ELSEVIER Journal ofMaterials Processing Technology 63 (1997) 217-222

Journal of
Materials
Processing
Technology
Design and Characteristic Analysis of Supersonic Nozzles for High Gas Pressure Laser Cutting
H. C. Man*, 1. Duan, T. M. Vue
Department ofManufacturing Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Abstract
A new method for the design of a supersonic nozzle tip for high gas pressure laser cutting is presented. The design is based on the
theory of gas dynamics in that the potential energy of high stagnation pressure is converted totally into effective velocity energy so that a
high momentum of the exit jet can be obtained for improving the capability of removing molten debris quickly and minimizing the heat-
affected zone of the cut edges. Another purpose is to increase the cutting speed and minimize gas consumption under high pressure
cutting conditions. The behavior of the exit jet under the condition of stagnation gas pressure ranging from 4 - 16 bar are investigated by
means of a computer simulation test. The results of theoretical analysis and of the simulation test show that for a supersonic jet, each
sectional diameter and curve contour of the supersonic nozzle must be designed strictly according to the theory of gas dynamics. An exit
jet with high momentum, good uniform and a tidy boundary can be obtained and the tolerance of the working distance between the
nozzle tip and the workpiece can be increased.
Keywords: high gas pressure, laser cutting, supersonic nozzle
Introduction
Amongst the many process parameters in laser cutting, the
cut-assist gas pressure and gas flow pattern are of prime
importance to the cut edge quality. In the conventional oxygen-
assisted laser cutting process in which oxygen is used for the
generation of exothermal energy during the oxidation process,
the oxygen pressure normally ranges from 0.5 to 4 bar with a
nozzle diameter of 0.8 - 1.5 mm. Oxygen-assisted laser cutting is
used mainly for ferrous alloys because ferrous oxides are of low
viscosity and can be easily blown away from the cut kerf. The cut
edges of laser cut ferrous alloys normally consist of a thin layer
of ferrous oxide but this, together with the edge quality, is
normally acceptable in most applications. However, amongst the
ferrous alloys, laser cut edges of stainless steels are normally
inferior to those of other carbon steels. This is because the
chromium content in the stainless steels forms molten chromium
oxides during the laser cutting process and these oxides have a
high viscosity and tend to cling to the cut edge as dross if the
cut-assist gas pressure is not sufficiently high to blow it away.
Similar problems arise in the laser cutting of aluminium and
titanium alloys because the molten oxides of these alloys are also
of high viscosity. Thus high cut-assist gas pressure is normally
required to obtain a better cut edge quality. Indeed, using
conventional low pressure oxygen-assisted laser cutting, alloys of
C
r
, AI, T
j
are classified as difficult materials to cut.
Recent development in high pressure inert gas laser cutting
[1 - 5] has helped to alleviate the above-mentioned problems to
To whom correspondence should be addressed
0924-0136197/$15.00 @ 1997 Elsevier Science SA All rights reserved
PII S0924-0136(96)02627-1
some extent. By using inert gas pressure ranging from 8 to 25
bar, the molten metal in the cut kerf is blown away by the sheer
force of the gas stream. Because of the absence of oxygen in the
gas stream, no viscous oxide is formed inside the cut kerf and, as
pure molten metals are normally of relative low viscosity at
temperature above the melting point, they can be blown away
relatively easily. However, there are several problems
accompanying current high pressure inert gas laser cutting, which
hinder the wide application of this process, the latter having the
capability of producing shiny and oxide-free cut edges with a
minimum heat-affected zone. The main problems are: (i) too high
a gas consumption rate; and (ii) too low a tolerance of the
working distance between the nozzle tip and the workpiece.
The main cause of these problems is the poor design of the
cutting nozzle tip. When the high pressure inert gas process was
developed, the main research efforts were directed onto the
integrity of the lens system and the whole nozzle assembly under
the high pressure regime. However, the design of the nozzle tip
was still the same as those used for low pressure oxygen-assist
laser cutting technology. To date, no literature on the design of a
nozzle tip used for high inert gas pressure can be found. This
paper attempts to discuss our a new design of nozzle tip for high
inert gas pressure laser cutting.
1. Defects of the Traditional Laser Cutting Nozzle used for
high gas pressure
Most commonly used cutting nozzles for the laser cutting
process are of parallel, conical and convergent types, as shown
in Fig. I, in which the gas passages belong to the subsonic and
218 H.e. Man et al.!Journal of Materials Processing Technology 63 (1997) 217-222
Fig. 3 Jet coming from subsonic and transonic
nozzles under conditions of high pressure
normal shock
disk
jet boundary
nozzl
oblique
shock
surface of
workpiece
Fig.! Commonly used cutting nozzles: (a) parallel;
(b) convergent; (c) conical
transonic type[6 - 8]. From the requirement of high cutting speed
and good cutting quality under circumstances of high gas
pressure, there exist serious defects in these kinds of nozzles.
When the gas pressure Po <1.89kg/cm
2
(0.185MP
a
) (absolute
pressure ), velocity V and flow Q increase with the increasing of
inlet pressure Po, but when Po reaches 1.89 kg / cm
2
(0.185MP
a
)
, V attains a maximum value ( i.e. the local sonic velocity, Mach
number M = I). A further increase in Po also increases the flow
Q, but the gas velocity will remain constant, as illustrated in Fig.
2. At the same time, when the exit pressure PI is greater than
the ambient pressure Ph (back pressure), the speed of the exit jet
flow Q
velocity V
sonic
velocity
!.89 2 3 4
inlet pressure Po , kg/cm
2
(absolute pressure)
Fig. 2 Relationship between velocity, flow and pressure
at of the exit ofa transonic nozzle (after [10])
may reach supersonic speed, which causes the transversal
expansion of the jet in an explosive fashion. The exit gas
particles are accelerated radially and displaced from their
equilibrium positions, thereby creating a pressure reduction in the
core of the jet that causes the particles to reverse their direction
of motion. As a result, periodic intermittent shock waves are
formed which makes the jet thinner in some sections and thicker
in others. JfPoexceeds 5 - 6 kg/cm
2
(0.49 - 0.588MP
a
), there
will be some strong oblique shocks and even normal shock
waves, which result in loss in energy ( some energy is changed
into heat) and turbulent flow of the jet, as illustrated in Fig. 3.
The above phenomenon may interfere seriously in the
focusing of the laser beam because non-uniform jet flow
produces gradients of gas density that result in a change of the
refractive index in the gas field, which leads to secondary
focusing or diverging of the laser beam, as illustrated in Fig. 4.
The result of interference can affect obviously the melting
efficiency and change the mode of the laser beam ,which causes
poor cutting quality and low cutting speed. On the other hand,
the decrease in the energy of the jet caused by the normal shock
can reduce the momentum of the jet so that the capability of
removing molten debris quickly is degraded. This will also
result in an increase of the HAZ and in the roughness of the cut
edges. Finally, the range of distance between the nozzle tip and
workpiece is too sensitive to be tolerable in some laser cutting
processes.
Fig. 4 interference of the gradient ofthe gas
density with the laser beam focusing
Therefore, it can be seen that only increasing the inlet
pressure Po (in order to obtain a high jet energy) would cause a
deterioration of the cutting characteristics in these kinds of
subsonic and transonic nozzles.
When a supersonic nozzle is used as a laser cutting nozzle,
the condition of the exit jet can be greatly improved because this
nozzle has good gas dynamic characteristics. Especially under
the conditions of a correct design, the potential energy of Po can
be changed totally into the effective speed energy, so that the
velocity of the jet used in laser cutting will surpass the sonic
speed and increase with the increase of inlet pressure Po. A
higher momentum of the jet can be obtained to improve the
capability of removing the molten debris. This factor will lead to
a great increase of laser cutting speed and a reduction of the heat-
affected zone. On the other hand, the jet boundary exiting from
the supersonic nozzle is long and sharp-pointed, which is
suitable for precise cutting and for the cutting of thick plate.
2. Operating Theory of Supersonic Nozzle
A theory of one-dimensional steady gas dynamics can be
applied to the flow in a short duct of small divergence and
curvature on the basis of the assumption that the gas is a perfect
gas, without viscous stress, and that the transversal gradients of
pressure ( P ), velocity of flow ( V ), temperature ( T ) and gas
density ( p ) are negligible. The physical parameters of a perfect
gas are constant and uniform on each cross-sectional area ( A )
and the flow of perfect gas is an isentropic and adiabatic process,
without energy loss and heat exchange [6].
The laser cutting supersonic nozzle is generally of small
divergence and non-curvature as well as having a short duct. The
gas velocity in the duct is so fast that heat exchange has no time
to occur and therefore the motion of gas in the duct is an
adiabatic process. On the other hand, the development of
boundary layers will have little influence on the flow because no
matter how much the velocities in the boundary layer have been
H.e. Man et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 63 (1997) 217-222 219
sectional area A remains constant, i.e. dA = O. Also, dv = 0 , dp
= 0, dp = 0 and M=1 can be obtained from Eqns. (1)-(3). The
evaluation above shows that the cross-sectional area A will reach
a minimum value, known as the throat sectional area A
e
(critical
value ), and the velocity V in the throat section will achieve sonic
speed, Le. V = a (critical velocity).
If A was continuously reduced in order to attain supersonic
speed there would be M = via>1. This conclusion is impossible
from Eqn. (I) which requires dA > 0 when M>I, so that V
keeps at sonic speed, called the shock phenomena.
In order to make the jet exceed sonic speed after passing the
throat section, the cross-sectional area of the nozzle must increase
continuously and the P and p decrease correspondingly to keep
Eqns. (1) - (3) established. Therefore, the supersonic nozzle
must be a kind of converging--diverging nozzle which consists
of three sections: convergent (subsonic zone), throat (critical
zone) and divergent (supersonic zone).
(2)
(1)
dA
A
reduced by friction forces, the retarded layers have no difficulty
in following the favourable pressure gradients of the expansion,
so that the affect of friction can be approximately neglected.
Under these conditions, the motion of the gas in a laser cutting
nozzle can be considered as a barotropic and isentropic process,
and the equations of one-dimensional steady gas dynamics can be
applied in the design of the supersonic nozzle.
The differential relationships between the change of speed
and pressure and the change of cross-sectional area and density
are easily established by one-dimensional gas dynamics
equations [6 - 8], these relationships being:
dA 2 dv
-=(M -1)-
A V
V
d p 2 dv
-=M
p
(3) 3. Design Theory of a Supersonic Nozzle
Fig. 5 Conceptual diagram of a supersonic nozzle
In order to produce an exit jet with high momentum, good
uniform and a tidy boundary, as well as with low turbulence and
energy loss, the dimensions of each section in supersonic nozzle
need to be designed correctly and calculated precisely on the
basis of gas dynamics. The methods of design are as follows.
3.1 Stable section
Just as pointed out above, the supersonic nozzle should
consist of three sections: convergent, throat and divergent.
However, in the real supersonic nozzle, there is a stable section
before the convergent section in order to make the flow uniform
and non-turbulent. Thus, the nozzle should consist of four
sections: stable, convergent, throat and divergent, as shown in
Fig. 5.
L
2
divergent
section
throat
section
L o ~ L l
stable convergent
section section
The function of the stable section is to make the incoming
flow from a tank more uniform and non-turbulent and its
velocities at every point of the stable section nearly parallel with
the axis without transverse velocity components. The diameter
Do of the stable section depends on the diameter De of the throat
section. In theory, the greater is Do the better, but in reality, Do is
limited by the nozzle structure and manufacturing method as well
as by the focal length and diameter of the laser beam.
The length L
o
of the stable section should be sufficiently
long to ensure the incoming flow is stable. For this reason, it is
usually about 10 times as great as the throat diameter De.
However, in practice, L
o
is often limited by the focal length and
diameter of the laser beam. Therefore, L
o
is determined according
to real conditions.
p VA = const (4)
where A is cross-sectional area; V is the velocity of the gas; P is
pressure; M is Mach number (M = via ); k is the ratio of specific
heats; a is the speed of sound; and p is the density of the gas.
From these equations, bearing the name of Hugoniot, it is
possible to draw the following important conclusions.
(i) If M < I, the sign of dv is opposite to the sign of dA and the
sign of dp is identical to the sign of dA, Le. in the subsonic
motion of a gas, the speed of flow decreases with increasing
cross-sectional area and pressure of the stream, which is the
condition of a subsonic diffuser, and conversely, the speed
increase with decreasing cross-sectional area and pressure, which
is the condition of a subsonic nozzle.
(ii) If M > I, the sign of dv is identical with the sign of dA but
opposite to the sign of dp, Le. in the supersonic motion of gas in
a convergent duct the flow is retarded, which is the condition of a
supersonic diffuser, whilst in a divergent duct, the flow is
accelerated which is the condition of a supersonic nozzle.
(iii) If M = 1, then dA = 0; the corresponding section of the duct
will be critical. The condition dA =0 is identical with the
necessary condition for the area to have a stationary value. It is
easy to see that this stationary value must be a minimum, for if
the critical section of the duct had maximum area, a subsonic
stream would slow down and a supersonic stream would
accelerate, which could not, either way, lead to sonic flow at the
critical section: thus when M = 1, the velocity of flow reaches
sonic speed and the cross-section of the duct must be minimum,
called the critical area or throat section (A
e
).
By applying these characteristics, a supersonic nozzle can be
made to produce a gas jet with supersonic speed. When the
stagnant gas in a nozzle starts to accelerate, the speed of flow
increases slightly, but the density of gas p can be considered as
constant, i.e. V a, M 1. From Eqn. (4), it is easy to draw
the conclusion that with the increase of V, A must be reduced in
order to keep Eqn. (4) established so that the nozzle must be first
converged. With a further increase in V, the stagnation pressure
begins to decrease significantly and causes a decrease in density
of the gas that can offset part of the increase in speed V.
According to Eqn. (4), the convergence of the cross-sectional
area A becomes slow, i.e. the value of dA is low. When the
increase in V is just offset by the reduction in p, the cross-
220 H.e. Man et al./Journal of Materials Processing Technology 63 (1997) 217-222
3.3 Throat Section
(8)
(9)
[(
I+
Al Me 2
= M
I
( k-I 2)
I+--M
2 e
where A, is the exit area; A
e
is the throat area; Po is the pressure
in the tank expressed as inlet pressure (absolute pressure); P, is
the pressure at exit (absolute pressure); Me is the Mach number
in the throat section; M, is the Mach number at exit.
The curvature of the divergent section must be designed
rigorously by calculation on the basis of gas dynamic theory,
which has features that enable not only the exit supersonic speed
of the jet to be uniform and parallel, but also the jet boundary to
be tidy and limpid, so that the energy loss reaches the lowest
value.
X
Fig. 7 Three-dimensionally symmetricall-diverging
In the calculation of the three-dimensional dynamic curve
section, there is a simpler and more practical method, which is
Foelsch's analytical calculation [9]. Fig. 7 shows a conceptual
diagram of a design on the divergent section using Foelsch's
method. The throat section consists of a circular arc of radius R.
In the divergent section, the expansion curve contour consists of
a circular arc CD extended from the throat section and a straight
B
D/2
R.: C
I
In gas dynamics, the value of the throat diameter is
determined by the need of the cutting flow according to the range
of cutting thickness, and then, by the equation of computing flow
. If the gas absolute temperature To = 273K at the inlet section,
under the consideration of a choking effect at the throat section
and selecting the flow coefficient f.1 = 0.93, a computing equation
can be obtained as follows:
D, V (=) (7)
Po + I
where V is the cutting gas volumetric flow under standard
conditions (m
3
I h); and Po is the gas pressure at the inlet
(kg I mm\
3.4 Divergent Section
The function of the divergent section is to further accelerate
the flow, which latter has achieved sonic speed at the throat
section, by means of expansion, until the exit jet reaches an
expected Mach number. This section is the most important
section in the supersonic nozzle. The dimensions of the exit area
can be calculated by means of Eqn. (8) according to the given
inlet pressure Po , which latter can be calculated using Eqn. (9)
and the exit velocity of flow [8]:
(6)
(5)
I+-----L, I
Fig. 6 Curve contour in the convergent seeton
x
a = - (Shown in Fig. 6 )
L,
where R is the radius of an arbitrary convergent cross-sectional
area; R
e
is the radius of the throat sectional area; Ra is the radius
of the stable sectional area; L
j
is the length of the convergent
section; and x is the length of an arbitrary convergent section.
This type of converging curvature has an advantage that the
velocity of flow entering the throat section is quite uniform.
The design of the throat section is relatively important
because it is a transitional cross-sectional area which transfers
the subsonic speed into the supersonic speed. Just as mentioned
above, the cross-sectional area closer to the throat section can
not be varied quickly, so that a circular arc with quite a large
radius is provided over the region of transition in gas dynamics.
where k is the ratio of specific heats (for air, N
2
, k = 1.4; for Ar,
k = 1.658 )
There are numerous theories about the design of a
converging curvature. However, most of them are quite
complicated. In this paper, a simpler but more practical equation
[10] is applied in the design of the convergent section, which is
derived from the conclusion of an ideal axial incompressible
symmetry flow:
3.2 Convergent Section
The function of the convergent section is to accelerate gas
flow, but at the same time, to keep the flow uniform and parallel.
The characteristics of the convergent section are mainly
determined by two factors, one being the converging ratio, Le.
A
o
IA
e
( A
o
is the convergent inlet area, A
e
is the throat area )
which accelerates the gas flow and ensures the speed of flow to
reach sonic speed, whilst the second is the convergent curve
which maintains the velocity of flow uniform.
From theory of one-dimensional steady gas dynamics [6 - 8],
the equation of A
o
I A
e
can be attained as follows:
k+1
A M((I + 2(k-l)
o e 2
----
A M k-I 2
e 0 (l + --Me)
2
H.e. Man et 01. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 63 (1997) 217-222
(a)
e'
b' c' d'
(b)
(c)
Fig. 8 Configuration of the exit jet for Dc/D, =1.3 M, =2 and k=l ..II. for different
pressure ratios: (a) Ft/P,=l; (b) P
b
/P,=O.8; (c) Ft/P,=O.5
221
line DA with length equal to R, the arc AB being the
compression curve contour. The normal distance from A to X
axis is the radius of exit cross-sectional area of the nozzle.
Finally, a modification of the coanda layer effect should be
considered.
4. Characteristic Analysis on a Supersonic Jet
The behaviour of the exit jet coming from two-dimensional
supersonic nozzle is investigated by means of a computer
simulation test under the conditions of stagnation gas pressure Po
ranging from 4 - 16 bar, (as shown in Fig. 8). The results show
that for supersonic jet, after each of the sectional diameters and
curve contours of the supersonic nozzle have been designed
strictly based on the theory of gas dynamics, the velocity,
momentum and configuration of the exit jet depend mainly on
the given Mach number and working pressure ratio.
When the exit pressure PI (nozzle tip pressure) is slightly
greater than the back pressure Ph (i.e. Ph =: 1 bar, PI =: 1.25 bar,
Ph / P
I
= 0.8, M = 2), the shape of exit jet is as illustrated in Fig.
8(b). The exit jet forms expansion waves with its streamlines
turning outwards through an angle eat the nozzle tip a a'. There
are two families of expansion waves from exit points a and a',
which stretch out as an isentropic process until the exit pressure
decreases to the back pressure Ph' Then, these waves are reflected
by the boundary of the free jet ( bcd and b'c'd' )to form two
families of compression waves. The velocity and pressure P
z
in
region 2 keep constant ( i.e. P
z
= Ph ), the pressure P
3
in region 3
being less than Ph because of the expansion ( P
3
=: 0.25 bar), but
the velocity in this region 3 increases. Without consideration of
viscous effect, there exists a relationship of PI - Ph = Ph - P
3

Finally, these compression waves begin to move towards the

axial line of jet to the reflected points e and e' of the boundary.
In the meanwhile, the pressure of the jet gradually recovers the
value of PI ( region 4 ). If there were no loss of energy in the
process, this alternating change would continue, so that the
configuration of the exit jet would appear as an undulating
movement.
When the difference between PI and Ph is greater, i.e. Ph / PI
= 0.5, the situation of the exit jet is quite complicated, as shown
in Fig. 8(c). Some stronger oblique shock and normal shock (
Mach shock disk) emerge at the cross region of the compression
waves because when PI 2 bar, the pressure P
3
must be equal to
or less than the absolute vacuum pressure in order to keep the
relationship of PI - Ph = Ph - P
3
established. However, this is
222
H.G. Man et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 63 (/997) 217-222
impossible in fact, and as a result a normal shock disk must be
produced. The normal shock disk can cause loss in energy which
reduces the momentum of the exit jet, produce turbulent flow of
the exit jet which would interfere seriously the focusing of laser
beam, and shorten the effective length of the exit jet. The shorter
this length, the more sensitive is the distance between the nozzle
tip and the workpiece.
When Pi = Pb' i.e. P
b
/ p]= 1 (the" design" pressure ratio) ,
the characteristic lines ac', ad' and a'c, a' d coincide separately
with ab' and a'b. The shape of the exit jet is illustrated in Fig.
8(a), an exit jet with high momentum, good uniformity and a tidy
boundary being obtained.
From the above analysis, an important conclusion is obtained
that for a supersonic nozzle used in high pressure laser cutting, as
soon as the ratio between the exit diameter D] and the throat
diameter Dc is determined, the exit Mach number M
i
is fixed
and the ratio between the inlet pressure Po and the exit pressure
PI is also defined, the value of Po also being defined by
equation (9) since PI = P
b
;; 1 bar. For instance, when Pi = P
b
;; 1
bar, if D] / Dc = 1.3, M= 2, Po is about 7.8 bar, and if D] / Dc =
1.62, M= 2.5, Po is about 17 bar . Any greater deviation from the
computed value of Po can result in a characteristic deterioration
of the exit jet.
5. Conclusions
1. Subsonic and transonic nozzles are not suitable for high
pressure laser cutting because a normal shock disk, turbulent
flow and a short effective length of the exit jet cause a
deterioration of the cutting characteristics under the conditions of
P
o
>5bar.
2. A supersonic nozzle has good gas dynamic characteristics so
that it is suitable for high pressure laser cutting. However, it
should consist of four sections: stable, convergent, throat and
divergent. Each of the sectional dimensions must be designed
strictly on the basis of the theory of gas dynamics.
3. In order to obtain a good exit jet, the inlet pressure Po should
be equal to the computed value, as a large deviation would result
in a poor exit jet.
References
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2
laser cutting systems
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