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Effects of Optimised Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle Charging Strategies on Electric Distribution Network Losses
Salvador Acha, Student Member, IEEE, Tim C. Green, Senior Member, IEEE, and Nilay Shah

AbstractDistribution network operators (DNOs) require assessment tools on the tradeoffs plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) technology will have on their assets. This paper employs a time coordinated optimal power flow (TCOPF) formulation to show that, through the control of PHEV storage units and tap-changers (OLTCs), electric network operators can influence savings in energy losses. Case studies are performed in which PHEV units are constrained by various charging and discharging strategies. Results indicate how DNOs can value the storage available in their networks by the way it is dispatched for each time interval. The storage resources furthest away from the grid supply point (GSP) are managed more carefully due to their greater ability to reduce transmission losses at moments of peak demand. The TCOPF tool offers a fresh perspective for stakeholders wishing to evaluate the impacts PHEVs can have on operational aspects such as load profile variation, energy loss reduction, and peak shaving. Index TermsDistributed generation, distribution network operation, optimal power flow, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, power losses, smart charging, storage modelling, vehicle-to-grid.

I. NOMENCLATURE dEVstore,, Enodes EVbalance, EVchar,, EVdischar,, EVgrid,, EVstore,, G2V, G2V G2V,max G2V,min kWhel Lev MWhel n nEVchar change in the state of charge in node at time number of electric nodes use of PHEVs in node for the analysed period PHEVs charge in node at time PHEVs discharge in node at time sum of PHEV power changes in node at time state of charge of PHEV fleet in node at time grid-to-vehicle power flow in node at time grid-to-vehicle power flow in node upper grid-to-vehicle power flow limit in node lower grid-to-vehicle power flow limit in node electric kilo-watt hour energy required to charge in node electric mega-watt hour number of time periods PHEV power transfer efficiency

nl nt Peinj,, Pechp,, Pegen,, Peload,, PeL,, Sev |t| |t|, |t| |t|,max |t|,min V V,max V,min V2G, V2G V2G,max V2G,min V2R, Wchar, Wdischar,

number of line elements number of on-load tap changers electric power injection in node at time chp electric power generation in node at time electric power generation in node at time electric power load in node at time electric power loss in line element at time energy available to discharge in node tap magnitude of OLTC tap magnitude of OLTC unit at time tap magnitude of OLTC unit upper tap magnitude limit of OLTC unit lower tap magnitude limit of OLTC unit voltage at node upper limit voltage in node lower limit voltage in node vehicle-to-grid power flow in node at time vehicle-to-grid power flow in node upper vehicle-to-grid power flow limit in node lower vehicle-to-grid power flow limit in node vehicle-to-road power flow at node at time G2V weight factor at time V2G weight factor at time index for unit index for time index for oltc-loss weighting factor II. INTRODUCTION

The authors wish to acknowledge CONACyT and BP for their financial support of this research investigation. S. Acha is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Imperial College, London, UK SW7 2AZ (e-mail: salvador.acha@imperial.ac.uk). T. Green is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Imperial College, London, UK SW7 2AZ (e-mail: t.green@imperial.ac.uk). N. Shah is with the Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College, London, UK SW7 2AZ (e-mail: n.shah@imperial.ac.uk).

here are many fields of research that can be explored regarding the impacts of PHEV deployment on electrical power systems. These topics range from ancillary services which consider the profitable aspects of having vehicle-to-grid (V2G) features [1], [2], and [3] up to the integration of multiple sources of generation trying to meet the increasing demand for electrical power these vehicles represent [4], [5], [6], [7], and [8]. However, so far few publications have explored the effects that an optimal coordination between PHEV storage devices and OLTCs can achieve in enhancing the operation of distribution networks [9] and [10]. Hence, this article considers the presence of PHEVs with V2G capabilities (agents that can act either as a source of power or a load) and optimally integrates their operation in an electrical distribution network. Additionally, the model considers combined heat and

power (CHP) units embedded in the networks which operate whenever there is thermal demand. Figure 1 illustrates the components which are modelled in this research study.

III. STORAGE MODELLING EQUATIONS In this paper storage modelling is approached by applying a piece-wise time optimisation. The batteries of the PHEV fleet are modelled as if there was one large concentrated battery for the entire vehicle fleet. Thus, the electro-chemical capacity is an aggregated quantity which is equal to the sum of all individual batteries. The charging and discharging constraints of the PHEVs need to be satisfied at each time interval while the global constraints for these variables must be met at the conclusion of the daily period being analysed. To successfully model this feature we need a set of equations that will be included into our TCOPF analysis. In this section the set of equations are presented and are classified into the nodal balance and energy management equations. This section concludes with the OPF formulation that states the objective function and optimality restrictions employed in this research. A. Nodal Equations of Electrical Networks with PHEVs In order to model the capability of PHEVs to behave as either a load or generation element, several terms must be added to each nodal balance equation where these units are under consideration. Figure 2 shows a simple drawing of the power fluctuations that a domestic consumer has when PHEV and CHP technologies are present.
Feeder Customer

Fig. 1. The deployment of CHP and PHEV technologies has the potential of improving the efficiency of energy provision.

Modelling the storage of electrical power is scarce in the literature because of the lack of ability to store this type of energy in great quantities [11]. Traditionally, electrical power is converted into other forms of energy (i.e. potential or thermal) for storage and later converted once more into electrical power for its final use [12]. However, with the imminent deployment of a large number of PHEVs we can aggregate the storage capacity this technology represents and this resource is no longer negligible. There are various publications that have assessed the benefits V2G technology might have on network planning and operation [13] and [14]. This is because the inclusion of electro-chemical batteries in the power network adds greater flexibility in the provision of energy to the system. Nevertheless, no optimisation model to represent V2G power injections at a distribution level has been developed yet. This research builds upon [15] and [16] where the main equations to model energy service networks under the presence of distributed generation and control devices have been detailed. Thus, a nodal aggregated storage model is introduced in this paper to add greater resilience to energy provision. The storage modelling is achieved by performing a TCOPF in which the batteries embedded in the network are dispatched for each time interval with the objective of minimising OLTC use and total energy losses in the network. The TCOPF calculates the amount of power to be charged or discharged by the PHEVs into the system according to the power profile predicted by the DNO. The outputs of the simulation provide data in foreseeing potential losses, utility performance, and both base and peak demand. This work begins by explaining the concepts and equations for storage modelling. Secondly, an optimal power flow formulation is presented in which a plug and forget objective is combined with a minimum loss criterion. Then various case studies under different charging scenarios are presented. Results from the case studies demonstrate the relevance of the TCOPF tool in quantifying the tradeoffs DNOs might face if they have the virtue of controlling when PHEV charging and discharging can take place.

Pe inj Le
V2G

Pechp DGLe
CHP

G2V

V2R

Total Load Peload

PHEV Battery storage

Fig. 2. Representation of the power flows involved when PHEV and CHP technologies are present in a domestic consumers profile.

As seen in figure 2, the power injections that represent a nodal balance in the electric network for node at time are
Peload , , = Peinj , , + Pe chp , , + EV grid , ,
(1)

From equation 1 the term EVgrid represents the net effect PHEV units have in a particular node from their charging and discharging requirements during each time interval. This term can be further expressed as
EVgrid , , = EVchar , , EVdischar, ,
(2)

Similarly to equation 1 there must be a nodal equation exclusive to PHEV units in which the energy charged (G2V), discharged to the grid (V2G), and used for transportation (V2R) can be determined. The PHEV balance is stated as

3
n V 2G , EVbalance , = nEVchar G 2V , V 2 R , nEVchar =1

(3)

EVchar , , = EVdischar, ,

Equation 3 expresses that whatever energy is charged by the PHEVs the resource will be spent in either transport purposes or in supplying power back to the grid. B. Energy Management Equations In addition to equations (1) and (3) it is necessary to define, at each node, the variables that keep track on the state of charge of the storage resources. For this it is imperative to introduce a time variable in order to keep track of the state of charge. Furthermore, it is required to define the limits on how much energy the PHEVs require to charge and how much energy they will use per day. Studies show that agent based modelling and abundant GPS surveys will be needed in order to comprehend the driving patterns of users in which probabilistic models will be essential to develop comprehensive models [17]. Thus, vehicle usage and driving patterns are out of scope from this work. Therefore, the driving data published in [18] is used in this research to estimate the amount of energy spent in transportation for each time period in a typical weekday. Figure 3 shows the state of charge curve from a fleet of PHEVs embedded in a distribution network. In the graph the day is divided into 48 periods which translate into 30 minute intervals.
State of Charge of the Batteries from a PHEV Fleet
1 0.8

24 Wchar, G2V, , n 24 = Wdischar, V 2G, , n

(6) (7)

Equations 6 and 7 when combined are related to equation 2. They establish the net effect of PHEV presence on the grid in node k at time t. Factors Wchar and Wdischar take either values of 0 or 1 and serve the purpose of enabling the time intervals in which it is possible to charge the storage system or to return energy back to the electric grid. C. Time Coordinated Optimal Power Flow Formulation The scope of this research is to develop a model that is able to coordinate PHEV units and OLTC devices in order to efficiently operate the distribution network. This aspect results in questions of optimal system operation, such as: What form will nodal G2V and V2G profiles have when PHEVs are optimised to enhance the distribution network? What variations will the above profiles take if the charging strategies are modified? What energy savings and changes in network operation indices (e.g. load factor) can be achieved if PHEVs and OLTCs are coordinated efficiently? The TCOPF used in this research employs a multi-objective formulation which minimises energy losses and employs OLTC devices as infrequently as possible while assuring that all operational boundaries are met. This operation strategy combines the OPF formulations developed in [15] by placing emphasis on reducing losses and at the same time not overusing the control assets. Therefore, the objective function of the optimisation process consists of reducing both the sum of the tap value and the energy losses created in the system for the time period being analysed. An approach indeed attractive for DNOs since reducing energy losses translates into economic savings [19]. D. Problem Statement for the Optimal Power Flow The mathematical formulation of the OPF can be stated as
nl nt min ( ) t + (1 ) PeL, =1 =1

Per Unit

0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47

Time

Fig. 3. Illustration on the state of charge a PHEV fleet could have in a distribution network during a weekday.

In order to determine the state of charge for a storage system in node at time +1 it is necessary to have the previous storage value from time , this can be formulated as
EV store , , +1 = EV store , , + dEV store , ,
(4)

( = 1,...., n ) ( = 1,...., Enodes ) ( = 1,...., Enodes ) ( = 1,...., nt ) ( = 1,...., Enodes ) ( = 1,...., Enodes )

(8)

Needless to mention, the value for EVstore must always be equal or greater than zero. However, this constraint does not apply to the term dEVstore which is the change in the state of charge for a specific time interval as detailed by equation 5.
dEV store , , = EV grid , , 24 n V 2 R ,
(5)

Subject in each time period to

Pe gen , Peload , Peinj ,

(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

V ,min V V ,max t ,min t t ,max G2V ,min G2V G2V ,max

Once the state of charge equation is defined it is important to establish boundaries that indicate when the PHEVs will store or discharge energy. These ideas are expressed by the mathematical statements 6 and 7.

V 2G ,min V 2G V 2G ,max
Enodes =1

EV

store,

( = 1,...., Enodes )

Subject to the complete period being analysed

Enodes =1

=1

EV
=1

balance ,

=0

( = 1,...., Enodes ) ( = 1,...., Enodes ) ( = 1,...., Enodes )

(15)

Enodes

EV
=1

char,

Lev =0
Sev =0

(16) (17)

Enodes

EV

, dischar

Equation (8) describes the weighted linear combination the solver must follow to reduce energy losses throughout the network while employing the OLTCs as least as possible. Theorem (9) refers to active power flow conservation per node. Equation (10) represents voltage limits at nodes, while (11) specifies the range of operation for the tap changer. Term (12) limits the amount of power the vehicles can charge at each node. Likewise, (13) defines the power limits which the vehicles have to discharge back to the grid per node. Term (14) states storage systems must have at all times a state of charge equal or greater than zero. Precept (15) specifies in general form that throughout the period being analysed the net energy for the storage system must be zero. Finally, equations (16) and (17) are the constraints that determine the amount of energy available to charge and discharge in each node within the whole period in which the system is being assessed. IV. CASE STUDIES Various case studies were produced with the purpose of evaluating the difference in network operating conditions. A small radial network was used for this research because its simplicity allows an easier analysis of how PHEVs use their storage resources through the network. Node 1 is composed of commercial customers while nodes 2 and 3 are domestic clients. The network features and loads are representative since they have been taken from a specialised distribution network database at an 11kV level [20]. All the load profiles provided and divided into 48 time intervals represent a typical UK winter weekday. A. Case Descriptions Table 1 shows a summary of the simulated case studies. Case 0 is a conventional power flow with no embedded technologies present in the network. Case 1 is the base case as well but one in which the TCOPF is executed. Thereafter, six additional case studies were carried out which mainly vary in two aspects with respect to each other, these are: The penetration of PHEV and CHP embedded in the networks. The charging strategy of PHEV units. Two types of CHP technologies are modelled in these studies. For the commercial node it is assumed reciprocating engines are present and these devices have a 7.2 kWel capacity. For the domestic nodes solid-oxide fuel cells are modelled

with a 1.2 kWel capacity. In all the case studies the CHPs operate under thermal requirements and the electrical power generated is considered an added benefit. The thermal demands with which the CHPs operate are taken from a typical UK winter weekday [21]. The PHEV charging profiles modelled in these studies are based and expanded from [22]. It is important to mention that PHEV units are distributed evenly throughout the network for this study; in this manner we can assess how the same storage capacity behaves differently throughout the network. Additionally, the model assumes for simplicity that the vehicles which are not on the road are parked and plugged to the electrical grid. The PHEV charging scenarios follow three strategies with the purpose of assessing their respective impacts on the network. Table 1 describes the case studies modelled in this research paper.
TABLE I DESCRIPTION OF CASE STUDIES
Case number Case 0 Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6 Case 7 % of PHEV and PHEV grid-toPHEV vehicle-toCHP penetration vehicle strategy grid strategy Conventional power flow - No embedded technologies present TCOPF - No embedded technologies present 10% 10.00pm 5.59am 6.00am 9.59pm 10% 9.00pm 8.59am 9.00am 8.59pm 10% Continuous Continuous 30% 10.00pm 5.59am 6.00am 9.59pm 30% 9.00pm 8.59am 9.00am 8.59pm 30% Continuous Continuous

Cases 2 and 5 take a conventional PHEV charging approach widely used in the literature. This approach assumes that vehicles shall only charge during moments of low power demand; with the requirement that all units must be fully charged by the early morning. Cases 3 and 6 allow a greater range of time to charge the PHEVs. These cases are performed because the effects of embedded CHPs in the network require an assessment on how the PHEVs may take advantage of the additional generation. Cases 4 and 7 by not imposing constraints regarding on when PHEVs are allowed to charge or give power back to the grid give greater flexibility to coordinate their resources. In all the cases where there is PHEV present it is assumed that while vehicles will be fully charged at a certain time during the day, 80% of the energy will be used for transportation purposes while the remaining 20% is allocated back to the grid. B. Results The OPF is a non-linear optimisation problem with linear and non-linear equality and inequality constraints which has been coded in the gPROMSTM software [23]. Results from the simulations (weight factor =0.5) are promising and encouraging in terms of improving the use of the electrical infrastructure. The performance indicators used to contrast the results from one case to another include base and peak demands, load factor, energy provided by the slack bus and the losses incurred in the network. Table 2 displays a summary of the results from each case study.

5 TABLE II ELECTRIC NETWORK RESULTS

Losses (MWhel) 2.276 0.800 0.745 0.755 0.745 0.653 0.646 0.632 Slack (MWhel) 44.781 43.306 42.124 42.135 42.124 39.782 39.775 39.761 Load Factor (%) 66.763 67.640 72.103 71.582 71.769 76.656 75.604 74.930 Base Load (MWhel) 0.820 0.809 1.024 1.033 0.974 1.040 1.154 1.149 Peak Load (MWhel) 2.779 2.653 2.434 2.452 2.445 2.162 2.192 2.210
0.07 0.05 0.03 0.01 -0.01 -0.03 -0.05 -0.07

Charge and Discharge of PHEV Batteries - Case 4

Case 0 Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6 Case 7

11

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35

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39

41

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G2V 1 G2V 2 G2V 3 V2G 1 V2G 2 V2G 3

MWel

Time

Fig. 7. Details the G2V and V2G profiles that occur for case 4 in which the PHEVs must be fully charged by 6 am and 4 pm.

As table II shows the impact that embedded technologies have on the system improves the efficiency with which power is delivered. This is because PHEV charging occurs when valleys in the power profile can be filled, while the CHP generation and V2G capabilities reduce the peak demand. These actions, aided by OLTC operation, translate into an improved load factor for the network. As expected, these indicators improve even further as the penetration increases. Figure 4 shows the power profile variations seen from the GSP for the base problem and cases 5 to 7.
Grid Supply Point Load Profile
2.8 2.3 Case 0 Case 1 Case 5 Case 6 Case 7

Results above show that as the storage capacity is located further away from the GSP the more valuable the resource is to the DNO. This is because the power loads at nodes further away from the slack node tax the network with greater losses. Therefore, this explains why the optimal coordination indicates that the storage capacity at node 3 charges and discharges more abruptly and in fewer time intervals than in other storage facilities. Thus, the results indicate that similar to distributed generation research [24], V2G capabilities will be more beneficial in reducing energy losses when they are abundant in distant parts of the distribution network. V. CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK This paper has detailed a TCOPF model that addresses the optimal manner in which PHEV units and OLTC devices can be coordinated to improve network operation. The set of equations used to represent PHEV storage devices at an aggregated level are presented. The storage management equations are included into the model and solved as an optimisation problem to assess how control devices can influence energy losses. The problem is coded and solved by performing a piecewise time non-linear optimisation using the gPROMSTM software package. Case studies are performed in distribution networks varying the penetration of both embedded technologies and the charging scenarios of the PHEV units. The simulations demonstrate the efficiency and novelty with which the TCOPF tool coordinates the control devices in order to improve the delivery of energy. Outputs from the tool show an increase in the base load and a reduction of the peak demand. Thus, the savings in energy losses is considerable. Additionally, the results portray early indications of how optimal operation of PHEV devices can be visualised. This means that in nodes far away from the slack bus, G2V operation will happen at moments of low demand, while the V2G will occur at moments of peak demand. Hence, power loss reduction is stimulated by minimising power transfers from the slack to the outermost nodes in the system when power demand is high. Inversely, the storage available in the nodes closer to the GSP does not have as large an impact as in the rest of the nodes. Overall, the TCOPF tool proves its strategic value in assessing the effects DNOs can have on energy savings. Further research in this field should consider the inclusion of thermal storage for CHP technologies which shall give more flexibility and broadens the applications of the TCOPF tool.

MWel

1.8 1.3 0.8

0 2

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

36

38

40

42

44

46

48

Time

Fig. 4. Illustrates the combined effect PHEV and CHP units have on the power load variations.

Figure 5 to 7 depict where, when and how much energy the PHEV storage devices will charge (G2V) or give power back to the grid (V2G). The positive values represent G2V activity while the negative values are V2G occurrences.
Charge and Discharge of PHEV Batteries - Case 2
0.07 0.05 0.03 0.01 -0.01 -0.03 -0.05 -0.07

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G2V 1 G2V 2 G2V 3 V2G 1 V2G 2 V2G 3

MWel

Time

Fig. 5. Details the G2V and V2G profiles that occur for case 2 in which the PHEVs must be fully charged by 6 am.
Charge and Discharge of PHEV Batteries - Case 3
0.07 0.05 0.03 0.01 -0.01 -0.03 -0.05 -0.07

11

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G2V 1 G2V 2 G2V 3 V2G 1 V2G 2 V2G 3

MWel

Time

Fig. 6. Details the G2V and V2G profiles that occur for case 3 in which the PHEVs must be fully charged by 9 am.

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VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Salvador Acha (M2001) received the B.Sc. (Eng.) degree in Electronics and Communications Engineering from Monterrey Tech (ITESM), Monterrey, Mexico, in 2003. After working in the private sector he joined the Urban Energy Systems Project at Imperial College London, London, U.K., where he is pursuing the Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. His research interests include the integration of distributed generation resources, plugin hybrid vehicles, distribution management systems, and power system economics.

[4]

[5] [6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12] [13]

Tim C. Green (M89, SM03) received the B.Sc. (Eng.) (first class honours) degree from Imperial College London, London, U.K., in 1986, and the Ph.D. degree from Heriot-Watt University, Edingburgh, U.K. in 1990, both in Electrical Engineering. He was with Heriot-Watt University until 1994 and is currently the Deputy Head of the Control & Power Research Group at Imperial College London. His research interests include power engineering, covering distributed generation, microgrids, power quality, active power filters, FACTS technology, control of power systems using FACTS devices, and active distribution networks. Dr. Green is a charted Engineer in the U.K. and a Member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, U.K.

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

Nilay Shah obtained his Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from Imperial College London, London, U.K. in 1992. After a period of secondment at Shell UK, he joined the academic staff of Imperial College London under various faculty roles. Since 2001 he has been a Professor of Process Systems Engineering. He undertakes his research in the Queens Award winning Centre for Process Systems Engineering (CPSE). He is the deputy Director of CPSE, the co-Director of the BP Urban Energy System project and a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers. His research interests include the application of mathematical and systems engineering techniques to analyse and optimise energy systems, including urban energy systems and bioenergy systems. He is also interested in devising process systems engineering methods to complex systems such as large scale supply chains and biochemical processes.

[19] [20] [21]