "indtermination," for"eating money." to answer ness,"i. e., a logicalimpossibility yes or no. In fact, everything happens as if a could be of hysteria culturalrepresentation of thecharacin theGuajirodescription found shaman."In of the "perfect teristic attitudes 7. The "Penchant forShamanery" of a sort offers theGuajirosociety other words, characof that attitudes cultural Each shamanhas a specific of recountcrystallization way a systematic obtainedthrough inghowhe came to his callingand the events terizehysteria, that haveparticularly marked hiscareer.But all which theseautobiographical seemat elements, 5 A Mtraux, for instance (1967), to' mentiononly first to describe most intimate the sight expeto have suspectedit in his the best does not seem known, conform riencesand to be highly subjective, studiesof Amerindianshamanism.G. Devereux, already moreor less to a singlepattern. Let us briefly mentioned,neverdid a analysisof what he calls thorough sumup itssalient features. theGuajiro the "Mohave sumaturalism."A vast fieldof comparative Firstly, of thebodyas researchthusopens up. . . . manifestations identify repeated
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or Symbols? Shamanistic Symptoms

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and a generbetweentheseattitudes connection a of the al conception world, specificsystemof belief.6 However, some shamans evoque in their specificdisordersappearingduring biographies theircareer. We have already reported these the Guajiro consider manifestations spectacular in their as abnormaland whichare attributed, But are to ira'irai there vartradition, spirits. as well, whichdo not ious othermanifestations to a perbut whichlead nevertheless conform, turbedor broken career. Here are two examone is that of a shaman whose ples. The first she vocation, says, emergedafteran emotional shock due to the death of one of her children alreadyadult:

More dramatic is the other example. It shows how a woman, also distressed by the death of a child, has been dispossessed,at her own will, of symptoms as the signs interpreted of a shamanisticvocation. In this narration, troubles of personality and shamanism are - almostfictive closelylinked,thisconnection difficult helpingto clear up a temporarily psysituation: chological

I used to have verygood dreams. It (shamanery)was there,but theyremovedit, theysnatchedit fromme. . . . One day, one of mychildren fellill and died. Then I was crying all the time. At thisverymomentI startedfeelingbad. brother'schildrendied. Then, one of myyoungest I wentto his burial. I was crying and the same thinghappened as before. This is the way I have been made: I and I was taken to the Lower Guajiro. fainted, Long ago, I sufferedquite a lot, but this is somewhat 1 would like to die verysoon to stop suffering, new. I would say to myself. It was aftermyson's death, around six years ago. . . . - You're goingto be well, you'll get cured,I heard thenin He died in a brawl. Before that, another child had died of diarrhea, very myhead. Nothingwill happen to you. young. Just as you are, you're close to it (shamanery). I used to cryeveryday, everyday. I had pains, I didn'tfeel well. . I . . I would cryforyearsbefore foundshamanery. seemed to be dark on myway. . . . Everything BeforeI would neverdream. - Accept it, myparentswere saying. Then, because of myson's death, I foundit: But I did not want to suffer because of shamanery. - If you wantto be plas, to have supernatural powers, I wentto see a plas, shaman: to come fromyourson's death, ifyou wantsomething - Take it out of me, I don't want to suffer, that'swhat I will come out one day, the dream told. . . . something told her. Then, muchlater,a person came out. So, the shaman took it out, and it made a lot of noise. about minordeseases. She told me things I got rid of it, but I was sick fora whole year. . . Fromthismomentonwards,I have cured children.. . . in 1979) - That's whatthereis, I heard in mydreams. . . . (Aura Jayaliyuu, I am not a shamanwho has eaten tobacco. . . This bringsus back to query the Guajiro (the shamanKataliina Aapshana, in 1973)

6 G. Devereux would certainlylabel "ethnic disorders" or "typical disorders" the Guajiro food phobias, characteristic dreams, and wanlsicknesses(three elements surely associated in some other shamanistic systems),i.e., "psychological sicknesses proper to the typeof societythatproducesthem" (1970: 62). But, let us of many shamans' lay stresson that point, the similarity the correlationsbetween the biographiesis so striking, theypresentand the Guajiro world "symptomatologies" are (what Devereux calls "surnaturalism") representations so greatthat theyalmost coincide. Moreover, G. Deveit is onlyafterwards, admitsthisdifficulty: reuximplicitely other symptoms when people manifest (then qualified as to would be that it recognize "hidpossible "atypical") den" or "covered" forms, i.e., pathology (see Perrin 19865: 721-735). 82.1987 Anthropos

notion outseewa, translated by "wish to be shaman" or "penchantfor shamanery"(Perrin 1986a). This real nosological categoryis, as we noted elsewhere (Perrin 1986b: 366-371), a syndromeon which are projected all kinds of personal problems, associated mainlywith the consequences of a continuousprocess of acculturationand of exodus to urbanized areas, a the femiprocess which modifies particularly ninecondition. In fact,at thepresent time,many women claim to have a vocation of shaman. But, lookingback over seventeenyearsenables us to assertthatonlyveryfewof thesevocations come to anything:the proportion of "fully recognized"shamansdid not increasethese last it seems thatit decreasyears. On the contrary, ed somewhat,if we believe the Guajiro them-

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578

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selves.Whatconclusion can be drawn from it? the shamanistic And it could be supsystem. On one hand,we can acceptthat,amongthe posed that,because of thispresent excessof or individual whichis more severe neurosis" has requests, the selection, Guajiro,"collective conforwouldinvolve (Devereux1970:72) - a phenome- thanpreviously, developped greater . P nonthat can be observed in societies of . to the shaman. subject mity acculturation: Devereuxspeaks of "accultura- and that tionneurosis" theseneuroses are exin thatparticular form. Whythen, pressed spe- 8. Shamanismand Hysteria this association between this cifically typeof "ethnicdisorder"and shamanism? We can At theend ofthis arises. one question analysis, an hypothesis intoaccount taking putforward model of hysteria? is therethiscultural ifthemembers of tra- Why Devereux's suggestions: Froma gecan be putforward. Two hypotheses ditionalsocietiestend to expressfirsttheir netic could of one supposea conpoint view, in theform of hysteria confusion (see nection,at the origin,betweena universal personal Devereux 1970: 67-68), and if among the human to relieve others' desire bodies, suffering vocation and a structure Guajirothemodelof theshamanistic associated of hysterical type, to a culturalrepresentation of with corresponds and expressmental processes as has been is ed deap-seated there shown, just hysteria, of the a body."Now, "language by specific in the fact that women, the nothing surprising functions and itsessential human are, body troubledby the presentchanges, in completely technolwith societies only simple preliterate a "desire theirconfusions express by evoking metaa fundamental sourceof thoughts, forshamanery," i. e., a languageof the body ogy, and representaimages underpinning All the morebecause phors, appropriate. particularly would shamans tions.In other words,thefirst fromthis have been "real benefits theycan expectsecondary beforethe system hysterics," type pfattitude. became created have gradually slowly this lastpoint, theobserva- they But,concerning and foundits cultural by everybody, adopted tionofthefacts leadsus to a categorical answer form: made a logicaland formal representation of some G. Devemoreover, that, goes against but now of elements of hysterical nature, reux's arguments. Because very few women up of its origins. psychological quasi independent who feel called by shamanery reallybecome theprobBut it is also possible to consider shamans.From the five instances I had the lem from a more generalangle and to adopt to fully observeovertwelve opportunity years, the paradoxicalstandpoint formulated by C. nonehas lead to anything conclusive. Two of Lvi-Strauss when he stressedthe difference the womenconcernedstill sometimes "have between the pointof magicand sciencefrom and dreams" are to and viewofdeterminism: good subject faintings not one "Might go further to be consequences consider of and consider painsthatthey eviand exactitude the strictness the aleatoryvisitations of theirspirits.The denced ritual and practices thought threeothers don't feel any signof shamanery as the by magical of an unconscious awareness expression sincethe shamans consulted did not anymore, meet their or evendidnotanswer expectations, 7 But, in fact, the at all to the expression of theirpathological realityis more complex: it is a in a system dynamic complete upheaval. Some people are states. makestrict selections Then,theshamans individual decisions and find themselvesin new taking all the implicit between requeststheyreceive contexts,on the edge of traditional societyand of western even if, in general,they don't refusethem society.This way, completelyabnormal people can hold In fact, ifthey can readily openly. agreeto the therapeuticpositions temporarilyand even claim to be in a new sphere,at the end of a idea that a "wanl spirit" upsets their new shamanson arriving the of privilegedcontactswith the with migration, help patient, theydon't easily declare that she is Whites, to reinforce theirpowers. . . . Considersupposed In the name of an idealizeddefini"mature." ing the distressof Guajiro populations recentlyarrived, tionof theconditions of access to shamanism, they can be sure, at least for a while, to have some control the social reproduction of success. theyfirmly
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or Symbols? Shamanistic Symptoms

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of the truthof determinism as a mode of ofthepossibility ofdiscerning of forms possible of scientific withthere- deviance in relationto a dominant existence cultural phenomena, wouldbe generally sultthatdeterminism sus- model.Butconversely, and this it, study proves and enacted before known and recare should also be taken notto glossoverthe being pected would then culturalrepresentations of the body in the spected!Magicalritesand beliefs manifestations of an act of shamanist be seen as so many to disregard, system through seeking in a science faith all buttheintellectual and spiritual yetto be born.. ." (1962: 19). in reaction, It might then be saidofshamanism that itis aspects oftheshaman's or function. calling of an unconscious theexpression of perception - The way the Guajiroor their Abstract. shamans between therelations man,his body,and the describe the of a shamanistic and function signs calling which thepsychological and psychoanaworld, to a Western observerthat these signs are suggests are endeavouring sciences at thepresent lytical ofmental more ofhysteria. disorders, precisely to understand This does not symptoms time scientifically. In Guajiro thinking, thesesigns,which leave however, on theshaman's are true mean, to paraphrasewhat the author says imprints constitution, physical Theirdesignation and their itis necessary to go backto the symbols. further underlying meaning on, that attest to a specicrepresentation in whichthe future is "a hesitant, "crudeview" thatshamanism - that shamans arepersons outby'theother-world' singled ve form" of psychoanalysis: testati "Magical hidden andpowerful other faceof this world with which is not a first an they step, a beginning, thought havetocommunicate at will. normal or AnyGuajiro, a abnormal, who wants to becomea shaman, has to fitin whole;it forms outline, partof an unrealized cultural modelsuggesting itis then knit inthis hysteria. Logically system; independent, respect, this tightly tosettle themuch-debated ofwhether impossible question to be constituted of thatothersystem sciby ornottheshaman is normal. theGuajiro have Moreover, 1962:21). ence.. ." (Lvi-Strauss their own descriptions of whatan abnormal shaman is. of the And, furthermore, It is indeeda particular conception theanthropologist can pinpoint marof theworldto man and to his body ginal uses of a "bentforshamanism" relations to tryto resolve This and its conclusions in a knit that shamanism psychological problems. analysis expresses "tightly syscan be to shamanistic societies. certainly applied many or in intolerances phobias tem."In this system, [Amerindians, Shamanism, Initiation, Representations, ofcertain dreams, foods, somatizations,Normal/Abnormal, respect Sexuality,Hallucinogen] and deviance serve sexuality, hallucinogen, and symbols. as bothsymptoms Similarly, psyknit system builds up a tightly choanalysis but according to different with thesame terms and with different emphases. arrangements to a very Anditbearswitness different outlook and a world different on the very relationshipReferences Cited man and the world.(Of coursethese between of ethnology go beyondthe limits hypotheses Georges the Devereux, and are equallyboundup with philosophy, 1970 [1956]Essais d'ethnopsychiatrie gnrale,Paris: and psychoanalysis ofwhich ofreligion, history Gallimard. des Sciences (Bibliothque Humaines.) wouldcertainly notbe farfrom someadvocates I: Normal et Anormal;pp. [EspeciallyChapter from"Normaland Abnormal." that theyrepresent the "only ques1-83, translated claiming Washington 1956.] tion".. . .) Paris: complmentariste. However that may be, to considerthe 1972 [1957]Ethnopsychiatrie Flammarion. (Nouvelle Bibliothque Scientifique) to be no morethanthemanishamanist calling IX: Apprentissages et [Especially Chapter oniriques deviance ofmental wouldbe thesame festation diffrences des pratiques rituelles idiosyncrasiques chez les chamanes Mohave. Translatedfrom in our countries, the functions as to associate, "DreamLearning andIndividual Ritual Differences or with of the priest,doctor, psychoanalyst in Mohave Shamanism." American Anthropologist typesof "madness" and to judge particular 59: 1036-1045.] theoriesor the medicaland psychoanalytical of the Churchby the yardstick of Lvi-Strauss,Claude principles madnesses. It wouldbe to deprive those oneself 1962 La pensesauvage.Paris:Pion.
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580
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occila mdecine [See too: Un succsbienrelatif: and SocialScience 1967 Religions et magies indiennes du Sud. dentale chezles Indiens guajiro. d'Amrique Paris: Gallimard. (Bibliothque des Sciences Medicine 14B(1980):279-287.] toxisurles drogues Pointde vue anthropologique 19825 Humaines.) Refus In: Drogue et Civilisation. comanognes. Michel Perrin, socialou acceptation?; pp. 127-138.Paris:Pergamorts. des Indiens Paris:Payot.(Biblio1976 Le chemin monPressFrance. as [2 ed., 1983. Translated thqueScientifique.) d'une catgorietiologique(la "The Way of the Dead Indians." Austin:The 1985 Les fondements de chez les Guajiro).L'Ethnotion contamination ofTexas Press,1987.] University 103-122. 81: nographie mdicales et pratiques 1979 Thories guajiro.Actes du de l'initation morphogntique des Amricanistes 6: 1986aUne interprtation International XLIIe Congrs 107-123. 26/1-2: L'Homme chamanique. 387-405. et rves, en actes. Mythes La pense mythique 1980 Commenton devientchamane. Rechercheset 19865 Indiens des rituels et chamanisme: More28: 1-8. Thomas du Centre Documents guajiL'exemple et de Colombie. ro du Venezuela frente al arteguajirode 1982aAntropologos [Thsede Doctoy mdicos ParisV, Paris,3 vols.] ratd'Etat,Universit C. A. B. curar.Caracas/Maracaibo: Corpozulia/U.

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