CONDITION MONITORING OF SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTORS BY AXIAL MAGNETIC FLUX MEASUREMENTS

VOI T TO KOKKO
Department of Electrical Engineering, Optoelectronics and Measurement Techniques Laboratory, University of Oulu

OULU 2003

VOITTO KOKKO

CONDITION MONITORING OF SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTORS BY AXIAL MAGNETIC FLUX MEASUREMENTS

Academic Dissertation to be presented with the assent of the Faculty of Technology, University of Oulu, for public discussion in Raahensali (Auditorium L10), Linnanmaa, on March 14th, 2003, at 12 noon.

O U L U N Y L I O P I S TO, O U L U 2 0 0 3

Copyright 2003 University of Oulu, 2003

Supervised by Professor Kalevi Kalliomki

Reviewed by Professor Olli Aumala Professor Tapani Jokinen

ISBN 951-42-6938-1

(URL: http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514269381/)

ALSO AVAILABLE IN PRINTED FORMAT Acta Univ. Oul. C 179, 2003 ISBN 951-42-6937-3 ISSN 0355-3213 (URL: http://herkules.oulu.fi/issn03553213/) OULU UNIVERSITY PRESS OULU 2003

Kokko, Voitto, Condition monitoring of squirrel-cage motors by axial magnetic flux measurements
Department of Electrical Engineering, Optoelectronics and Measurement Techniques Laboratory, University of Oulu, P.O.Box 4500, FIN-90014 University of Oulu, Finland Oulu, Finland 2003

Abstract
The aim of this research work is to develop a tool for condition monitoring of squirrel-cage motors using axial magnetic flux measurements, and to design a diagnostics system for electrical motors. The basic theory of the measurements and systems was found through literature reviews and was further developed from the experimental results of this research work. Fluxgate magnetometers and Hall effect sensors are not reliable enough for condition monitoring purposes, but measurements by flux coil sensors can reach adequate reliability. The useful frequency area of the flux coil sensor is from about 0.2 Hz to 15 kHz, an area is well applicable for condition monitoring of squirrel-cage motors. Output voltage is frequency dependent, increasing towards higher frequencies. Sufficient sensitivity is usually reached by a flux coil sensor having a diameter of about 30 cm and the number of turns of about 200. Sensitivity can be improved by increasing the diameter or number of turns of the coil. The sensor should be placed axially centred on the end of the motor, and measurements should be made with the loaded motor in steady operation. Output voltage is typically from the microvolt to millivolt level, however, installation inside the motor can increase it from tens of millivolts to some volts. The dynamic resolution requirement of measurement is about 70 dB and the highest line resolution needed for the spectrum analysis is about 3200 lines. Time base signal can be used to study rapid disturbances of flux caused by mechanical loading or switching of the frequency converter. Various motor failures cause specific variation to the frequency distribution of flux, so spectrum analysis is well applicable for condition monitoring. Reference measurement of each motor is required because stator winding factors, installation tolerances, operating conditions and mechanical load affect leakage flux. A broken rotor bar failure can be detected from the amplitude difference between the supply frequency and its rotor bar induced sideband. A broken rotor end ring failure can be detected by the amplitude difference between the slip frequency and the supply frequency. However, it was found that the stator current spectrum is a more reliable method of detecting both these rotor failures. The supply voltage asymmetry can also be evaluated by specific sidebands of axial flux. Turn to turn failure of the stator winding was most reliably detected by sidebands around the rotor slot pass frequencies. Equations for frequency converter supplied motors are the bases for similar equations, but the supply frequency is replaced by the output current frequency of the converter. The developed diagnostics system design for condition monitoring of ac motors includes stator current, flux coil, temperature, vibration, partial discharge, bearing current and voltage measurements. At the system diagnosis stage these measurable signals are divided to time base and frequency base signals and for each of them a fault indicator is determined. For flux coil measurements four fault indicators were found: rotor bar failure ratio, rotor end ring failure ratio, stator winding turn to turn ratio and supply voltage asymmetry operation ratio. With these failure indicators we determine failure location, state and cause. From this information a lifetime prediction of the motor is made. The results of this work are used to analyse flux coil measurements of squirrel-cage motors. In addition the research has led to a special application to monitor electric motors using an on-line condition monitoring system for paper machines and power plants.

Keywords: condition monitoring, diagnostics, electric motors, electrical measurements, flux coil

Owned to my parents

Acknowledgements
I wish to express my gratitude to my supervisor Professor Kalevi Kalliomki for his encouragement and scientific guidance of this work, which started out from my licenciate thesis. The experimental work for this thesis was carried out in co-operation with my colleagues in Fortum Service Oy Technology Unit Oulu and I wish to thank them all for the support they have provided during the work. My warmest thanks to my colleagues in the forest industry for their helpful co-operation during recent years. My family deserves my warmest thanks for their support over the years. I wish to thank Professor Tapani Jokinen and Professor Olli Aumala for examining this thesis. I also want to express my thanks to Gordon Roberts for revising the language. Finally, I wish to thank Fortum Service Oy for allowing me to use software and measurement data to do this research and development work. Oulu, November 2003-01-18 Voitto Kokko

List of symbols and abbrevations

A/D ADC emf mmf DTC FFT PWM rms UMP F B , RPM s s m fs fr frm fre fv fsync frc fpc fSS fPSPS f2LFS fRSS fSFS fLFS Analog to digital Analog to digital converter Electromotive force Magnetomotive Force Direct Torque Control Fast Fourier Transform Pulse Width Modulation Root Mean Square Unbalanced Magnetic Pull magneto motive force magnetic flux density angle rotating speed per minute angular velocity synchronous speed rotational speed rotational mechanical speed line frequency of supply rotational frequency rotational mechanical frequency frequency of external vibration frequency of mechanical vibration synchronous rotating frequency rotor current caused air gap frequencies stator phase current caused air gap frequencies stator slot frequencies principal slot pass frequency for stator 2 times line frequency family of stator slot pass frequencies running speed sideband of stator slots slip frequency sideband of stator slots line frequency sideband of stator slots

fRS fPSPR f2LFR f2RMF fRSR fSFR fLFR fSWF fRA fBB fBF fBFR fSA fSVA fE fDE fSE fCF fVI fB fco fsc fRCOF fFC s t i, j, k l, m, n p q Qr Qs Kp Kd Kpk Kdk n PSP T W

rotor slot frequencies principal slot pass frequency for rotor 2 times line frequency family of rotor slot pass frequencies 2 times line frequency family of multiply of rotor slot pass frequencies running speed sideband of rotor slots slip frequency sideband of rotor slots line frequency sideband of rotor slots frequencies caused by stator winding failure frequencies caused by rotor asymmetry frequencies caused by broken rotor bar frequencies caused by rotor failure frequency caused by broken rotor end ring frequencies caused by stator asymmetry frequencies caused by supply voltage asymmetry frequencies caused by eccentricity frequencies caused by dynamic eccentricity frequencies caused by static eccentricity frequencies of stator current caused by eccentricity frequencies caused by internal vibration frequencies caused by bearing failure output current of frequency converter switching frequency of PWM converter 2 times converter output frequency family of rotor slot pass frequencies frequencies caused by PWM converter fractional slip time variable phase shift integers variables number of pole pairs number of phase belts per pole number of rotor slots number of stator slots winding pitch factor winding distribution factor harmonic winding pitch factor harmonic winding distribution factor number of slots per phase belt Principal Slot Pass number number of turns of coil winding winding pitch

Contents
Abstract Acknowledgements List of symbols and abbrevations Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Aim and scope of this work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Harmonic effects of ac motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 The principle of axial magnetic flux measurements and its applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Contents of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Literature review of magnetic fields and magnetic leakage fluxes of induction motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Rotating torques generated by magnetic fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Magnetic leakage fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Magnetic fields and mmf waves of a healthy motor supplied by a sine wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 mmf caused by the stator phase current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Rotating mmf caused by a balanced three-phase condition . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Stator winding factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.4 Fluxes caused by rotor winding currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.5 Fluxes caused by stator slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.6 Fluxes caused by rotor slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Harmonics fluxes caused by currents of variable speed drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Fluxes caused by voltage-controlled drive using antiparallel thyristors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Fluxes caused by voltage-source square-wave inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Fluxes caused by voltage-source PWM inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Turn to turn failures of stator winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Detection of turn to turn failure by low frequency flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Detection of turn to turn failure using high frequency flux . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.3 Location of turn to turn faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Rotor asymmetries, broken rotor bars and broken rotor end ring . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.1 Detection of rotor asymmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.2 Detection of a broken rotor bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15 15 17 19 21 22 22 23 23 24 25 26 28 29 30 31 31 32 33 34 34 36 36 37 37 38

2.6.3 Detection of broken end ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Detection of supply voltage asymmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 Detection of rotor eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Detection of mechanical vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Literature review of measurements of magnetic fields and magnetic leakage fluxes 3.1 Air core probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Fluxgate magnetometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Hall effect sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Measurements of magnetic leakage fluxes of motors by axial flux coil sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The experimental measurement results of axial magnetic fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Healthy motors supplied by sine wave voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Time based waveforms of axial leakage flux generated voltages . . . . . 4.1.2 Spectrum presentations of axial leakage flux coil voltages . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2.1 Amplitudes caused by harmonics of phase currents and rotor slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2.2 Detection of sidebands around the supply frequency . . . . . . . . 4.1.2.3 Detection of slip frequency and its harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2.4 Amplitudes of frequency components around the synchronous rotating frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2.5 Amplitudes of frequency components around the third harmonic of supply frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Healthy motors supplied by frequency converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Time base waveforms of flux coil voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Spectrum presentations of axial flux coil voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.1 Amplitudes caused by output frequency of the frequency converter, switching frequency of the converter and rotor slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.2 Detection of sidebands around the output frequency of a converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.3 Detection of slip frequency and its harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.4 Amplitudes of frequency components around the synchronous rotating frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Test results of detection of turn to turn failures of stator windings . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Detection of turn to turn failures with low frequency spectrum . . . . . . 4.3.2 Detection of turn to turn failures using high frequency spectrum . . . . . 4.3.3 Detection of turn to turn failures from a time based waveform . . . . . . . 4.4 Rotor bar failures in squirrel-cage motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Literature review of magnetic fields and magnetic leakage fluxes . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Rotating torque and leakage fluxes of sine wave supplied machines . . 5.1.2 Magnetic fields and mmf waves of a sine wave supplied healthy motor 5.1.3 Harmonic fluxes caused by currents of variable drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.4 Low frequency components in normal operation and various failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5 Instructions to diagnose the low frequency results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39 39 42 44 46 46 48 50 50 53 53 53 56 56 58 61 63 63 65 65 67

67 70 71 73 74 74 79 86 89 94 94 94 95 95 96 99

5.1.6 High frequency components in normal operation and various failure modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Measurements of magnetic fields and fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Literature review of magnetic fields and fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Uncertainty of the experimental measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2.1 Reproducibility of results of measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2.2 Repeatability of results of measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2.3 Accuracy and errors of experimental measurements . . . . . . . 5.3 Experimental measurement results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Healthy motors supplied by sine wave currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1.1 Time base waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1.2 Amplitudes caused by harmonics of phase currents and rotor slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1.3 Detection of sidebands around the supply frequency . . . . . . . 5.3.1.4 Detection of slip frequency and its harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1.5 Amplitudes of frequency components around the synchronous rotating frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1.6 Amplitudes of frequency components around the third harmonic of supply frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Motors supplied by frequency converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2.1 Time based waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2.2 High frequency spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2.3 Low frequency spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Detection of stator winding turn to turn failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3.1 Low frequency analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3.2 Harmonics of supply frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3.3 Rotor slot pass frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3.4 2 times the Line Frequency family of a multiple of rotor slot pass frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3.5 Time based waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.4 Detection of rotor bar failure using axial flux and stator current measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Diagnosis based on the condition monitoring measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Integrated diagnostics system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Condition monitoring techniques of electrical motors . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2.1 Visual monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2.2 Compliance monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2.3 Electrical monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2.4 Vibration and noise monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2.5 Temperature monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2.6 Wear debris monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 Failure detection, prognosis and prescriptive actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3.1 Failure detection methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3.2 Failure progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3.3 A proposal for a failure classification of electric motors . . . . 5.4.4 Proposed parameters for condition monitoring of electric motors . . .

100 102 102 104 104 106 107 109 109 109 109 110 111 112 112 112 112 113 114 116 116 119 120 124 126 126 129 129 130 131 131 131 132 133 133 133 134 134 134 135

5.4.5 Proposed parameters to monitor the conditional failure stage of electrical motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 5.4.5.1 Mechanical stability and fluid stability parameters . . . . . . . . 137 5.4.5.2 Electrical stability parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 5.4.6 Proposed diagnostics system for electrical motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 5.4.7 Prediction of the failure mode and life prediction prognosis using results from axial leakage flux measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Appendix 1 Frequency response test of the CSi 343 flux coil sensor

1 Introduction
1.1 Aim and scope of this work
In industrial and power plants the availability of production should be kept as high as it is economically possible and any sudden breakdown in the production line would have many negative influences. Wilmott (1997) states that in addition to direct production losses there are also many hidden losses such as start up losses including scrap, yield and reworking, set up and adjustment time losses including running at reduced speed, idling and in addition possible late delivery. Electrical motors are in many cases a part of a production line and the sudden breakdown of a motor can cause the shut down of the whole equipment. So there is a certain need to avoid any sudden breakdowns of these motors. In the pulp and paper, process and steel industries there are normally thousands of electrical motors in each factory and hundreds of these motors are directly associated with production. Electrical motors are normally quite reliable, but because of the high amount of motors in each plant, it is common that there are several motor breakdowns in each plant every year. Some of these failures have a direct influence on production. Modern industrial production lines are single lines without parallel stand-by motors. This ensures lower investment costs, but a lack of stand-by motors and requirement of high production availability requires high availability of single motors. If the failure can be discovered at early stage, there is enough time to plan repair work, and the probability of an unplanned interruption of production is smaller. For this reason, the condition monitoring of motors has to be able to detect deterioration at early stage. The reliability of squirrel cage induction motors has been studied in several surveys such as ODonnell (1985), Hnninen (1991) and Thorsen and Dalva (1995). The result of these surveys is that bearing failures cause nearly half and stator windings failures about 15 to 35 % of all failures, depending on the application. Combined importion of rotor and shaft failures is quite small, under 10 percent. The proportion of external devices is about 10..20 percentage and they have been distributed in different ways in separate surveys. ODonnell has studied the relative times for discovering the failures for ac motor components. In these results, the time for discovering failures has been classified into

16 three groups: normal operation, maintenance or test, and other. The results are shown in Fig. 1. The survey shows that at normal operation, discovered failures are predominated by bearing failures, stator winding failures and rotor failures. (ODonnell 1985).
Failed component of ac motors versus time discovered, IEEE 1985
100 Percentage, % 80 60 40 20 0 Bearing Windings Rotor Shaft or Brushes or coupling slip rings Failed component Normal operation Maintenance or test Other External device Not specified

Fig. 1. Failed component versus time discovered on ac motor (ODonnell 1985).

Failures of bearings can be discovered during operation at an early stage from vibration measurements. Failures of the rotors of asynchronous motors can be discovered during operation at an early stage, for example by stator current spectrum analysis. The failures of bearings and rotors normally develop slowly and repairing can be done during planned shut down. Detection of stator winding failures of low voltage motors during operation has been a problem because there has not been a reliable condition monitoring method for this purpose. In addition, failures of stator winding develop much more rapidly than failures of other components. Vas (1993) and Tavner and Penman (1987) have suggested that axial magnetic flux measurements are a potential method for monitoring the condition of stator and rotor winding of cage induction motors during operation. The measurement is quite well known, but the diagnosis of the motor condition on the basis of the results requires further research. Low-voltage cage induction motors are the dominating motor-type in industrial applications and cage induction motors controlled by speed variable drives are commonly used in production lines. Therefore the condition monitoring of stator and rotor failures of low-voltage squirrel cage motors by axial magnetic flux measurements become part of the scope of this dissertation. The first goal of the work was to collect applicable information from the behaviour of the magnetic leakage flux of a healthy motor and a motor in various failure states during normal and steady state operation. Transient situations were left out from the scope of this work, because usually the condition monitoring is implemented during normal operation. The main interest was focused on the failures of electrical components because for condition monitoring of mechanical parts there are reliable methods such as vibration

17 monitoring. Because information collected should be based on surveys or theories to fulfill the requirements of scientific work and it should be useful for the analysis of various failures of motors, it has to be in the form of equations. This part of the study was made through a literature review. The second goal was to find out various applicable methods for measuring axial leakage fluxes. Even though a flux coil sensor had already been selected as one measurement method, the purpose was to explore if the latest technology development had brought new possibilities into this area. In addition, the measurement system used in the experimental part of this study should be introduced with such accuracy that other researchers are able to repeat measurements. This part of the thesis was implement by literature review too. The third goal was to gather data from healthy motors and motors with various failures using experimental measurements. The purpose of this part was to examine the behaviour of an axial flux spectrum on the normal operation of healthy motors both with sine wave supplied and frequency converter current supplied motors. The experimental part of study was started in August 98 with a laboratory test series to study turn to turn failures of stator winding of a squirrel-cage motor. After that field test series was implemented on about six hundred industrial ac motors in a paper and pulp mill environment during the following three years. About two hundred induction motors were measured three to five times during three years. A rough analysis of these field measurements was made on about a hundred motors, and for more detailed analysis on selected samples of three to five similar motors of various drive applications were taken. Because a lot of data is needed from the field measurements, it was gathered from periodical field measurements made by condition monitoring engineers. However, measurement tasks and the parameters of signal processing were specified together with the author. Laboratory tests were made together with the author and the condition monitoring engineers. The author alone performed all analysis work of the data presented in this thesis. The goal of the fourth part, which forms the main scientific part of this work, was to evaluate the experimental measurement data by equations found in the first part of the study. The purpose was to test equations and to find the best applicable variables to detect various failure modes. Based on this information and other information from condition monitoring, the final goal is to design a diagnostic system for condition monitoring of electrical motors and analysis instructions to evaluate the motor condition using axial leakage flux measurements.

1.2 Harmonic effects of ac motors

There are several sources for the harmonics of the air-gap magnetic field of the motor. The harmonics of the supply voltage and current is one of the sources both with directly supplied and inverter supplied machines. When an induction machine operates in a steady state and the stator voltages are non-sinusoidal, the effect of time harmonics has to be taken into account. Non-sinusoidal stator voltages can be expanded into a fundamental

18 component and a series of time harmonic components. The major non-linear loads in a power system are static converters producing basically odd harmonics. Alonso et al. (2000) state that the most common harmonics in a power system are 5th, th 7 , 11th, 13th, 17th, and 19th and induction motors with their harmonic rotation can be effected by them, as shown in Table 1. The same table can also be used to determine harmonic rotation and rotor harmonics for a non-sinusoidal voltage supply. Table 1. Most common non triple harmonics in power systems (Alonso et al. 2000).
Harmonic Order 5 7 11 13 17 19 Frequency Hz 250 350 550 650 850 950 Stator Harmonic 5 7 11 13 17 19 Harmonic Rotation Backward Forward Backward Forward Backward Forward Rotor Harmonic 6 6 12 12 18 18

Vas (1993) states that harmonics can cause several harmful effects on the motors if they have not been taken into account when planning the application. A major effect of harmonic voltages and currents in induction motors is increased heating due to iron and copper losses at the harmonic frequencies. The additional rotor losses caused by the time harmonic rotor currents constitute a significant component of the total losses due to the effects of current displacement. The increase in iron losses due to the main fluxes is usually negligible, but a significant increase is possible due to end-winding leakage and skew leakage fluxes at the harmonic frequencies. The higher losses also result in a rise in the temperature of the machine. Due to the increased losses resulting from the time harmonics in the currents, the torque must be reduced from its rated value to avoid undesirable heating. However, this reduction of the torque depends on both the total machine losses and the cooling of the machine. Harmonic currents can cause audible noise emission of the motor too. Vas (1993) presents that another of the main effects of harmonics is pulsating torques. The main pulsating torques are produced by the interaction of the fundamental flux linkages and the harmonic rotor currents. For example, the 5th harmonic stator currents form a negative-sequence system and they produce a space fundamental mmf which rotates at five times the synchronous speed clockwise (the direction of the fundamental field is assumed to be anticlockwise). Thus rotor currents will be induced and these interact with the fundamental rotating field and create a pulsating torque component at six times the fundamental stator frequency of 300 Hz. It can be similarly shown that the 7th harmonic stator currents also produce a pulsating torque at six times the fundamental frequency of 300 Hz. The 11th and the 13th time harmonic currents produce a 12th harmonic pulsating torque component, 600 Hz, and 17th and 19th time harmonic currents produce a 18th harmonic pulsating torque component, 900 Hz, and so on. (Vas 1993.) Vas (1993) states that the average harmonic steady-state torque represents only a small percentage of the rated torque and normally has negligible effect on the operation of the machine. The mean value of the pulsating torques produced due to the interaction of the time harmonic rotor currents with the fundamental rotating field produced by the stator is

19 zero. In general they do not alter the steady-state average torque of the machine, but can cause speed oscillation that may limit the speed range of the drive. This limit mainly depends on the inertia and friction torque. The amplitude of the pulsating torque is almost independent of the load torque because the fundamental flux and harmonic rotor currents are also almost independent of the load. In general, torque pulsations are effectively smoothed by the inertia of the rotor at all speeds, apart from very low speeds. At a very low speed, the amplitude of the pulsating torque in a square-wave voltage-source inverter-fed induction machine drive is typically between 10-20 % of the full load torque of the machine. (Vas 1993). The mechanical vibration effect of the pulsating torques can be detected by bearing vibration measurements. The result of bearing vibration measurement from a directly supplied cage induction motor is shown in Fig. 2. In addition to the mechanically caused vibration, there exist vibration on frequencies of 300 Hz, 600 Hz, 900 Hz and 1200 Hz. These are caused by pulsating torques produced by harmonics of the stator current.
1 32-20-24 -L1X- Filter SHKMOOTTORI Paper machine Motor VAPAAPAA VAAKA Vibration measurement - Horisontal direction 300.43 PK-3 - PK3 KONESIHTI 4

10

Route spektri Route spectrum 01.DEC.00 10:15:18 KOKTAS= 2.35 V-DG 10:15 RMS = 2.36 KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1470. RPS = 24.50

01 Dec 2000

Vibration rms speed mm/s RMS Nopeus mm/s

10

10

-1

600.92

10

-2

901.33

10

-3 0 400 800 Taajuus 1200 Hz 1600 Taaj: 300.00 Monk: 12.24 Spek: .546

Frequency Hz

Fig. 2. Vibration measurement of a cage induction motor.

1.3 The principle of axial magnetic flux measurements and its applications
The leakage flux in the end winding space, a simplified presentation of which is shown in Fig. 3, is the result of the stator and rotor currents. Because of the inherent machine asymmetry, the leakage flux can always be detected even with symmetrical voltage of the power supply.

1201.3

20 The leakage flux spectrum corresponds to the result of the effects of both the stator and rotor current frequency components. In addition to the fundamental frequency, the spectrum includes harmonics caused by stator currents, frequency components caused by the asymmetry of supply voltages and various types of other abnormal situations or failures such as eccentricity, stator phase to ground failures, turn to turn short failures of stator winding and rotor winding failures. For this reason, the leakage flux measurement can be used for monitoring the electrical condition of a cage induction motor.

Stator end winding

Stator Leakage flux in the end winding space

Rotor

Rotor end ring

Fig. 3. Simplified representation of the leakage flux in the end winding space.

The leakage flux can be measured by a flux coil mounted to the end of the motor, either inside or outside the motor. By mounting the flux coil outside the motor, it is possible to make measurements without any disturbance to the motor operation. In order to study this kind of flux, the stator and rotor current frequency components must be identified separately. This can be made by a digital measurement instrument that measures the flux time varying signal, makes the necessary signal processing such as filtering and A/D converting, and transforms the signal to the frequency spectra by FFT. Results can be saved and inspected more clearly using a separate computer program. It is also possible to have trends of periodical measurements. A leakage flux measurement by a flux coil and instrument set up that has been used for the measurements of this thesis is shown in Fig. 4. Because the flux coil measures the axial component of the leakage flux of the end winding it is called axial flux measurement in this thesis.

21

Fig. 4. Axial flux measurement set up used in this thesis.

1.4 Contents of the thesis

The organisation of this thesis is as follows. Chapter 2 is a literature review of magnetic fields and magnetic leakage fluxes, which presents the characteristics of magnetic fields and fluxes of motors supplied by sine wave or by various drives. It presents applicable information and equations for frequency analysis of axial magnetic flux measurements to detect the parameters of normal operation or various failure situations. Chapter 3 is a literature review of measurements of magnetic fields and magnetic leakage fluxes, and it presents axial magnetic flux measurement methods with the requirements and restrictions on condition monitoring of cage induction motors. The portable instruments used in the experimental part of work are introduced. Chapter 4 is the experimental measurement results of axial magnetic fluxes, and it presents the results of the experimental laboratory tests and field measurements made for this study. In Chapter 5, the discussion, contains a comparison between the results of theoretical part and the results of the experimental tests and measurements. There is discussion if the experimental results support the theory and some conclusions have been made based on these discussions. Some instructions for analysing the results of axial magnetic flux measurement of squirrel cage motors are presented. In addition some new equations to analyse measurement results have been developed and presented. In Chapter 6, the conclusions, we present our conclusions and recommendations for further research.

2 Literature review of magnetic fields and magnetic leakage fluxes of induction motors
The literature review of magnetic fields and leakage fluxes is implemented to determine the characteristics of operation in various operation situations or various failures of cage induction motors.

2.1 Rotating torques generated by magnetic fields

Currents in the motor windings create magnetic flux in the air gap between the stator and rotor, the flux paths being completed through the stator and rotor iron. This condition corresponds to the appearance of magnetic poles on both the stator and rotor, centred on their respective magnetic axes. Fitzgerald et al. (1983) state that torque is produced by the tendency of the two component magnetic fields to line up their magnetic axes. The torque is proportional to the product of the amplitudes of the stator and rotor mmf waves. It is also a function of the angle sr between their magnetic axes. For a smooth-air-gap machine the torque is proportional to sin sr. Most of the flux produced by the stator and rotor windings crosses the air gap and links both windings, this flux is termed mutual flux. However, a small part of the flux does not cross the air gap but links only the rotor or stator winding. These are respectively, the rotor leakage flux and the stator leakage flux. It is only the mutual flux that is of direct concern in torque production. The leakage fluxes do not affect machine performance, but they do, by virtue of the voltages, induce in their own windings. Their effect on the electrical characteristics is accounted for by means of leakage inductances. This effect, however, is an auxiliary one rather than a fundamental part of torque production. The mmf waves of a stator and rotor are spatial sine waves with sr the phase angle between their magnetic axes in electrical degrees. Fitzgerald et al. (1983) have shown that the torque is proportional to the peak values of stator and rotor mmf waves, and the sine of the electrical space phase angle sr between them. The fields tend to align themselves. This means that the electromagnetic torque acts in a direction to decrease the

23 displacement angle between the fields. Equal and opposite torques are exerted on the stator and rotor. The torque on the stator is transmitted through the frame of the machine to the foundation.

2.2 Magnetic leakage fluxes

Fitzgerald et al. (1983) and Alger (1970) have presented that the flux that traverses paths outside the active transfer or conversion regions, e.g. the air gap of a rotating machine. The flux affects the leakage inductance of windings, forces in and between windings (especially under conditions of short circuit), load losses and several more phenomena. The working flux links both windings, while the leakage flux either links one winding only, or they are directed so that useful energy transfer between the stator and rotor is not contributed. Alger (1970) states that several leakage fluxes can exist in the air gap area of induction motors such as an air gap leakage flowing in peripheral direction entirely within air gap, stator slot leakage crossing the stator slot conductors from tooth to tooth, and rotor slot leakage crossing the rotor slot conductors from tooth to tooth. Magnetic leakage fluxes present in the air gap area cannot be recognised separately, but in the end winding area they can be recognised as a separate entity as stator end winding leakage flux and rotor end winding and end ring leakage flux. End winding leakage fluxes cause mainly the axial leakage flux that is measured using axial leakage flux measurements. Alger (1970) states that the pattern of stator end winding together with the configuration of the end-rings of a squirrel-cage motor and the location of adjacent magnetic parts, give a complicated three-dimensional pattern of end leakage flux that is difficult to determine exactly. However, for condition monitoring of motors, the exact amplitude value of leakage flux is not necessary because the diagnosis is based on relative changes in the flux spectrum.

2.3 Magnetic fields and mmf waves of a healthy motor supplied by a sine wave
For condition monitoring of motors it is important to have adequate knowledge on the behaviour of healthy machines. Only after that it is possible to reliably notice changes in abnormal situations.

24

2.3.1 mmf caused by the stator phase current

Alger (1970) states that the calculation of the effective ampere turns of a stator winding, and thence the magnitude of the air gap flux for a 3-phase ac motor with symmetrical winding can be made as follows. A symmetrical polyphase winding has q phase belts per pole, all physically identical, but spaced 360/2q electrical degrees apart, and carrying currents spaced 360 /2q degrees apart in time. In the normal case, when q is an integer, the consecutive phase belts in the same phase winding will be spaced 180 apart, and will carry currents that are opposite in time phase. The mmf wave of phase A, whose current is 2 I cos t , is the following (based on Alger 1970):

FA = 2

Mn

k =1, 3, 5,...

1 1 KpkKdk cos(k + t ) + KpkKdk cos(k t ) k k

(1)

where M is the peak ampere turns per coil = 2 I times turns per coil, n is coils per pole per phase, k is the harmonic number (odd harmonics 1, 3, 5, 7 ), Kp is the winding pitch factor (constant value 1, specific for each harmonic), Kd is the winding distribution factor (constant value 1, specific for each harmonic) and is the angular velocity. In equation (1) the cos ( t ) terms are forward-revolving waves and the cos ( + t )terms are backward revolving waves. In addition to the base frequency (50 Hz), there are all the odd harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, 13th, 15th, ... ), but all the even harmonics (2nd, 4th, 6th, ) have been cancelled out. The amplitude of each harmonic is 1 dependent on the base factor , the winding pitch factor Kp and the winding distribution k factor Kd. The winding factors attenuate the amplitude of each harmonic. The conclusion is that the distribution of mmf waves is specific for each stator winding. All three phases cause similar magnetic air gap flux waves and each phase current causes two magnetic air gap flux waves rotating in opposite directions. Each pole pair will cause a separate rotating wave and so there is p parallel air gap fluxes for each phase winding of the motor. Each phase of the stator current causes a similar magnetic leakage flux into the end winding area. So when measuring the axial magnetic flux there should be the air gap flux frequencies caused by phase currents, based on equation (1), as following:

fpc = k fs

(2)

where k is the odd integer (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ). Various air gap flux frequencies for a line frequency of 50 Hz determined by equation (2) are shown in Table 2. Table 2. mmf waves caused by stator phase currents.
Rotating base frequency and existing harmonics Base 3rd 5th 7th 9th 11th 13th 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 15th 750 17th 850 19th 950 21th 1050 23th 1150 25th 1250

25

2.3.2 Rotating mmf caused by a balanced three-phase condition

Supplying of a symmetrical 3-phase stator winding by a symmetrical 3-phase ac phase current causes all the forward-revolving fields to be cancelled out, except those for which (k 1)2 q is zero or whole number. All the backward revolving fields vanish except those for which (k + 1 ) 2 q is a whole number. It has been presented that the resultant mmf wave is the following (based on Alger 1970):
FT = 2qMn 1 1 1 KpKd cos( t )+ Kp5Kd5 cos(5 + t )+ Kp7Kd7 cos(7 t )+ Kp11Kd11cos( 11 + t )+ ... (3) 5 7 11

where M is 2 TI = peak ampere turns of a single coil, n is the number of slots per phase belt, Kp is the winding pitch factor (constant value 1, specific for each harmonic), Kd is the winding distribution factor (constant value 1, specific for each harmonic), is angular velocity and q is the number of phase belts per pole. It can be seen from equation (3) that the stator current of a 3-phase motor operating in a balanced operation causes forward-revolving field frequencies at harmonics of:

f = m fs
where m = 6 k + 1 and k = 0, 1, 2, 3, .. (i.e. 1st , 7th, 13th, 19th ) and backward-revolving fields at harmonics of:

(4a)

f = n fs

(4b)

where n = 6k 1 and k = 1, 2, 3, (i.e. 5th, 11th, 17th, 23th ). Equations (3) and (4) represent the rotation frequencies as electrical degrees. The rotational mechanical frequency is calculated by following:

frm =

fs p

(5)

This is the synchronous rotating magnetic field of the motor. A general equation for a synchronous rotating air-gap flux frequency and its harmonics for a 3-phase induction motor operating in a balanced operation is the following:

fsync =

fs ( 6k 1) p

(6)

where k is integer (0, 1, 2, 3, ). These frequencies should exist in the leakage flux when measuring the axial magnetic flux of the motor. For various pole numbers of motor windings these frequencies are shown in Table 3.

26
Table 3. A synchronously rotating magnetic field and its harmonics for various windings of 3-phase motors.
p Synchronously rotating base frequency and its harmonics r/min Base 5th 7th 11th 13th frequency 3000 50 250 350 550 650 1500 25 125 175 275 325 1000 16,667 83,33 116,667 183,33 216,667 750 12,5 62,5 87,5 137,5 162,5 600 10 50 70 110 130 17th 850 425 283,33 212,5 170 19th 950 475 316,667 237,5 190 23th 1150 575 383,33 287,5 230 25th 1250 625 416,667 312,5 250

1 2 3 4 5

The amplitude of each harmonic is dependent on the base factor k, the winding pitch factor Kp and the winding distribution factor Kd. The winding factors attenuate the amplitude of each harmonic.

2.3.3 Stator winding factors

If there is need to calculate the relative amplitudes of various harmonics, the values of the winding factor should be determined. These factors are the pitch factor Kp, and the winding distribution factor Kd, shown in equations (2) and (3). When using for example double layer stator winding, it is normal to have a displacement between the top layer and the bottom layer. The effects of this displacement can be determined by a pitch factor given in following equation presented by Alger (1970): W Kp = sin (7) 2 where W is the ratio of the coil span to the pole pitch In the equation, the phase difference is calculated in radians. If the top and bottom coil sides in each slot carry the phase currents that are identical in phase, but reversed in direction, the phase difference between them is 180/180 degrees and the ratio of the coil span to the pole pitch W = 1, and in equation (7) the pitch factor is unity (1,0). For example, if the bottom side coil is displaced 20 from the top coil side, the phase 160 difference between currents is 180 degrees and the ratio of the coil span to the pole pitch 8 W= , and by equation (7) the pitch factor is about 0,985. 9 The voltages in the series connected stator winding coils are apart in phase. The resultant voltage of these coils is dependent on the distribution of the winding. This effect can be taken account by the ratio that is called the winding distribution factor, designated by Kd. If there were only one coil in the phase belt, Kd would be unity. The value of Kd for various slot numbers and phase-belt widths of induction motors can be calculated by the equation presented by Alger (1970):

27
sin Kd = n sin 2q 2nq

(8)

where q is the number of phase belts per pole and n is the number of slots per phase. The values of Kd for various slot numbers and phase belt widths are given in Table 4, in accordance with equation (8). From the table it can be noticed that for certain windings, the attenuation factor of the base frequency can be significant, but for the 60 phase belt, the attenuation factor is a maximum 0.955.
Table 4. Stator winding distribution factor Kd for various slot numbers and phase belts.
Slots per phase belt 1 2 3 4 5 60 1.000 0.966 0.960 0.958 0.957 0.955 90 1.000 0.924 0.911 0.906 0.904 0.900 120 1.000 0.866 0.844 0.837 0.833 0.827 180 1.000 0.707 0.667 0.654 0.648 0.636

It is possible to determine the pitch and distribution factors for each air gap harmonic. The harmonic pitch factor is given by the equation stated by Alger (1970):
Kpk = sin Wk 2

(9)

where W is the ratio of the coil span to the pole pitch, k is the number of the kth harmonic and the winding distribution factor for each harmonic is given by the equation presented by Alger (1970): k sin (10) 2q Kdk = k n sin 2nq where q is the number of phase belts per pole, n is the number of slots per phase and k is the number of the kth harmonic. From the point of view of condition monitoring, it is important to note that with the pitch factor, Kpk, and winding distribution factor, Kdk, it is possible to attenuate in the motor design and manufacturing phase certain harmonics, and it is quite normal that the 5th and 7th harmonics have been attenuated. It is possible to determine these factors afterwards with equation (9) and (10), however, this requires exact knowledge of the machine winding configuration. More recommendable is to make the reference measurement of the motor to determine the relative levels of harmonics for each motor.

28

2.3.4 Fluxes caused by rotor winding currents

The rotating mmf caused by stator winding induces currents into the rotor winding and rotor end-ring. In induction machines, the rotor speed is always lower than the synchronous rotating field caused by stator winding currents. This speed difference is called slip. The general expression for slip, s, is:

s=

fs pfr fs

(11)

The equation for the frequency of rotor currents for 3-phase sinusoidal voltage power supply has been presented by Henao et al. (2000). By taking into account the presence of higher harmonics, the presence of frequency components in axial leakage flux caused by rotor currents are the following (based on Henao et al. 2000):

fs s, fs (6 5s ), fs (7s 6 ), fs ( 12 11s ), fs ( 13s 12 ), . . .

Equations for rotor current caused forward-revolving axial flux frequencies of:

(12)

frc = fs ( 1 m( 1 s ))

(13a)

where m = 6k + 1

and k = 0, 1, 2, 3, .. (i.e.1st , 7th, 13th, 19th )

and backward revolving axial flux frequencies of:

frc = fs ( 1+n( 1 s ))

(13b)

where n = 6k 1 and k = 1, 2, 3, (i.e. 5th, 11th, 17th, 23th ). Frequencies presented by Henao (et al. 2000) and determined by equation (12) and (13) represent the line frequencies as electrical degrees. Taking account of equation (5), the equations for rotor current caused axial flux frequencies are the following:

frc =
and

fs s p fs [ ( 1 6k + 1)( 1 s )] p

(14a)

frc =

(14b)

where k = 1, 2, 3, ... and

frc =

fs [ ( 1 + 6k 1)( 1 s )] p

(14c)

where k = 1, 2, 3, ...

29 Based on equation (14a), (14b) and (14c), the rotor windings of various motors rotors cause axial flux frequencies that are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Rotor current caused axial flux frequency (base) and its harmonics.
p Rotor current caused base frequency and existing harmonics r/min Base 7th 11th 13th 5th frequency 3000 50*s 50*(6-5s) 50*(7s-6) 50*(12-11s) 50*(13s-12) 1500 25*s 25*(6-5s) 25*(7s-6) 25*(12-11s) 25*(13s-12) 1000 16,67*s 16,7*(6-5s) 16,7*(7s-6) 16,7*(12-11s) 16,7*(13s-12) 750 12,5*s 12,5*(6-5s) 12,5*(7s-6) 12,5*(12-11s) 12,5*(13s-12) 600 10*s 10*(6-5s) 10*(7s-6) 10*(12-11s) 10*(13s-12) 17th 50*(18-17s) 25*(18-17s) 16,7*(18-17s) 12,5*(18-17s) 10*(18-17s)

1 2 3 4 5

2.3.5 Fluxes caused by stator slots

The permeance variation of stator slots due to the presence of slot openings causes the high frequency fluxes. Stator slot frequencies for the base frequency are the following (based on Alger 1970):

fSS = fsync (Qs p )=

fs ( Qs 1 Qs p )= fs p p

(15)

where fsync is synchronous rotating frequency of motor, shown in Table 3. From equation (15), it follows that in the spectrum there should be two sidebands.
Slot pass frequencies presented by CSi software:

The CSi manual states that the principal slot pass frequency for stators occurs as a product of stator slots and running speed, minus line frequency (CSi 1997). This can be calculated with following equation:

fPSPS = Qs (fr fs )

(16)

In addition, according to the CSi manual 2 times LF family of slot pass frequencies occur at the principal slot pass frequency two times n times line frequency as follows (CSi 1997):

f 2 LFS = Qs (fr fs ) 2nfs

(17)

where n is integer (0, 1, 2, 3, ). The CSi manual also presents that each of these 2 times LF family of slot pass frequencies are modulated by multiply of running speed sidebands, multiply of slip frequency sidebands and line frequency sidebands (CSi 1997). These can be presented by equations:

30

fRSS = [ Qs (fr fs ) 2nfs ]+ kfr

(18)

where fRSS is the running speed sideband of stator slots, n is an integer (0, 1, 2, 3, ) and k is an integer (1,2,3).

fSFS = [ Qs (fr fs ) 2nfs ]+ ksfs

(19)

where fSFS is the slip frequency sidebands of the stator slots, n is an integer (0, 1, 2, 3, ) and k is an integer (1,2,3).

fLFS = [ Qs (fr fs ) 2nfs ]+ fs

(20)

where fLFS is the line frequency sideband of the stator slots and n is an integer (0, 1, 2, 3, ). The combination of all the frequencies presented in equation (17) to (20) have been termed as the stator slot pass family of frequencies.

2.3.6 Fluxes caused by rotor slots

The permeance variation of rotor slots due to the presence of slot openings causes the high frequency fluxes too. Rotor slot frequencies for the base frequency are the following (based on Alger 1970):

fRS = fsync( 1 s )(Qr p )

where fsync is the synchronous rotating frequency of a motor, shown in Table 3.
Slot pass frequencies used by CSi software:

(21)

The CSi manual states that the principal slot pass frequency for a rotor occurs as the product of the number of rotor bars and running speed, minus line frequency (CSi 1997). This can be calculated with following equation:

fPSPR = Qr (fr fs )

(22)

In addition, according to the CSi manual a 2 times LF family of slot pass frequencies occurs at the principal slot pass frequency two times n times line frequency as follows (CSi 1997):

f 2 LFR = Qr (fr fs ) 2nfs

(23)

where n is an integer (0, 1, 2, 3, ). The CSi manual also says that each of these 2 times LF family of slot pass frequencies are modulated by multiplies of the running speed sidebands, multiplies of

31 the slip frequency sidebands and the line frequency sidebands. These can be presented by equations (based on CSi 1997):

fRSR = [ Qr (fr fs ) 2nfs ]+ kfr

(24)

where fRSR is the running speed sideband of the rotor slots, n is an integer (0, 1, 2, 3, ) and k is an integer (1,2,3).

fSFR = [ Qr (fr fs ) 2nfs ]+ ksfs

(25)

where fSFR is the slip frequency sidebands of the rotor slots, n is an integer (0, 1, 2, 3, ) and k is an integer (1,2,3).

fLFR = [ Qr (fr fs ) 2nfs ]+ fs

(26)

where fLFR is the line frequency sideband of the rotor slots and n is an integer (0, 1, 2, 3, ). The combination of all the frequencies presented in equation (22) to (26) have been termed as the rotor slot pass family of frequencies.

2.4 Harmonics fluxes caused by currents of variable speed drives

The usage of induction motors controlled by variable speed drives has become a common solution for modern industrial production lines. However, most of the published work on motor condition monitoring concentrates on sine wave supplied motors. In this section we presented mainly based on Vas (1992), the kind of harmonic fluxes that are produced by the currents of variable speed drives. The speed of an induction motor can be controlled in several ways, including stator voltage control, control of stator voltage and supply frequency, and control of stator current and supply frequency. These techniques are discussed in the following sections.

2.4.1 Fluxes caused by voltage-controlled drive using antiparallel thyristors

One method of speed control of squirrel-cage induction motors is obtained by controlling the stator voltage by symmetrically controlling the trigger angles of 3-phase line commutated antiparallel thyristors. The stator voltage can be varied smoothly between zero and full value between the trigger angle 0 < < 2/3. The stator windings can be connected in star or delta. The thyristor firing points can be phase controlled to vary the amplitude of the stator voltage and thus the electromagnetic torque. Thus the motor with the stator voltage control can be used to soft-start the induction motor. Since the stator

32 frequency is unchanged, a reduced running speed implies a large slip, high rotor losses, and low efficiency. Thus this drive is usually employed in low and medium power applications. Typical applications are pumps or fans, whose torque increases with the square of the speed and is thus the highest at low values of the slip. Vas (1992) states that by assumption that the 3-phase supply voltages are balanced and sinusoidal, due to the switching of the six identical thyristors of the drive for a star connected motor with symmetrical windings, the stator current contains the following time harmonics: k = 1 + 6l (27) where l = 0, 1, 2, 3, that is, the fundamental, the backward 5th , the forward 7th, the backward 11th, the forward 13th, and so on. Due to the symmetrical triggering and the symmetry of the machine, there would not be even time harmonics. It can be seen from equation (27) that stator current of a 3-phase motor cause forward revolving air gap and axial flux frequencies at harmonics of: f = mfs where n = 6k 1, and k = 0, 1, 2, 3, .. (i.e.1st , 7th, 13th, 19th ) and backward-revolving air gap and axial flux frequencies at harmonics of: f = nfs 5th, 11th, 17th, 23th ). (28b) where 6k + 1, and k = 1, 2, 3, (i.e. Since the stator frequency is unchanged, the axial magnetic flux of the motor should include similar stator and rotor frequencies as with sine wave supplied motors. When the stator windings are connected in delta, circulating currents can flow though them due to third harmonic induced voltages and these will cause extra heating. In the situation of a malfunction, additional time harmonics are generated since the triple time harmonics (3, 9, and so on) are also present, even though there is the wye-connection of the motor. Instead of the antiparallel thyristors, it is possible to employ diode-thyristor pairs, but as a consequence, the stator line currents will contain more harmonics, even harmonics will also present, and the system performance is rather poor. (28a)

2.4.2 Fluxes caused by voltage-source square-wave inverters

In a voltage-source inverter-fed induction motor drive, a constant or variable dc supply voltage is converted into ac voltages by semiconductor devices such as thyristors, bipolar transistors, field effect transistors or gate-turn-off thyristors. Transistor inverters have the advantage of being able to turn off the current as well as to turn it on. With the application of voltage source inverters, it is possible to obtain variable voltage and variable frequency operation. The frequency is controlled by the rate of switching of the semiconductor devices. The output voltages of a square-wave inverter are variable

33 amplitude square-wave voltages, where the amplitudes of the voltages supplying the motor terminals are controlled by a controlled rectifier or chopper, and the output frequency is varied by changing the frequency of the gating signals of the inverter. Since the output frequency of stator currents of the drive is changed, the frequency of the air gap flux and axial magnetic flux are changed proportionally. This has to be taken account when determining the axial magnetic flux frequencies. The equations of sine wave supplied motors can be utilised also for these motors by into taking account that the line frequency is not the frequency of the main ac network but the output frequency of the drive. By using a system where the stator phase voltages contain six steps per cycle, these voltages also contain time harmonics with harmonic order (Vas 1992): n = 1 6k (29) where n = 6k 1 is an integer (0, 1, 2, 3, ) and the amplitudes of the harmonic voltages are inversely proportional to the harmonic order. So the harmonics that exist are (1, -5, +7, -11, +13, -17, +19, ). Stator voltages cause stator currents that contain these same time harmonics, even though the amplitudes of the harmonics depend on stator winding factors. By taking into account the change of line frequency, the axial magnetic flux of a motor should include similar stator and rotor base frequencies and slot frequencies as in sine wave supplied motors.

2.4.3 Fluxes caused by voltage-source PWM inverters

For another voltage-source inverter-fed induction motor drive, the PWM inverter, both the frequency and the amplitude of the motor terminal voltages are controlled internally by the inverter using pulse width modulation, whereby a series of pulses of varying widths and constant amplitudes is generated. It is possible to control electronically the voltages within the inverter by using pulse width modulation, PWM. In this case, the output voltage of the inverter is controlled by variation of the number and/or the width of the voltage pulses. The PWM inverter operates from a fixed dc voltage source, which can be an uncontrolled rectifier or a battery. Since also in this application the output frequency of stator currents of the drive is changed, the frequency of air gap flux and axial magnetic flux are changed proportionally, that has to be taken account when determining the axial magnetic flux frequencies. Again the equations of sine wave supplied motors can be utilised also for these motors by taking into account that the line frequency is not the frequency of main ac network but the output frequency of the drive. The pulse width modulated output voltages contain time harmonics. In some applications of PWM inverters, it is possible to eliminate certain harmonics. However, it should be noted that the result can be such that although certain time harmonics are eliminated, other voltage harmonics will have higher harmonics.

34 Vas (1992) states that PWM inverters can operate with an integer value of the chopping ratio, which is the ratio of the carrier frequency and the reference e.g. modulating wave frequency, so the carrier wave is synchronised in time with the reference wave. Also such systems exist where the frequency of the carrier wave is constant, and only the frequency of the modulating wave is varied. This yields a range of frequency variations where the chopping ratio is continuously variable, and it can be an integer, multiples of three (to eliminate triple frequency line currents), non-integer, and so on. Depending on the selected application and chopping ratio, the harmonics of stator voltages can vary a lot so that in some cases they can include normal odd harmonics such as in equation (29). It is also possible that there are even harmonics present in some cases. These will affect also the fluxes caused by stator currents. (Vas 1992). Direct torque control (DTC) is based on the relay control of the stator flux and the torque of the induction motor. Lascu et al. (2000) present that DTC produces very fast torque and flux control, but during steady state operation, notable torque, flux and current pulsations can occur. These pulsations can cause disturbing of the spectrum of the axial magnetic flux.

2.5 Turn to turn failures of stator winding

From experience it is known that for high voltage machines and large low voltage machines, the development of time delay between direct turn to turn short circuit and ground insulation failure is very short, probably only a few seconds. For smaller machines the time delay can be from some minutes even to some hours, depending on the severity of the failure and the loading of the motor. In such failures where the circuit includes resistance, there can be a significant time delay in the development of the turn insulation failure to ground insulation failure. When the motor is a part of a production line, the detection of turn to turn failure at an early stage is advantageous, because it gives time for changing the motor without disturbing the production, or at least to make a planned shut down. In addition, it is possible to prevent damage to the adjacent coils and the core, thus limiting repair costs.

2.5.1 Detection of turn to turn failure by low frequency flux

Faults represent large asymmetries in the machine windings, and the use of axial leakage flux as a condition monitoring method is based on the effect that a fault will enhance the phenomenon of the axial leakage field. Melero et al. (2000) state that the effect of the turn to turn fault is to remove one or several turns from the stator winding. This will have a small, but finite, effect on the main air gap flux distribution. In addition, such a voltage will be induced into the shorted turn that will result in a current flow limited only by the self impedance of the fault. This impedance essentially determines the transition time between turn to turn and groundwall insulation failure. The fault current due to the

35 shorted turn is the source of an additional mmf pulse, which also has a space harmonic distribution superimposed on the main field distribution. This will lead to a change in the time harmonics observed in the leakage field. These effects form the basis of the fault identification technique. (Melero et al. 2000). The occurrence of a fault on the motor results in a change in the air gap space harmonic distribution. These space harmonics cannot be detected directly by a search coil, but the search coil can detect the time harmonics of the axial flux. Penman et al. (1994) have derived the relationship between the space and time harmonics in order to correctly interpret the frequency spectrum obtained from the search coils by taking into consideration the supply fundamental and the third harmonic component due to the saturation. A large series of equations has been derived, but only the lower order harmonics are presented as significant. Melero et al. (2000) have modified the same equation and state that the relevant frequencies for detecting shorted turns from axial flux are the following: fSWF = kfs nfr (30) where n is a natural number that is not a multiple of the number of the machines poles and k is the order of the supply time harmonics. Since in equation (30) only the harmonics of the base frequency are used, it is called low frequency flux comparison in some publications and also in this thesis. The detection of turn to turn short circuit with the values of k = 1and k = 3 in equation (30) was tested by Penman et al. (1994) using a spectral analyser and a large, axially centred flux coil, with 300 turns inboard of the motor. For the test a delta connected slip ring motor with form wound coils, size about 180 kW, was used and the short circuit current was regulated by a variable resistor. Results from the possible changes during the unloaded situation were not presented, but as the motor loading was increased, a significant change between healthy and unhealthy windings in the specific harmonics of interest was detected. Melero et al. (2000) have evaluated in laboratory tests the sensitivity of the change of various frequencies of equation (30) for a healthy motor and a motor with short circuits by a search coil placed inside the motor concentric with the shaft. For this test a small (5.5 kW), delta-connected motor was used and a shorting resistor was used to limit shortcircuit current and to protect the motor from complete failure. The result of this test shows that the six most sensitive frequencies for severe failures are (fs + 5fr ) , (5fs 3fr ), (fs + 3fr ) , (5 f s fr ), (fs fr ), (3fs + fr ) . In addition, Melero et al. (2000) studied three on-line methods (leakage flux, air gap torque and inverse sequence impedance) in order to compare their sensitivity to detect various failure levels. The most sensitive to the presence of shorted turns in the stator winding is the axial flux, especially when the level of failure affects a reduced number of shorted turns. The percentual increasing of the amplitude for the axial flux harmonics (fs + 3fr) by applying a 1.38 % of shorted turns has been the most sensitive (5.55 %). They recommend that since the aim of the on-line methods is to detect the earliest stages of the failure, the axial leakage flux or air gap torque should be preferred to the inverse sequence impedance. The CSi (1997) uses low frequency flux comparison in order to detect stator faults through trending the reference spectrum. It presents through an example from a test motor

36 of 50 hp that for a turn-to-turn short in stator winding, the amplitudes of frequencies at running speed sidebands about line frequency can be significantly larger than for the motor in good condition. This result is valid with equation (30).

2.5.2 Detection of turn to turn failure using high frequency flux

The CSi (1997) states that in measurements of the axial flux coil changes have been detected in the electrical characteristics of electrical motors in turn to turn failure by looking at the family of slot pass frequencies. The analysis is based on trending the spectra over time, and determining when changes occur in components of the slot pass family of frequencies for stator and rotor (see sections 2.3.5 and 2.3.6). Also the mathematical combinations of certain members within the slot pass family of peaks are trended. These are the 2 times LF family, shown in equations (17) and (24), and the running speed family, shown in equations (18) and (24). CSi has shown an example of the turn to turn failure where the most significant changes between the measurement from healthy and unhealthy motors occurs at frequencies (fPSP + 2fs), (fPSP + 2fs + fr) and (fPSP + 8fs).

2.5.3 Location of turn to turn faults

The occurrence of a turn to turn short circuit results in a disruption of magnetic field symmetry in the end winding region. This increases the magnitude of certain harmonic components because of a severe imbalance between the current flowing in the shorted turn and the corresponding diametrically opposite turn in the winding. It has been suggested by Penman et al. (1994)) that the applicable method to locate the position of the shorted turn is based upon localised measurement of the magnetic field at the end region. The suggested location technique requires usage of at least four pieces of the search coils located axis symmetrically to the drive shaft inside the motor. Detection of the failure is based on the difference between the measured values of healthy and faulted conditions. In order to locate the fault position, Penman et al. (1994) have used four smaller coils that were mounted symmetrically in the four quadrants of the motor at a radius of about half the distance from the shaft to the stator end winding. These search coils consisted of approximately 100 turns and their diameter was 12.5 cm. A digital multimeter was used to measure the rms of emf values on each of the four auxiliary coils. In the results presented the change of emf on the measurements for healthy and unhealthy winding is significant both for an unloaded and loaded situation. In addition, the change in readings for the unshorted and shorted cases can be used to locate the shorted turn.

37

2.6 Rotor asymmetries, broken rotor bars and broken rotor end ring
Rotor failures of motors are caused by a combination of various stresses such as electromagnetic, thermal, residual, dynamic, environmental and mechanical that act on the rotor. These stresses can be kept under control if a motor is designed, built, installed, operated, and maintained properly. However, failings of fabrication procedures such as inadequate casting, abnormal operation conditions such as overloading or heavy starting, and lack of maintenance will lead to progressive deterioration of the cage rotor winding. Disruptions in the rotor circuit increase torque and speed pulsation or vibration. They can be mistakenly assigned to other mechanisms such as imbalance, misalignment or driven-machine deficiencies that make the identification of broken bars at an early stage difficult and often lead to inadequate overhaul tasks such as repeated balancing or alignment of the rotor. It has also been suggested by Elkasagby et al. (1992), that broken bars will lead to the degradation of the steady state torque performance of motor. For a 30 hp induction motor with 40 rotor bars, in the case of one broken bar this degradation is in the order of 24 %, whereas for three and five broken bars it is between 1015 %. A broken piece of a rotor bar can move to the air gap between the stator and the rotor, and even disrupt the surface of the stator winding leading to the sudden failure and high repair costs of motor. For these reasons, the detection of rotor bar failure at an early stage is advantageous. The most common indicators for broken bars in squirrel cage motors are excessive vibration and noise during motor starting, but such secondary effects become noticeable only when the incipient fault has grown to involve several broken bars. Lang (1994), Elkasagby et al. (1992) and Kliman et al. (1988) state that vibration and stator current measurement combined with spectral analysis are applicable methods for detection of broken bars operating under load. However, these methods are not within the scope of this study. In addition to these, it has been proposed for example, by Elkasagby et al. (1992) and Kliman et al. (1988), that the measurement of axial leakage fluxes is an applicable method for detection of broken bars or the broken end ring of a rotor.

2.6.1 Detection of rotor asymmetries

Rotor asymmetries can be caused by nonuniformaties such as cage misalignment, variation of cage conductivity, bearing misalignment and broken rotor bars. Vas (1993) states that from the spectrum of axial flux voltage various types of asymmetries can be determined for the rotor. When only the fundamental space harmonic is considered, positive- and negative-sequence rotor currents will flow and their frequencies, existing in the air gap and the axial fluxes are: fRA = sfs (31)

Vas also says that these rotor currents will induce positive- and negative-sequence stator current components that the net axial flux also contains (Vas 1993). These frequencies are as following:

38 fRA = sfs kfs(1 s) (32)

where k is the number of the space harmonic (k = 1, 3, 5, 7, ). In Table 6 is shown the list of frequencies, presented by Vas (1993), which occur in the axial flux, in the case of rotor asymmetries.
Table 6. The frequencies which occur in the axial flux if there is rotor asymmetry (Vas 1993).
Order of space harmonic k=1 k=3 k=5 k=7 Rotor asymmetry sfs (2s1)fs (32s)fs (4s3)fs (54s)fs (6s5)fs (76s)fs (8s7)fs

2.6.2 Detection of a broken rotor bar

In the case of broken rotor bar, the current of the broken bar redistributes itself in the surrounding rotor bars. Most of the current that would have flowed in the broken bar now flows in the two bars immediately adjacent to it. Elkasagby et al. (1992) state that results from a study of the field distribution of induction motors made by finite element analysis shows that the broken bars of a rotor cause an anomalously high air gap local field that rotates at rotor speed. This field pulsates at slip frequency and modulates coil-induced voltage at a characteristic frequency fBB, modified from the presented equation to be as follows:

fBB =

fs ( ) 1 s sfs p

(33)

The equation were tested by Elkasagby et al. (1992) for various operation conditions by an external search coil installed on the motor frame, measuring the radial leakage flux. The test results showed that this low-frequency modulation of an external search coil was clearly evident. Relative attenuation between amplitudes of a 28 Hz component and the fundamental component for the broken bar was 10 dB and for a fault free rotor it was 30 dB. In addition, the fault frequency components became more significant as the load was increased and as the stator voltage was increased.. Stein et al. (1988) have presented that the magnitude of the line frequency sidebands due to asymmetries may be comparable to or larger than those due to a broken bar. However, the magnitudes of the asymmetry components decay rapidly in the area of higher harmonics than those of a broken bar. By examination of the higher harmonic amplitudes, the other asymmetries may be distinguished from broken bars. The expression for the frequencies that are present in the air gap flux is presented as:

39

fBB = fs

k ( ) 1 s s p

(34)

where k is the harmonic number (k = 1,2,3) In comparison to equation (33) we see that for the base frequency (k = 1) these two equations give the same result. The CSi manual states that the axial flux spectrum provides information on the rotor condition, and the frequencies associated with the rotor bar condition are as follows (CSi 1997):

fRF = fs 2p

fs fs p p( 1 s)

(35)

This can be further modified and presented in simple equation in the following: fRF = fs(1 2s) (36) The condition of the rotor can be evaluated by the amplitude difference between the line frequency and the two times slip frequency sideband on the low frequency side of the line frequency, fs ( 1 2s ) . Amplitude difference between them decreases as the rotor degrades.

2.6.3 Detection of broken end ring

In the patent of Kliman et al. (1988) it is suggested that in axial flux measurement using the amplitude of a slip frequency component the presence of broken end ring of an induction motor can be detected. It states that if the amplitude of the slip frequency exceeds a corresponding threshold value, the rotor has a broken end ring. The slip frequency and thus the frequency to detect a broken end ring is the following: fBFR = sfs (37) The same equation was presented in equation (32) for rotor asymmetry. However, no test results were found for the detection of broken end rings.

2.7 Detection of supply voltage asymmetry

Vas (1992) states there are various types of stator asymmetries such as imbalanced 3phase supply voltages and operation of a 3-phase machine from the single-phase supply (three-phase machine with one stator phase open circuited). Asymmetry in the power system voltage is amplified by the machine behaviour and even a relatively small degree of stator voltage asymmetry can cause large differences in the stator currents. The related asymmetry in the stator line currents is translated into torque harmonics and the system becomes noisy. Imbalanced supply voltages will cause motor heating and eventually lead to premature degradation of the stator winding.

40 For condition monitoring of motors one of the drawbacks of the axial flux sensor has been that it can not discriminate easily a fault of the machine and a fault of the power system connected to the stator terminals. However, the power system behaviour can be determined by external measurement and stator side failures can be diagnosed by axial flux measurement. Vas (1992) and Henao et al. (2000) have presented the frequencies which occur in the axial flux if there is stator asymmetry. In Table 7 the list of the frequencies which occur in the axial flux is shown, if there are stator asymmetries (Vas 1992). In the table, k is the order of the space harmonic.
Table 7. The frequencies which occur in the axial flux if there is stator asymmetry (Vas 1992).
Order of space harmonic k=1 k=3 k=5 k=7 Stator asymmetry frequency sfs (2s)fs (3s2)fs (43s)fs (5s4)fs (65s)fs (s76)fs (87s)fs

The equation that gives the frequencies presented in Table 7 can be expressed as follows: fSA = fs k(1 s)fs (38)

where k is an integer (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ) According to Henao et al. (2000), the equation of the axial leakage frequencies resulting from voltage source asymmetry is: fSVA = kfs jf2 (39) where k is an integer (1, 3, ), j is an integer (1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17,19, ) and f2 = (1 s). The equation (38) of axial leakage flux frequencies resulting from voltage source asymmetry can be presented also as follows: fSVA = kfs j(1 s)fs (40) where k is an integer (1, 3, ) and j is an integer (1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17,19, ) The frequency components of equation (38) are included in the components of equation (40). In comparison to equation (16) for rotor current caused axial flux frequencies we see that an imbalanced voltage source can excite into the axial flux the same frequency components as in normal operation. Henao et al. (2000) have made an experimental test with a 90 W, 3-phase induction motor and on a 3-phase voltage source that facilitates the simulation of a set of imbalanced voltages. Tests were first made to the normally operating motor to determine the magnitudes of the axial leakage flux frequency components in normal operation and

41 to set up a reference value for each examined frequency. After that a test series was made using two levels of voltage source imbalance with phase voltage magnitudes of 10 % and 20 % of the rated voltage to conclude the sensibility of the frequency components to the voltage source asymmetry. For each case, two possibilities were examined, a motor operated without any load torque and then applied with rated load torque. The observed frequencies in the axial leakage flux spectrum were limited to the obtained components with k = 1, 3 and j = 1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 in equation (39), with frequencies presented in Table 8. In this table fs can be considered to be a constant parameter, while f 2 depends on the load level. In this sense frequencies defined in Table 8 are not the same for each load level, and the domain variation depends on the motor slip s.
Table 8. Associated frequencies to the axial leakage flux under the effect of an imbalanced voltage source (k=1, 3 and j=1 to 17 (based on Henao et al. 2000).
k j 1 5 7 11 13 17 1 + fs+f 2 fs+5f 2 fs+7f 2 fs+11f 2 fs+13f 2 fs+17f 2 fsf 2 fs5f 2 fs7f 2 fs11f 2 fs13f 2 fs17f 2 3 + 3fs+f 2 3fs+5f 2 3fs+7f 2 3fs+11f 2 3fs+13f 2 3fs+17f 2 3fsf 2 3fs5f 2 3fs7f 2 3fs11f 2 3fs13f 2 3fs17f 2

Henao et al. (2000) studied the frequency components of Table 8 to determine their sensitivity to the load level. Table 9 shows the most sensitive frequency components of the axial leakage flux for the load torque in decreasing order.
Table 9. Frequency component sensibility of the axial leakage flux for the load torque (Henao et al. 2000).
Frequency component 3fs7f 2 fs+13f 2 3fs5f 2 3fsf 2 3fs5f 2 fs7f 2 fs11 2 3fs7f 2 fs11f 2 fs5f 2 fsf 2 3fs17f 2 fs7f 2 fs5f 2 3fsf 2 Increase of the magnitude in dB 25.1 21.3 19.8 17.3 16.9 15.9 15.5 15.0 14.9 13.6 13.5 13.0 11.9 10.8 10.0

42 The frequency component sensibility to the voltage source imbalance had been measured without load torque and at the rated load. In each case, two levels of voltage source have been applied with 10 % and 20 % of the rated voltage. Test results, summarised in Table 10, were classified into 5 groups based on the frequency component response to the imbalance effect observed:
Table 10. Summary of the test results for voltage imbalance (based on Henao et al. 2000).
Classifying Negligible sensibility (magnitude less than 10 dB) Contradictory sensibility The same sensibility as the sensibility to the load effect Sensibility higher than the sensibility to the load effect in the 20 % voltage imbalance case only (higher than 4 dB) , fs 7f2, fs 5f2, 3fs 17f2, 3fs + f2 Frequency components Caution Results nor presented Results nor presented Results nor presented The magnitude of these frequency components has been initially observed because of its high sensibility to the imbalanced voltage without load torque (sensibility higher than 19 dB) and its proportionality to the imbalanced voltage source level at the rated load (sensibility higher than 15 dB). The drawback is that this sensibility is hidden by the load effect in the 10 % voltage unbalance case. Only this one frequency component has shown the necessary sensibility to the voltage imbalance (sensibility higher than 15 dB) to be distinguished from the load effect.

Sensibility higher than the sensibility fs 5f2 to the load effect for both imbalance levels (higher than 4 dB)

Results show clearly that the harmonic component fs + 5f 2 is sensitive to the voltage imbalance. This component can be expressed more clearly as: fSVA = fs (6 5s) (41) This frequency component was presented also in Table 7. The CSi manual presents an example of the axial leakage flux measurement where the amplitude of the 1xRPM sideband about line frequency is sensitive to a voltage imbalance of 3 % by an amount of 21.2 dB (CSi 1997). This frequency component can be presented as follows: fSVA = fs (2 s) This frequency component was presented in Table 7 too. (42)

2.8 Detection of rotor eccentricity

When the air gap is eccentric, the air gap flux density becomes non-uniform and an unidirectional force acts between the stator and rotor, increasing eccentricity. Rotor

43 eccentricity in induction motors takes two forms: static eccentricity, where the rotor is displaced from the bore centre, but is still turning upon its own axis; and dynamic eccentricity, where the rotor is still turning upon the stator bore centre but not on its own centre. The causes of rotor eccentricity for both cases are many, such as incorrect bearing positioning during assembly, worn bearings, a bent rotor shaft, operation at critical speed creating rotor whirl and misaligned couplings. Both types of eccentricity cause excessive stress on the machine and greatly increase bearing wear. In addition, the radial magnetic force waves produced by eccentricity can also act on the stator core and subject to stator windings unnecessary and potentially harmful vibration. It is also feasible for a rotor-to-stator rub to occur with consequential damage to the core, windings and rotor cage. This may lead to insulation failure of the stator winding or breaking of the rotor squirrel-cage bars or end rings. This will lead to an expensive repair in a large high voltage induction motor. Even at levels that are insufficient to cause contact there may be an unacceptable increase in vibration levels and noise emission. Therefore the on-line diagnosis of rotor eccentricity is highly desirable to prevent serious operational problems. Dorrell et al. (1997) say that there is an inherent level of static air gap eccentricity in 3phase induction motors due to manufacturing and assembly methods. In practise, this means that when dynamic eccentricity occurs, both types of eccentricities exist together. The UMP force characteristics for a cage induction motor when operating in a steady state are quite different. It was shown by Dorrell et al. (1997)) that due to static eccentricity the UMP increases as the motor is loaded from no load, but the UMP due to dynamic eccentricity decreases as the motor is loaded from no load. Stavrou (1994) has shown that very slight asymmetries of the rotor in an eccentric machine, which may not on their own cause any problems, may cause variation of the UMP on the eccentricity axis, and therefore a change of the eccentricity level as a function of the speed rotation. Dorrell et al. (1997) state that eccentricity causes a force on the rotor that tries to pull the rotor even further from the stator bore centre. In the case of static eccentricity this is a steady pull in one direction. This makes the UMP difficult to detect without specialist experimental measures, which are not possible in servicing. Dynamic eccentricity produces a UMP which acts in the rotor and rotates at rotor rotational velocity. This makes the UMP easier to detect through vibration monitoring at the rotational velocity frequency. Dorrell et al. (1997) state that eccentricity produces to the air gap field low frequency components as following: fE = fs fr (43) Benbouzid (1999) says that in the case of dynamic eccentricity that varies with rotor position, the oscillation in the air-gap length causes variations in the air-gap flux density. This in turn affects the inductance of the machine producing stator current harmonics with frequencies predicted as:

fDE = fs

(1 s )
p

(44)

where k is odd integer 1, 3, 5,

44 Vas (1993) states that the high frequency components in the stator currents of an induction machine which are due to static air-gap eccentricity can be obtained as:

fSE = fs

nQr ( 1 s) k p

(45)

where k is the harmonic of the stator mmf ( k = 1, 3, 5, 7 .). These same frequency components should exist also at the end winding area of the stator winding and induce similar distribution to the axial leakage flux coil. Vas (1993) also says that due to the dynamic eccentricity, side-band components appear around the slot harmonics in the stator line current frequency spectra. Due to dynamic air-gap eccentricity, stator currents of an induction machine will contain the following high frequency components:

fDE = fs

(nQr 1)(1 s )
p

(46)

where k is the harmonic of the stator mmf ( k = 1, 3, 5, 7 )

2.9 Detection of mechanical vibration

Mechanical vibration of an induction motor can be caused by several phenomena such as imbalance or misalignment of the rotor, rotor eccentricities, bad bearings or external vibration. Based on studies of the reliability of induction motors it is known that nearly half of failures are bearing failures. These failures often cause mechanical vibrations. So there is a clear need to monitor abnormal vibration of induction motors. The vibration monitoring of induction motors is often made by vibration measurements taken at the bearing cap of the machine. Usage of stator current signature analysis has been studied in several surveys during the last years. No surveys were found that concentrate on the usage of axial leakage flux for this purpose. However, because the stator current at the end winding area causes magnetic leakage flux that contains similar frequency distribution, it can be assumed that the equations developed for stator current spectrum also should be validated for axial leakage flux detection. Riley et al. (1998) state that a motor vibrated from an external source at frequency, fve, will result in an air gap eccentricity that is primarily changing in a fixed axis. The corresponding current harmonic magnitudes exist at frequencies: fCE = kfs fve (47) where k is an integer 1, 2, 3, In addition, they have made a comparison of vibration measurement and stator current analysis that a current harmonic is linearly proportional to its corresponding harmonics, but the relationship differs greatly between various vibration frequencies. Based on these results, Riley et al. (1998) say that it is possible to use the current harmonics as an indicator of motor vibration. The test results show that the amplitudes of harmonics are much lower than the amplitude of the base line frequency and so the sensitivity of them is low.

45 It have been presented by several authors, for example by Rao (1996), that mechanical disturbances of induction motors such as unbalance and misalignment cause vibration related to the rotating speed. Riley et al. (1998) have also presented test results of variable rotating imbalance on the shaft. These current harmonic magnitudes cause internal vibration that exists at frequencies as follows: fVI = nfs fr (48) where n is an integer 1, 3, ... Benbouzid et al. (1999) and Yazici and Kliman (1999) have presented that stator current signature can also be used for detection of bearing failures. A badly rolling element bearing in a motor allows the shaft to move radially a small amount. Thus, the air-gap geometry will be slightly disturbed, leading to the modulation of the stator current. Yazici and Kliman (1999) present an equation for existing frequencies as follows: fB = fs kfvb (49) where k is an integer 1, 2, 3, and fv is the mechanical vibration frequency, depending on the type of race defect and the geometry of the bearings.

3 Literature review of measurements of magnetic fields and magnetic leakage fluxes

The applications of various magnetic field measurements have been commonly used for geomagnetic purposes, such as measuring the magnetic field strength of the earth, and for determining the possible risks to human health due to electromagnetic fields caused by power frequency magnetic fields. During recent decades, the application of measurement of axial magnetic leakage fluxes combined with spectral analysis has been found to be a potential method for condition monitoring of ac motors. The main methods used for magnetic field measurements are the measurement with coil-type probes (flux coil), fluxgate magnetometers and Hall effective sensors.

3.1 Air core probes

Magnetic field probes held by hand, consisting of electrically shielded coils of wire, have been used in combination with a voltmeter as the rms field detector for survey type measurements of the magnetic fields of ac power lines. The standard (IEEE 1308-1994) has been published for magnetic field density meters in the frequency area of 10 Hz to 3 kHz. For measurements where harmonic components in the magnetic field may not be negligible, an integrating amplifier is incorporated into the detector circuit in order to preserve the waveform of the magnetic field. To characterise the harmonic content in the magnetic field, the detector signal that reflects the waveform of the magnetic field can be examined using spectrum analysers to obtain the amplitudes of the fundamental and harmonic components. An alternative approach is to digitise the detector signal waveform, and use Fourier analyses to determine the amplitudes, as well as phases of the fundamental and harmonic components. Another method for characterising a magnetic field containing harmonics is to use a measurement system with a detector without an integrating stage. The detector is combined with instrumentation to digitise the signal waveform and by using Fourier

47 analysis, the amplitude-enhanced harmonic components can be determined. By dividing the harmonic component amplitudes by the harmonic number (using computer software), the correct harmonic percentages and their phase relation can be determined. This measurement approach allows for the recovery of higher order harmonics which may be lost due to signal-to-noise problems when using an integrating amplifier. The operation principle of the magnetic field meter with an air core coil probe is based on Faradayss law, which predicts that a voltage is produced at the ends of an open wire loop placed in a changing magnetic field. Misakian et al. (1991) state that this voltage is:

e=

B dA
A

(50)

where A is the area of the loop. Misakian et al. (1991) state also that if the magnetic field is free of harmonics, e.g. B = B0 sin t, and there are N turns of wire in the loop, the voltage will develop over each turn and the total voltage will be: e = NB0A cos t (51) where the angular frequency, , is 2 times the frequency and it is assumed that B is perpendicular to the area of the loop. Equation (51) shows that the sensitivity of the probe increases with cross-sectional area. If there are harmonics in the field, an additional term will exist on the right side of equation (51), one for each harmonic. Because of the differentiation operation in equation (50), each of the additional terms will be weighted by an associated harmonic number. Because of the weighting, the waveform of the signal will no longer reflect the waveform of the field. For sine wave magnetic fields, the output voltage of the flux coil can be modified in the following equation: e = NB0 [ k Ak cos kt] (52) where k is the number of the harmonics, N is the number of turns, B0 is the magnetic flux density and Ak is the amplitude of the harmonics Neglected so far in the discussion is the frequency response of the probe. Because of the inherent inductance, resistance and capacitance of the probe, the relationship between the emf produced in the coil, equation (52), and the voltage entering the detector should be considered as a function of frequency. Beiersdorfer and Clothiaux (1983) have presented a schematic view of the equivalent circuit for the coil probe, shown in Fig. 5.

48

vp

Fig. 5. Equivalent circuit of a coil type magnetic field probe when connected to the detector. L represents the coil inductance, r represents coil and lead wire resistance, and C represents stray capacitance. The input impedance of the detector is represented approximately as a resistor R.

For a given frequency, = 2f , Beiersdorfer and Clothiaux (1983) have stated the equation for attenuation Aof the circuit that is the ratio of the voltage observed on the measurement system to the voltage induced in the coil, as follows:

A=

R+r 2 LC R

L + Cr R

1 2

(53)

Expression A is valid provided the length of the leads of the coil is short compared to the electromagnetic wavelength of the highest frequency considered. R+r 2 Beiersdorfer and Clothiaux (1983) state also that for low frequencies R << LC and L << Cr in equation (53) and thus it can be reduced as follows: R

A=

(R + r )2
R2

L R

1 2

(54)

and so the terms containing the capacitance can be dropped out. Beiersdorfer and Clothiaux (1983) present that for small inductive probes the cut-off frequency can be high, about 1 MHz. Savolainen (1994) has studied larger flux coil (diameter 30 cm, 50 turns of 0,25 mm wire) where the frequency response of a flux coil has practically no attenuation below 20 kHz. The disadvantages of flux coil sensors are that it is not possible to detect dc fluxes, and the sensitivity for low frequencies is poor. However, for ac motors the measured frequency range is suitable, and the flux coil sensor is well applicable for condition monitoring of ac electrical motors.

3.2 Fluxgate magnetometers

The fluxgate magnetometer consists of the fluxgate sensor and the electronics. They have been used to measure magnetic fields of a low dc level in such applications as mineral

49 prospecting and can be adapted also for ac field measurements. Primdahl (1979) and Weyland and Bosse (1997) have presented that properties which make the fluxgate suitable, are the wide measurement range and the low noise level. With sensor dimensions of 10 to 30 mm they offer better than 1 nT resolution, but as a rule, the 3 dB frequency limit is in order of 20 to 50 Hz. The fluxgate sensor consists of a core of magnetic material surrounded by a pick-up coil. The field along the core axis produces a magnetic flux in the core. If the permeability of the core material is changed, the flux changes and a voltage is induced into the turns of the pick-up coil. The output of the fluxgate sensor is proportional to the measured external field and time variation of the core permeability. Time variation of the core permeability can be generated by periodically driving the sensor into saturation by means of a premagnetising field. This causes periodically changing magnetisation of the magnetic material of the core. Primdahl (1979) has presented that by a single-core sensor, as shown in Fig. 6(a), the changing core magnetisation induces a large voltage in the pick-up coil. If two opposite magnetised cores are placed inside the same coil, as shown in Fig. 6(b), then the two magnetisations cancel each other, and the only flux change is that caused by the constant external field and the changing differential permeability.

Hj I

Hj

E sec

E sec

I (a) (b)
Fig. 6. Fluxgate sensors in which the magnetising field is parallel to external field Hj. Singlecore sensor (a) and double-core sensor (b) (based on Primdahl 1979).

A fluxgate magnetometer consists of electronic circuits for the driving wave and detection of output voltage in addition to the fluxgate sensor. The operation principle of the magnetometer is based on changing the permeability of the core. If the sinusoidal driving magnetising field causes the saturation of the core material, the permeability function contains the second and higher even harmonics of the driving field. In addition, due to hysteresis, the peaks of the permeability function occur after the zero crossings of the magnetising field, causing a phase delay between the driving circuit and output

50 voltage. These all together cause quite a complicated output for the magnetometer to detect the magnetic field. Primdahl (1979) presents that for real applications this has been accomplished by narrow-band detection, such as the selective second-harmonic feedback technique. The complicated output of fluxgate magnetometers makes them unsuitable for condition monitoring of electrical motors.

3.3 Hall effect sensors

There are available magnetic field meters with Hall effect probes that can be used to measure magnetic field densities from dc to several hundred Hz. Hall effect probes respond to the total magnetic field. Analog Hall effect sensors are electronic semiconductor sensors that provide one means of measuring either constant or time-varying magnetic fields. The basic principle of an Hall effect sensor connection is shown in Fig. 8. It can be seen that an auxiliary voltage for measuring a magnetic field is needed. Northop (1997) has presented that the output voltage of an Hall sensor is dependent on the magnetic field affecting the sensor and auxiliary voltage driven to the sensor system, as is seen from Fig. 7. The equation to calculate output voltage has been presented for example by Northop.

Hall-sensor + Hall-voltage EH B y

z x

G
Ix Auxiliary voltage V

Fig. 7. Basic principle of Hall effect sensor connections (based on Northop 1997).

3.4 Measurements of magnetic leakage fluxes of motors by axial flux coil sensors
Detection of various failures of ac motors by magnetic leakage fluxes measured by flux coils has been presented in several studies. Penman et al. (1994) have presented usage of one large coil, with a diameter of about 300 mm and about 300 turns. The sensor was centred around the shaft at the end of motor. In addition, they used four smaller coils of 100 turns and diameter 12.5 cm, located in four quadrants of the motor end, for detection and location of turn to turn short circuits in the stator winding. A Spectrum analyser has

51 been used to monitor the axial leakage components measured by the flux coil. Elkasagby et al. (1992) and Stein et al. (1988) have used flux coil for the detection of broken bars in operating induction motors. Stein et al. (1988) have noticed problems in setting the flux coil near enough to the motor with double-ended motors such as those including a primary air fan motor. They solved this problem by using a coil that can be opened and rejoined. The axial leakage flux measurements of the experimental part of this thesis have been made by a commercial portable analyser, flux coil sensor and software manufactured by CSi Technologies Inc. Fig. 8 shows the principle of the measurement system used.
CSi Portable Analyser Model 2120 PC computer, includes Master Trend and MortorView software Communications cable

CSI 343 Flux coil

Fig. 8. Principle diagram of the measurement system, CSi Model 2120.

Before a measurement, the parameters such as the measurement method (vibration, current spectrum, flux coil etc.), frequency range (for example, low frequency: 0 to 200 Hz, high frequency: 200 to 4000 Hz) and lines of resolution for spectral analysis are stored into the portable analyser. Fig. 9 shows a principle circuit of flux coil measurement for the used portable analyser, the CSi 2120 (CSi 1997).

C Si 343 flux coil U npowered input from flux coil sensor

D B 25 connector

C ontrolled by Sensor Power param eter

Signal detector

C ontrolled by C onvert To param eter

Integrators

FFT A nalyser

Fig. 9. Principle circuit of flux coil measurement using the portable CSi 2120 analyser.

52 Some important technical specifications of flux coil measurement for used the CSi 2120 measurement system are (CSi 1997): A/D converter : 16 bits of accurary Dynamic range: greater than 90 dB Resolution: 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200 or 6400 lines of resolution Frequency range: dc to 10 Hz minimum, dc to 40 kHz maximum Full-scale range: 3 mV to 21 V Windows: Hanning or uniform Parameters used in field measurement have been used mainly two settings. 1. For measurements made on the low frequency area, the selected frequency area has been 0 to 200 Hz. In these cases, the sampling speed, automatically selected by the analyser software, is 200 Hz * 2.56 = 512 samples/s. 2. For the high frequency area the selected frequency area has been 0 to 6000 Hz, and in these cases the sampling speed is 6000 Hz * 2.56 = 15360 samples per second. In addition to automatically selecting the sampling speed, the software makes other necessary signal processing tasks such as filtering of unwanted frequencies (low pass or band pass filtering). However, this signal processing is not in the scope of this thesis. For the spectral analysis of field measurements a resolution of 3200 lines for the low frequency area (0 to 200 Hz) and a resolution of 6400 lines for the high frequency area (0 to 6000 Hz) has been usually selected. This means that for these two areas the line resolution of the spectrum is: 1. 0 to 200 Hz area : 200 Hz / 3200 lines = 0.06 Hz and 2. 0 to 6000 Hz area : 6000 Hz / 6400 lines = 0.93 Hz This has to be taken into account when evaluating the results achieved in the field tests presented in the experimental part. The CSI software presents results using a resolution of 0.01 Hz, but this is not exact accuracy. Several patents such as presented by Bowers and Piety (1996), Stopak et al. (1997), Schulz et al. (1987), Kliman et al. (1987) and Sedding et al. (1992) were found concerning to the measurement methods of axial flux coil and analysing the results of flux coil measurements by software.

4 The experimental measurement results of axial magnetic fluxes

4.1 Healthy motors supplied by sine wave voltages
A survey of periodically made flux coil measurements for several motors was made to study the signatures of axial magnetic leakage fluxes of healthy motors supplied by a sine wave. First some results of time based waveform presentation will be presented. Most of the results were studied by spectral analysis and are shown by frequency presentation because the equations gathered in the literature review were based on frequency components. Some results of various machines and applications are introduced in the following sections.

4.1.1 Time based waveforms of axial leakage flux generated voltages

Fig. 10 shows a flux coil voltage waveform of a Chippers Drive Motor M1 measured by high frequency sampling of 15360 samples/s. The base sine wave waveform has a cycle of 20 ms, but there exist a lot of amplitude disturbances. Waveforms of various cycles are similar as is the periodicity of the voltage spikes. The high frequency spectrum of this waveform is presented in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14.

54
Barking Plant vuokela Chippers Drive Motor M1 10-21-30/1-FC2 korkea taajuus Flux coil High frequency
PUU - KUORIMO HAKUN KYTT M1

15 12 9

Route Waveform Route Waveform 23-MAY-01 08:36:39 RMS = 3.56 08:36:39 KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1487. RPS = 24.78 PK(+) = 12.22 PK(-) = 11.96 CRESTF= 3.44

23 May 01

Flux Coil VoltageSTANDARD Amplitudi Amplitude STAND

6 3 0 -3 -6 -9 -12 -15 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Aika ms Time ms Fig. 10. The axial leakage flux coil voltage waveform for a Chippers drive motor M1, high sampling speed

Fig. 11 shows the voltage waveform of the same Chippers Drive Motor M1 measured using low frequency sampling of 512 samples/s. The fast variations of the generated voltage cannot be distinguished, but it is possible to evaluate amplitude variation during the measurement period. Low frequency spectrum analysis of this waveform is presented in Figs 17, 22 and 24. Fig. 12 shows the voltage waveform of the Compressor motor 1 measured by high frequency sampling of 15360 samples/s. The variations of waveform is much slower than with the Chippers Drive Motor. The base sine wave waveform has a cycle of 20 ms and the waveforms of various cycles are similar. High frequency spectrum analysis of this waveform is presented in Fig. 15 and Fig. 16.

55
Barking Plant Chippers Drive Motor M1 10-21-30/1-FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency
PUU - KUORIMO HAKUN KYTT M1

8 6 4

Route Waveform 23-MAY-01 08:36:59

Route Waveform 23 May 01 RMS = 3.44 08:36:59 KUORM = 100.0

RPM = 1487. RPS = 24.78 PK(+) = 5.73 PK(-) = 5.65 CRESTF= 1.86

Flx Coil Amplitudi Voltage STANDARD

-2 -4

-6

-8 0 200 400 Aika ms Time ms 600 800 1000

Fig. 11. The axial leakage flux coil voltage waveform for a Chippers Drive Motor M1, low sampling speed.

Biological Air Clean Compressors Motor 1 PUU - BIOL.PUHD.ILM.KOMPRESSORI 1 2YR-0501 -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Flux coil High frequency

Route Waveform Route Waveform 23-MAY-01 12:50:34 RMS = 2.28 12:50:34 KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1485. RPS = 24.75 PK(+) = 3.66 PK(-) = 4.34 CRESTF= 1.90

4 STANDARD Flux Amplitudi Coil Voltage

23 May 01

-2

-4

-6 0 10 20 30 Aika ms 40 50 60 70

Time ms

Fig. 12. The axial leakage flux coil voltage waveform of a Compressor Motor 1, high sampling speed

The time based flux coil voltage waveform of the Compressor Motor 1, measured using low frequency sampling, is quite similar to the Chippers Drive Motor and is not therefore presented separately.

56

4.1.2 Spectrum presentations of axial leakage flux coil voltages

The results of the spectrum analysis of healthy motors supplied by sine wave current are presented in the following sections.

4.1.2.1 Amplitudes caused by harmonics of phase currents and rotor slots

The literature review showed that each phase current causes air gap flux frequencies that include several harmonics in addition of the base frequency. Amplitudes (dB values) of various harmonics of a Chippers Drive Motor M1 are shown in Fig 13 on the logarithmic vertical axis. The selected frequency area of measurement is 0 to 6000 Hz and the line resolution of spectrum is 6400 lines. The marked frequencies are supply frequency and its harmonics. The amplitudes of odd harmonics are much higher than even harmonics, as expected. To ensure that the motor is healthy, the results were compared to another similar motor used for a similar application and it was noted that results were quite similar.
PUU - KUORIMO HAKUN KYTT M1 Barking Plant Chippers Drive Motor M1 10-21-30/1-FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Flux coil High frequency 49.97

30 20 10 349.76 0 249.83 149.90 -10 99.93 -20

Route spektri Route Spectrum 23-MAY-01 08:36:39 KOKTAS= 15.95 G-AN 08:36:39 dB = 11.85 KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1500. RPS = 24.99

23 May 01

1149.2

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

549.63

849.42

649.56

949.35

449.69

749.49

1049.3

1249.1

199.86

499.66

599.59

699.52

-30 -40

299.80

1199.2

1349.1 1299.1 1399.0

399.73

899.39

999.32

799.46

1099.3

1449.0 1499.0

-50 0 400 800 Taajuus 1200 Hz 1600 Taaj: 50.63 Monk: 2.025 Spek: 10.36

Frequency Hz

Fig. 13. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Chippers Drive Motor 1: the supply frequency and its harmonics are presented in dB values

The same spectrum of a Chipper Drive Motor 1 is presented in rms values in Fig. 14 using the linear vertical axis. The value of the supply frequency is seen clearly, but strong attenuation of harmonics makes them tiny and only the 5th and 7th harmonic can be clearly determined. The amplitude of 1149.0 Hz is strong, but this component is not at harmonic of the supply frequency, but is caused by rotor slot currents.

57
4.5 49.97 4.0 3.5 10-21-30/1-FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Barking Plant Chippers Drive Motor M1 Flux coil High frequency PUU - KUORIMO HAKUN KYTT M1

Route spektri Route Spectrum 23-MAY-01 08:36:39 KOKTAS= 6.27 G-AN 08:36:39 RMS = 3.91 KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1500. RPS = 24.99

23 May 01

Flux Coil Voltage rms RMS Amplitudi Flux-AU

3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 350.26 1.0 0.5 0 0 400 800 Taajuus 1200 Hz 1149.0

850.56

1450.8

1600

Frequency Hz

Taaj: 603.75 Monk: 24.16 Spek: .00233

Fig. 14. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Chippers Drive Motor 1: the supply frequency and its harmonics are presented in rms values.

Amplitude distribution is not similar for all motors, as is seen from the results of the Compressor Motor 1 in Fig. 15 shown on the logarithmic vertical axis (in comparison to Chippers Drive Motor 1 in Fig.13). The selected frequency area of measurement is again 0 to 6000 Hz and the line resolution of spectrum is 6400 lines. For the Compressor Motor, the difference between odd and even harmonics of the supply frequency is not clear, for example, the 6th harmonic is higher that the 5th and 7th harmonics. The amplitude of the rotor slot pass frequency, 672 Hz, is stronger than the two supply frequency harmonics around it (650 Hz and 700 Hz). Noticeable is that the second harmonic of the rotor slot pass frequency, 1344 Hz, is strong and also its 2 times line frequency sidebands (1244 Hz and 1444 Hz) can be clearly detected. The same spectrum of the Compressor Motor 1 in rms values is shown in Fig. 16. Only the amplitudes of the supply frequency and some of its harmonics can be clearly determined. In addition, the second harmonic of the slot pass frequency, 1344 Hz, is seen, but it is no longer easy to evaluate its amplitude accurately. So to analyse the results using graphical presentation, presenting them using the logarithmic axis in dB values is to be recommended.

58
2YR-0501 -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Biological Air Clean Compressors Motor 1 Flux coil High frequency PUU - BIOL.PUHD.ILM.KOMPRESSORI 1

50.06

20 10 0

Route spektri Route Spectrum 23-MAY-01 12:50:34 KOKTAS= 7.45 G-AN 12:50:34 dB = 6.96 KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1497. RPS = 24.94

23 May 01

99.57 150.14 199.37

Flux Coil Voltage dB

dB Flux-AU

449.34

-10

299.19

-20

672.00

-40

-50

-60 0 400 800 Taajuus 1200 Hz 1600

Frequency Hz

Fig. 15. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Compressor Motor 1: the supply frequency and its harmonics and rotor slot pass frequencies are presented in dB values.
Biological Air Clean Compressors 2YR-0501 -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Motor 1 Flux coil High frequency
50.06 PUU - BIOL.PUHD.ILM.KOMPRESSORI 1

2.7 2.4 2.1

1444.4

-30

1244.0

1344.3

Route spektri Route Spectrum 23-MAY-01 12:50:34 KOKTAS= 2.36 G-AN 12:50:34 RMS = 2.23 KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1497. RPS = 24.94

23 May 01

Flux RMS CoilAmplitudi Voltage Flux-AU rms

1.8 1.5 1.2 0.9 99.57 150.14 199.37 0.6 0.3 0 0 400 800 Taajuus 1200 Hz

299.19

449.34

1344.3

1600

Frequency Hz

Fig. 16. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Compressor Motor 1: the supply frequency and its harmonics and rotor slot pass frequency are presented in rms values.

4.1.2.2 Detection of sidebands around the supply frequency

The literature review showed that certain sidebands around the supply frequency could be used to evaluate the condition of rotor bars. The results of healthy motors were studied to see if it is possible to detect these sidebands. The selected frequency area of measurement

59 was 0 to 200 Hz, and the line resolution of the spectrum 3200 lines. The results of a Chipper Drive Motor 1 are shown in Fig. 17. The first left and right sidebands of the supply frequency (49.40 Hz and 50.60 Hz) are both two times slip frequency apart from the supply frequency and the other marked sidebands are harmonics of these. The same study was made for the results of another similar Chipper drive motor and, where also existed these sidebands, however they were not as clear.
30 20 10

Barking Plant Chippers Drive Motor M1 10-21-30/1-FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency

PUU - KUORIMO HAKUN KYTT M1

Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 23-MAY-01 08:36

23 May 01

AMPL = 3.6364 08:36 KUORM = 75%

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

50.60

49.40

-10 48.80 51.20

RPM = 1491. RPS = 24.85

-20 48.19 -30 47.59

51.81

46.99

-50 42 44 46 50 Taajuus HzHz Frequency 48 52 54 56 58 Freq: 49.38 Ordr: 1.987 Spec: -9.576 Dfrq: 625

Fig. 17. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Chippers Drive Motor M1: the rotor bar current caused sidebands around the supply frequency are presented.

The results of a Compressor Motor 1 are shown in Fig. 18. The sidebands around the supply frequency can once again be detected clearly.
20 50.01

Biological Air Clean Compressors Motor 1 2YR-0501 -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency

PUU - BIOL.PUHD.ILM.KOMPRESSORI 1

53.01

-40

52.41

Spektri nytt 23-MAY-01 12:49 AMPL = 2.1187 KUORM = 89%

Route Spectrum 23 May 01 12:49

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

50.60

-20

49.43

47.66

48.84

-40 47.07

51.19

RPM = 1491. RPS = 24.86

51.78

48.25

-60

-80 44 46 48

52.37

52.96

Frequency Hz

50 Taajuus

52 Hz

54

56

Freq: 49.44 Ordr: 1.989 Spec: -30.10 Dfrq: .577

Fig. 18. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Compressor Motor 1: the rotor caused sidebands around the supply frequency are presented.

60 However, in some cases there did exist additional frequency components between the supply frequency and the sideband frequencies caused by the rotor bar current. Fig. 19 shows such additional frequency components (49.66 Hz and 50.27 Hz) for the Compressor Motor 2. Sidebands caused by rotor bar current are 49.35 Hz and 50.59 Hz.
Biological Air Clean Compressors Motor 2 PUU - BIOL.PUHD.ILM.KOMPRESSORI 2 Flux coil Low frequency 2YR-0601 -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus
49.97 Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 20-SEP-99 13:37

20

20 Sep 99 AMPL = 1.0728 13:37 KUORM = 103%

Flux Coil dB Voltage Flux-AU dB

49.35 49.66

-20

50.27 50.59

RPM = 1490. RPS = 24.83 50.90

-60

-80 44 46 48 50 Taajuus Hz Frequency Hz 52 54 56 Freq: 50.88 Ordr: 2.049 Spec: -53.22

Fig. 19. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Compressor Motor 2: the rotor caused sidebands around the supply frequency are presented.

In many applications around the supply frequency there were significant sidebands in addition to sidebands caused by the rotor. In Fig. 20 is presented such a result from a Chipper Drive Motor M2. There are two sideband frequencies (43 Hz and 57 Hz) that are about 7 Hz apart from supply frequency, and two sidebands (40 Hz and 60 Hz) that are about 10 Hz apart from the supply frequency. These all are probably caused by the mechanical operation of Chipper drive.

49.05

-40

61
Barking Plant Chippers Drive Motor M2 PUU - KUORIMO HAKUN KYTT M2 Flux10-21-30/2-FC1 coil Low frequency vuokela matalataajuus
50.04 Spektri nytt 20-SEP-99 10:04 Route Spectrum AMPL = 1.0087 10:04 = 25% KUORM

20

20 Sep 99

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

-20 RPM = 1501. RPS = 25.02 43.05 40.03 60.04 60 -40 57.02 45 50 Taajuus 55 Hz

-60

-80 25 30 35 40 65 70 75

Frequency Hz

Fig. 20. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Chippers Drive Motor M2: the sidebands around the supply frequency are presented.

4.1.2.3 Detection of slip frequency and its harmonics

A suggestion to use the slip frequency to evaluate the condition of the rotor end ring was found in the literature review. Results of several motors were studied to see if it is possible to detect the slip frequency and its harmonics. The selected frequency area of measurement is 0 to 200 Hz and the line resolution of the spectrum is 3200 lines Fig. 21 shows the result of a Compressor Motor 1. The first frequency component on the left is the amplitude of the slip frequency and the others are odd harmonics of this frequency. In this case, these frequencies are easily detected. The amplitude difference between slip frequency and supply frequency is about 27 dB.

62
PUU - BIOL.PUHD.ILM.KOMPRESSORI 1 Biological Air Clean Compressors Motor 1 2YR-0501 -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency

20

Spektri nytt 20-SEP-99 13:44

0 .30

AMPL = 2.4498 KUORM = 97%

Route Spectrum 20 Sep 99 13:44

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

-20

1.51

.91

3.33

2.12

-40

-60

-80 0 2 4 6 Taajuus Hz Hz Frequency 8 10 12 Freq: .313 Ordr: .01258 Spec: -16.51

Fig. 21. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Compressor Motor 1: the slip frequency and its odd harmonics are presented.

However, this was not the situation for all motors, as seen from a spectrum of a Chipper Drive Motor M1, in Fig. 22. It is not possible to detect exactly the amplitude of the left side frequency component (0.3 Hz), marked by the line, but it is possible to evaluate the amplitude of its third harmonic (0.78 Hz). In addition, the amplitude difference between slip frequency and supply frequency is about 50 dB.
20

2.72

Barking Plant Chippers Drive Motor M1 10-21-30/1-FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency

PUU - KUORIMO HAKUN KYTT M1

4.53

7.55

RPM = 1490. RPS = 24.84

Route Spectrum 23 May 01 KOKTAS= 12.71 G-AN 08:36:59 dB = -26.35

KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1500. RPS = 25.00

Route spektri 23-MAY-01 08:36:59

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

-20 .78 -40 -60 -80 0 2 4 6 Taajuus 8 Hz 10 12 14 Taaj: .250 Monk: .01000 Spek: -32.29 1.10 1.47

Frequency Hz

Fig. 22. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Chippers Drive Motor M1: the slip frequency and its harmonics are presented.

63

4.1.2.4 Amplitudes of frequency components around the synchronous rotating frequency

The synchronous rotating field causes the magneto motive force of a squirrel-cage motor. To understand the amplitudes at frequencies around a synchronous rotating field, this area was also studied for several motors. The selected frequency area of measurement is 0 to 200 Hz and the line resolution of the spectrum is 3200 lines. Fig. 23 shows a spectrum of a Compressor Motor 4. In this case, two frequency components (24.86 Hz and 25.15 Hz) exist around the synchronous rotating speed (25 Hz). The lower value (24.86 Hz) is the f (1 s ) same as the rotating speed of the motor. These frequency components are . 2 However, there were quite a lot of differences between various machines. In most cases, the synchronous rotating speed is not the strongest frequency component, but the stronger amplitudes exist on frequencies around it. The highest frequency component of 25.15 Hz is marked into the figure by the line. In addition, the sidebands and their harmonics have been marked. Amplitudes on the right side are sideband harmonics of 25.15 Hz but the amplitudes on the left side are probably not sideband harmonics of 25.15 Hz.
s

20

PUU - BIOL.PUHD.ILM.KOMPRESSORI 4 Biological Air Clean Compressors Motor 4 2YR-0801 -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency

Spektri Route nytt Spectrum 29-MAY-00 13:02

29 May 00 13:02 AMPL = .9758

KUORM = 90%

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

-20

24.56 24.86 25.15

RPM = 1491. RPS = 24.85 26.35

-40 23.96

-60

-80 18 20 22 24 Taajuus 26 Hz 28 30 32 Freq: 24.81 Ordr: .998 Spec: -41.75 Dfrq: .313

Frequency Hz

Fig. 23. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Compressor Motor 4: the amplitude distribution around the synchronous speed are presented.

25.45 25.75

64

4.1.2.5 Amplitudes of frequency components around the third harmonic of supply frequency
In field measurements the third harmonic of the supply frequency was often surrounded by several frequency components too. The selected frequency area of measurement was 0 to 200 Hz and the line resolution of spectrum was 3200 lines. Fig. 24 shows a measurement result of a Chipper Drive Motor M1. First the sidebands around the third harmonic (149.99 Hz) are marked (149.40 Hz and 150.60 Hz) and they are located two times slip frequency apart from the third harmonic. Fig. 17 showed the amplitude distribution around the supply frequency of this same machine, and it included similar sidebands. It is probable that these sidebands are caused by currents of the rotor bars too.
Barking Plant Chippers Drive Motor M1 10-21-30/1-FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency
PUU - KUORIMO HAKUN KYTT M1

20

Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 23-MAY-01 08:36 AMPL = 3.6364 08:36= 75% KUORM

23 May 01

0 149.40 149.99 150.60

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

-20

RPM = 1491. RPS = 24.85 -40

-60

-80 140 144 148 Taajuus Hz 152 156 160 Freq: 150.63 Ordr: 6.062 Spec: -30.92 Dfrq: .625

Frequency Hz Fig. 24. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Chipper Drive Motor M1: the frequency components around the third harmonic of the supply frequency are presented.

However, there was again a lot of variation between machines in different applications. Fig. 25 shows the spectrum of a Compressor Motor 1. The amplitude of the third harmonic frequency (150.02 Hz) is the highest, but in this case there exists another high frequency component on the left side of it. Amplitudes around the supply frequency of this same machine were shown in Fig. 19, but there did not exist such a high frequency component; only the normal rotor bar caused sidebands. It is possible that the component of 149.14 Hz is caused by some other phenomenon. The sideband components of the third harmonic are marked into Fig. 25. The first sideband components on both sides are 148.27 Hz and 151.72 Hz. It is interesting that the 149.14 Hz component also seems to belong to this same series.

65
Biological Air Clean Compressors Motor 1 2YR-0501 -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency
PUU - BIOL.PUHD.ILM.KOMPRESSORI 1

20

Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 23-MAY-01 12:49

23 May 01

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

-20 RPM = 1491. RPS = 24.86 148.27 151.72 154.21

-40

146.65

-60

-80 138 141 144 147 150 Taajuus 153 Hz 156 159 162 Freq: 149.13 Ordr: 5.999 Spec: -21.07 Dfrq: .875

Frequency Hz

Fig. 25. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Compressor Motor 1: the frequencies around the third harmonic of the supply frequency are presented.

4.2 Healthy motors supplied by frequency converters

A survey of periodically made flux coil measurements for several motors was made to study the signatures of axial magnetic leakage fluxes of healthy motors supplied by currents generated by frequency converter. Some results of time based waveform presentation will be presented first. Most of the results were studied by spectral analysis and are shown by frequency presentation, because the equations gathered by literature review were based on frequency components. Some results of various machines and applications are introduced in the following sections.

4.2.1 Time base waveforms of flux coil voltages

Fig. 26 shows the waveform of flux coil voltage measured by high sampling speed of 15 360 samples/s from a Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor. From the waveform it is possible to measure the time lengths of fast variation cycles. In the areas of 0 ms to 3 ms and 6 ms to 16 ms the time length of cycles are about 0.2 ms which gives the frequency of about 5000 Hz. In the area of 3 ms to 6 ms the time length of cycles is about 0.4 ms which gives the frequency of about 2500 Hz. These cycles are probably caused by the switching frequency of the PWM converter. The amplitude of cycles changes over the measured time period. High frequency spectrums of this waveform are presented in Figs, 28, 29 and 30.

147.46

149.14 150.02

AMPL = 2.1187 12:49 KUORM = 89%

66 Fig. 27 shows axial flux coil voltage waveform of the same Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor measured by low sampling speed of 512 samples/s. The fast variations of the voltage can no longer be distinguished, but it is possible to determine the length of a base waveform cycle to be about 30 ms, which means that the base frequency is about 33.33 Hz. This is probably the output frequency of the current of the supplying converter. Low frequency spectrum presentations of this same waveform are given in Figs 32, 34 and 35.
Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor 31 - PERLAAT.SUIHKUPUT.PYRITYS 31 K300c korkea taajuus Flux coil -FC2 High vuokela sampling speed
Route Waveform Route Waveform 14-DEC-99 15:01:19

12 9 6

14 Dec 99 RMS = 4.31 15:01:19 KUORM = 100.0

RPM = 1486. RPS = 24.77 PK(+) = 10.89 PK(-) = 11.77 CRESTF= 2.75

Amplitudi STANDARD Flux Coil Voltage

-3 -6

-9

-12 0 2 4 6 8 Aika 10 ms 12 14 16 18

Time ms

Fig. 26. The axial leakage flux coil voltage waveform of a Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor, high sampling speed.
6 31 - PERLAAT.SUIHKUPUT.PYRITYS Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor 31 K300c -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low sampling speed

Route Waveform 14-DEC-99 15:00:41 RMS = 2.38 KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1486. RPS = 24.77 PK(+) = 4.88 PK(-) = 4.91 CRESTF= 2.02

Route Waveform 14 Dec 99 15:00:41

Flux Coil Voltage Amplitudi STANDARD

-2

-4

-6 0 60 120 180 Aika ms 240 300

Time ms

Fig. 27. The axial leakage flux coil voltage waveform for a Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor, low sampling speed.

67

4.2.2 Spectrum presentations of axial flux coil voltages

In the following we introduce spectrum presentations of axial flux coil measurements made for healthy motors supplied by frequency converters.

4.2.2.1 Amplitudes caused by output frequency of the frequency converter, switching frequency of the converter and rotor slots
The high frequency spectrum of the axial flux voltage for a Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor are measured by 15 360 samples per second. The selected frequency area of measurement is 0 to 6000 Hz and the line resolution of the spectrum is 6400 lines. The results are presented in Fig. 28, Fig. 29 and Fig. 30. The first frequency components in Fig. 28 present the amplitudes of the output frequency of the frequency converter (33.46 Hz) and its odd harmonics that are much higher than the amplitudes of even harmonics. The harmonics attenuate significantly towards higher frequencies, as expected. In addition to harmonics, there are frequencies caused by rotor slot currents. The amplitudes of these frequencies often reach stronger values than the harmonics of the output frequency of the frequency converter, as seen from the amplitude of the rotor slot pass frequency, 558.2 Hz. It is 11.5 dB stronger than the nearest harmonic on its right side. The first sidebands (491.80 Hz and 624.88 Hz) around the rotor slot pass frequency component are situated 66.44 Hz apart from it and the following sidebands (425.36 Hz, 691.12 Hz) are again 66.44 Hz apart from these. These sidebands are thus multiplies of two times the output frequency of the converter apart from the rotor slot pass frequency. It was not possible to detect these components from the time base waveforms. To assure that the motor is healthy, results were compared to other motors supplied with similar frequency converters. Part of those motors gave quite similar results. However, it was noted once again, as with sine wave supplied motors, that for various motors and applications the distribution is not necessarily similar. The switching speed of transistors has probably caused the amplitude of 2500 Hz and the sideband components situated around it, shown in Fig. 29. The first sidebands are situated 66.9 Hz around 2500 Hz and the following sidebands are situated 66.9 Hz apart from these. In Fig. 32 it is shown that the converter output frequency is 33.46 Hz, and so the detected frequency of 66.9 Hz is two times this frequency.

68
31 - PERLAAT.SUIHKUPUT.PYRITYS Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor 31 K300c -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Flux coil High frequency

33.46

20

Route spektri Route Spectrum 14-DEC-99 15:01:19

10 167.31

14 Dec 99

0 dB Flux-AU Flux Coil Voltage dB 100.25

301.08

558.24

-10

234.15

KOKTAS= 15:01:1912.96 G-DG dB = 8.41 KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1340. RPS = 22.33

368.12

-20

-30

-40

-50 0 100 200 300 400 Taajuus 500 Hz 600 700 800 Taaj: Monk: Spek: Erot: 491.25 22.00 -25.24 67.50

Frequency Hz

Fig. 28. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor: the frequencies caused by output current frequency of PWM converter and by rotor slot currents are presented.

The frequency of 2500 Hz was also from the time base waveform of Fig. 26. Several motors supplied with a similar frequency converter were studied and in all these existed similar high frequency component groups. Fig. 30 shows in more detail the frequency distribution around about 5000 Hz. In this case, the highest amplitudes exist at frequencies 4968.5 Hz and 5035.9 Hz. These are separated 66.9 Hz apart from each other, and all following large amplitudes are 66.9 Hz apart from these, being probably sidebands of them. In the middle of the two largest amplitudes, at a frequency of 5002 Hz, there is also a small component.

424.70

491.80

625.40

69
Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor Flux 31 coil High frequency - PERLAAT.SUIHKUPUT.PYRITYS
2367.1 2434.1 2567.9 2634.8 10 0 31 K300c -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Route spektri Route Spectrum 14-DEC-99 15:01:19 KOKTAS= 12.96 G-DG 15:01:19 dB = 1.61 KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1340. RPS = 22.33 2768.7 2835.6

14 Dec 99

-10

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

2300.2

-20

2166.4 2233.3

2501.0

-30

-40

-50

-60 1600 2000 2400 Taajuus 2800 Hz 3200 3600 Taaj: Monk: Spek: Erot: 2433.8 108.98 -4.585 67.23

Frequency Hz

Fig. 29. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor: the frequencies around 2500 Hz caused by the switching frequency of the PWM converter are presented.

Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor Flux High frequency 31 -coil PERLAAT.SUIHKUPUT.PYRITYS

4968.5 5035.9 20 10 31 K300c -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Route spektri Route Spectrum 14-DEC-99 15:01:19

2701.7

14 Dec 99

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

4834.4

4767.2

-20 4632.9

-30

5103.1

5237.4

-10

4901.6

5170.3

KOKTAS= 12.96 G-DG 15:01:19 dB = 10.47 KUORM = 100.0 RPM = 1340. RPS = 22.33

-40

-50 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600 6000 Taajuus Hz Hz Frequency Taaj: Monk: Spek: Erot: 4901.3 219.47 -18.70 67.50

Fig. 30. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor: the frequencies around 5000 Hz caused by the switching frequency of the PWM converter are presented.

4700.1

5304.6

70

4.2.2.2 Detection of sidebands around the output frequency of a converter

The literature review showed that the sidebands around the supply frequency can be used to evaluate the condition of rotor bars. The results for healthy motors supplied by frequency converters were also studied to see if is it possible to detect these sidebands around the converter output frequency. The selected frequency area of measurement is 0 to 200 Hz and the line resolution of the spectrum is 3200 lines. Fig. 31 shows the results of a Web Spreading Roller Motor 2.
Web Spreading Roller Motor 2 31 - RAINAN LEVITYSTELA 2 Flux31 coil - Low K432 -FC1 Frequency vuokela matalataajuus
40.78 Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 14-DEC-99 14:53

20

14 Dec 99

AMPL = .0031 14:53 KUORM = 25%

39.75

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

38.72

42.83

-20

41.80

RPM = 1486. RPS = 24.77

-40

-60

-80 27 30 33 39 Taajuus Frequency Hz 36 42 Hz 45 48 51 54 Freq: 39.75 Ordr: 1.605 Spec: -29.20 Dfrq: 1.000

Fig. 31. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Web Spreading Roller Motor 2: the rotor bar caused sidebands around the output frequency of the frequency converter are presented.

The nearest left and right sidebands (39.75 Hz and 41.80 Hz) are about 1.02 Hz apart from output frequency of the converter, 40.78 Hz. The following sidebands (38.72 Hz and 42.83 Hz) are obviously harmonics of these. A similar study was made at the results of some other motors of the same kind and there existed equal sidebands. In Fig. 32 is shown such a result for a Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor. In this case, the output frequency of the frequency converter is 33.43 Hz and the first sidebands (32.94 Hz and 33.94 Hz) are 0.5 Hz apart from it. The following sidebands are 0.5 Hz apart from these.

71
Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor Flux 31 coil- Low frequency PERLAAT.SUIHKUPUT.PYRITYS
20 33.43 31 K300c -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 14-DEC-99 15:00

14 Dec 99

0 32.92 33.94

AMPL = .0460 15:00 KUORM = 116%

34.46

-20 30.87 31.38 31.90 32.41

-40

34.97 35.48

RPM = 1260. RPS = 21.00

-60

-80 24 26 28 30 32 Taajuus 34 Hz 36 38 40 42 Freq: 32.94 Ordr: 1.568 Spec: -17.28 Dfrq: .495

Frequency Hz

Fig. 32. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor: the rotor bar current caused sidebands around the output current frequency of the PWM converter are presented.

4.2.2.3 Detection of slip frequency and its harmonics

It was found in the literature review that the amplitude of the slip frequency component of the axial flux coil voltage could be used to evaluate the condition of the rotor end ring. The results of some healthy motors supplied by frequency converters were studied to see if it is possible to detect the amplitude of the slip frequency from the axial flux voltage spectrum. The selected frequency area of measurement is 0 to 200 Hz and the line resolution of the spectrum is 3200 lines. Fig. 33 shows such results from a Web Spreading Roller Motor 2. The first frequency component on the left is probably a slip frequency (0.45 Hz) and the other marked and numbered frequencies are odd harmonics of it. In this case, the amplitude of the slip frequency can easily be detected; it is about 30 dB. Similar results were found also with most of the other motors studied. Fig. 34 shows the results of a Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor. The first frequency component on the left (0.73 Hz) is a slip frequency and the next ones are odd harmonics of this frequency.

35.99

72
Web Spreading Roller Motor 2 Flux coil Low Frequency 31 - RAINAN LEVITYSTELA 2
20 31 K432 -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 14-DEC-99 14:53 AMPL = .0031 14:53 = 25% KUORM

14 Dec 99

dB Flux-AU

.45

-20

Flux Coil Voltage dB

-40

1.35

RPM = 1486. RPS = 24.77

2.23 -60 -80 0 2

3.09

Frequency

6 Taajuus

8 Hz

10

12

Freq: .438 Ordr: .01766 Spec: -30.34

Fig. 33. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Web Spreading Roller Motor 2: the slip frequency and its odd harmonics are presented.

20

31 - PERLAAT.SUIHKUPUT.PYRITYS Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor 31 K300c -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency

Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 14-DEC-99 15:00

14 Dec 99

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

2.19

-20

.73

AMPL = .0460 15:00 KUORM = 116%

8.03

-60

-80 0 3 6 9 12 Taajuus 15 Hz 18 21 24 Freq: .750 Ordr: .03571 Spec: -12.11

6.58

-40

Frequency Hz

Fig. 34. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor: the slip frequency and its odd harmonics are presented.

9.50

10.96

3.65

5.11

RPM = 1260. RPS = 21.00

73

4.2.2.4 Amplitudes of frequency components around the synchronous rotating frequency

Frequency distribution around the synchronous rotating field area was also studied for some motors. The selected frequency area of measurement is 0 to 200 Hz and the line resolution of the spectrum is 3200 lines Fig. 35 shows the spectrum of a Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor. Four frequency components of 14.10 Hz, 15.62 Hz, 16.35 Hz and 17.09 Hz exist on the synchronous rotating frequency area. It seems that the frequencies of 17.09 Hz and 49.78 Hz are sidebands of the converter output frequency, 33.43 Hz because they are both located equally far away from it. The difference between the output frequency of the converter and these sidebands is 16.34 Hz. There exists also a frequency component of 16.36 Hz that is probably the rotation speed of the motor. In the spectrum, an additional frequency component is a group centred around 27.63 Hz. This frequency group is caused by an axial leakage flux of a Hole Roller Motor that is installed near the Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor. This was found because these two frequency groups were detected also from the results of Hole Roller Motor, but in this case the frequency of 27.63 was stronger.
Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor Flux Low frequency 31 coil - PERLAAT.SUIHKUPUT.PYRITYS
20 33.43 31 K300c -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 14-DEC-99 15:00

14 Dec 99

27.62

AMPL = .0460 15:00 KUORM = 116% 49.78

FluxCoil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

14.10 15.62 16.35 17.09

-20

RPM = 1260. RPS = 21.00

-40

-60

-80 10 15 20 25 30 35 Taajuus 40 Hz 45 50 55 60 Freq: 17.06 Ordr: .812 Spec: -44.55 Dfrq: 16.38

Frequency Hz

Fig. 35. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor: the frequency components around the converter output frequency and the synchronous speed area are presented.

74

4.3 Test results of detection of turn to turn failures of stator windings

The literature study showed that detection of turn to turn failures of stator winding is possible by determining the difference between the amplitude of the supply frequency component and certain rotating sideband frequency components of it, see section 2.5. To verify the ability to detect turn to turn failures (short circuits between turns of a stator winding) by axial flux voltage measurement a laboratory test series was implemented. The test set up was constructed from a squirrel-cage motor, 3-phase voltage supply variac and a dc motor loading system. This part of the survey was made in 1998 for the licenciate thesis of the present author (Kokko 1999). The overall results of the test series were introduced in the licenciate thesis, but for this work these results were analysed in more detail by using the equations gathered in the literature review of this thesis. Measurements were first made by a healthy motor and were repeated then by various levels of turn to turn failures. Each test was made on unloaded and loaded operation. The measurements were made using a low sampling speed of 512 samples/s, giving a spectrum from 0 Hz to 200 Hz with a line resolution of 6400 lines, and with a high sampling speed of 15360 samples/s, giving a spectrum from about 0 Hz to 6000 Hz with a line resolution of 6400 lines.

4.3.1 Detection of turn to turn failures with low frequency spectrum

Fig. 36 shows an axial magnetic flux spectrum of a healthy motor in unloaded operation. The supply frequency with its rotating speed sidebands are presented.
60 koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Test Motor Squirrel Cage Motor -FC1 frequency vuokela matalataajuus Flux 2245 coil Low

149.85

Route spektri Route Spectrum 30-JUL-98 13:26:42

49.98

30 Jul 98

40

20

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB flux-au

-20

-40

-60

-80 0 40 80 120 Taajuus Hz Frequency Hz 160 200 Taaj: Monk: Spek: Erot: 25.06 1.003 -21.27 24 94

Fig. 36. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a healthy test motor in unloaded operation: the supply frequency and its rotating speed sidebands are presented.

124.89

25.04

74.96

174.82

13:26:42 KOKTAS= 41.54 G-DG dB = 41.51 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1499. RPS = 24.99

99.93

75 Since in unloaded operation the slip is very small (measured rotating speed was 1497 r/min for a motor having synchronous speed of 1500 r/min), the rotating speed sidebands of the supply frequency are near the synchronous speed and its harmonics, and these are situated almost on top of each other. This is seen clearly in Fig. 36, where the third harmonic of supply frequency, 150 Hz, and fourth sideband of supply frequency, 149,85 Hz, are almost on top of each other. Fig. 37 shows the same axial magnetic flux spectrum of a healthy motor in unloaded operation, but the frequencies presented are third harmonic of supply frequency and its rotating speed sidebands. Since the slip frequency is small in unloaded operation, some sidebands of the supply frequency and third harmonic of the supply frequency are near each other. This is seen clearly by comparing Fig. 37 and Fig. 38. To separate sidebands and harmonics from each other a high line resolution of the spectrum is required. To test the ability of detect turn to turn failures of the stator winding, the test motor was measured at various failures between one turn and five turns short circuited. In Fig. 38 the axial magnetic flux spectrum of a motor with three turns short circuited in unloaded operation is shown. The amplitudes of some frequency components for a healthy test motor and a motor with three turns short circuited in unloaded operation are shown in Table 11. Since the slip is small, the rotating speed sidebands of the supply frequency are very near the supply frequency and its harmonics, and it is difficult to separate these frequency components from each other. So there are some uncertainties in the results.
149.95 koe- Squirrel SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Test Motor Cage Motor 2245 -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency

60 40

Route spektri Route Spectrum 30-JUL-98 13:26:42

14 Dec 99

174.90

20 dB flux-au Flux Coil Voltage dB

KOKTAS= 13:26:4241.54 G-D dB = 41.51 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1499. RPS = 24.99 199.80

50.40

-20 25.50 75.30

-40

-60

-80 0 40 80 Taajuus Hz 120 160 200

100.20

125.10

Frequency Hz

Fig. 37. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a healthy test motor in unloaded operation: the third harmonic of the supply frequency and its rotating speed sidebands are presented.

Taaj: Monk: Spek: Erot:

174.88 6.999 -2.499 24 88

76
koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Test Motor -FC1 Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency

150.11

60

Route Spectrum Route spektri 31-JUL-98 15:25:26 14 Dec 99

KOKTAS= 42.41 G-DG dB = 42.36 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80

40

15:25:26

20 dB flux-au Flux Coil Voltage dB

50.22

125.14

0 75.19

-20 25.24

-40

-60 0 40 80 120 Taajuus Hz 160 200 Taaj: Monk: Spek: Erot: 125.13 5.045 -2.916 24.99

Frequency Hz

Fig. 38. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a test motor with three turns short circuited in unloaded operation: the third harmonic of the supply frequency and its rotating speed sidebands are presented.

Test results of a healthy test motor and the motor with three turns short circuited in an unloaded operation are shown in Table 11.
Table 11. Amplitudes of some frequency components for a healthy motor and a motor with three turns short circuited in unloaded operation.
Frequency component fs fr fs fs + fr fs + 2fr 3fs- 2fr 3fs- fr 3fs 3fs + fr Healthy motor Frequency 25.04 Hz 49.98 Hz 74.96 Hz 99.90 Hz 100.04 Hz 125.01 Hz 149.95 Hz 174.90 Hz Amplitude -20.3 dB 24.3 dB -11.0 dB -8.1 dB - 8.2 dB -1.4 dB 41.0 dB -1.6 dB Three turns short circuited Frequency Amplitude 25.04 Hz -22.5 dB 50.04 Hz 75.02 Hz 99.91 Hz 100.17 Hz 125.14 Hz 150.11 Hz 175.09 Hz 36.8 dB -10.6 dB -18 dB - 10.1 dB - 2.6 dB 40.6 dB -0.09 dB

In Fig. 39 and Fig. 40 the axial magnetic flux coil voltage spectrum of a healthy motor in loaded operation is shown. In the loaded operation there is a clear difference between the supply frequency and its harmonics in comparison with the supply frequency and its rotating sidebands, which are presented in the Fig. 39.

100.17

175.09

77
koe Motor - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Test Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus

60

Flux coil Low frequency

Route Spectrum Route spektri 30-JUL-98 15:19:02 14 Dec 99 15:19:02 KOKTAS= 37.63 G-DG dB = 37.58 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80

40

50.00

20

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB flux-au

2.33

73.84

0 26.17

97.67

121.51

145.34

-20

-40

-60 0 40 80 120 Taajuus Hz 160 200 Taaj: Monk: Spek: Erot: 26.19 1.056 -29.02 23.82

Frequency Hz

Fig. 39. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a healthy test motor in loaded operation: the supply frequency and its rotating speed sidebands are presented.

150.02

60

Test Motor -FC1 Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency

koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Route spektri Route Spectrum 30-JUL-98 15:19:02 KOKTAS= 37.63 G-DG 15:19:02 dB = 37.58 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80

169.18

14 Dec 99

40

20 dB flux-au Flux Coil Voltage dB 126.17

0 54.65 102.33

173.86

-40

-60 0 40 80 Taajuus Hz 120 160 200 Taaj: Monk: Spek: Erot: 126.19 5.088 -11.26 23.83

30.81

Fig. 40. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a healthy test motor in loaded operation: the third harmonic of the supply frequency and its rotating speed sidebands are presented.

78.49

-20

Frequency Hz

197.70

78 In Fig. 41 the axial magnetic flux spectrum of a motor with three turns short circuited in loaded operation is shown.
koe SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Test Motor -Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency

150.07

60

Route spektri Route Spectrum 03-AUG-98 11:04:36

03 Aug 98

40

20

11:04:3639.62 G-DG KOKTAS= dB = 39.57 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80
173.99

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB flux-au

0 102.24 54.41

126.15

-20

-40

-60 0 40 80 120 Taajuus Hz 160 200 Taaj: Monk: Spek: Erot: 126.13 5.086 -10.32 23.95

Frequency Hz

Fig. 41. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a test motor with three turns short circuited on loaded operation: the third harmonic of the supply frequency and its rotating speed sidebands are presented.

Test results for a healthy motor and various severity of turn to turn failures in loaded operation are shown in Table 12.
Table 12. Amplitudes of frequency components for a motor in various stator winding conditions in loaded operation.
Frequency Healthy motor component Frequency Amplitude 2.33 Hz -0.9 dB fs 2fr fs fr fs fs + fr fs + 2fr fs + 3fr fs + 4fr 2fs 3fs- 2fr 3fs- fr 3fs 3fs + fr 3fs+ 2fr 26.17 Hz 50.00 Hz 73.84 Hz 97.67 Hz -28.6 dB 25.9 dB -8.8 dB -11.1 dB One turn short 3 turns short circuited 5 turns short circuited circuited Frequency Amplitude Frequency Amplitude Frequency Amplitude 2.40 Hz -0.7 dB 2.19 Hz -1.5 dB 2.28 Hz -1.0 dB 26.20 Hz 50.00 Hz 73.80 Hz 97.60 Hz -23.2 dB 25.6 dB -8.6 dB -12.2 dB 26.10 Hz 50.02 Hz 73.94 Hz 97.85 Hz -26 dB 35.7 dB -9.9 dB -11.8 dB 26.16 Hz 50.04 Hz 73.91 Hz 97.79 Hz -29.0 dB 34.1 dB -10.2 dB -11.0 dB

121.51 Hz -27 dB 145.34 Hz 7.2 dB 100.01 Hz -18.5 dB 102.33 Hz - 21.7 dB 126.17 Hz - 11.0 dB 150.02 Hz 36.9 dB 173.86 Hz -14.4 dB 197.70 Hz -27.8 dB

121.40 Hz - 22.8 dB 145.20 Hz 7.4 dB 99.99 Hz -19.7 dB 102.40 Hz - 22.2 dB 126.20 Hz - 10.2 dB 149.99 Hz 37.0 dB 173.79 Hz -15.8 dB 197.60 Hz -25.4 dB

121.77 Hz - 19.8 dB 145.68 Hz 7.6 dB 100.04 Hz -19.1 dB 102.24 Hz - 21.9 dB 126.15 Hz - 9.1 dB 150.07 Hz 37.1 dB 173.98 Hz -11.3 dB 197.97 Hz -31.1 dB

121.67 Hz -19.2 dB 145.55 Hz 7.3 dB 100.07 Hz -17.6 dB 102.35 Hz - 23.1 dB 126.23 Hz -9.7 dB 150.10 Hz 36.9 dB 173.98 Hz -12.6 dB 198.16 Hz -33.2 dB

197.90

30.49

78.32

79

4.3.2 Detection of turn to turn failures using high frequency spectrum

Fig. 42 shows an axial magnetic flux spectrum of a healthy motor in unloaded operation. Fig. 43 shows the same spectrum for a motor with three turns short circuited. The supply frequency and its harmonics are presented.
60 150.04

Test Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 Motor -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Flux coil High frequency

koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI)

Route spektri Route Spectrum 30-JUL-98 13:27:19

30 Jul 98

50.01

40

250.06

100.03

20

350.09

450.11

KOKTAS= 41.35 G-DG 13:27:19 dB = 41.30 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1500. RPS = 24.99 550.14 600.15 750.19

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB flux-au

300.08

650.16

200.05

-20

-40

-60 0 100 200 300 400 Taajuus 500 Hz 600 700 800 Taaj: 50.63 Monk: 2.026 Spek: 23.19

Frequency Hz

Fig. 42. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a healthy test motor in unloaded operation: the supply frequency and its harmonics are presented.
koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Test Motor Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus 150.14

60 50.05

Flux coil High frequency

400.10

500.13

700.18

Route spektri Route Spectrum 31-JUL-98 15:26:03

31 Jul 98

40 250.24

15:26:03 KOKTAS= 42.28 G-DG dB = 42.22 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1501. RPS = 25.01
450.43 550.52 350.33 600.57 650.62

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB flux-au

20

100.09

200.19

300.28

-20

-40 0 100 200 300 400 Taajuus 500 Hz 600 700 800 Taaj: 50.63 Monk: 2.024 Spek: 36.39

Frequency Hz

Fig. 43. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a test motor with three turns short circuited in unloaded operation: the supply frequency and its harmonics are presented.

400.38

500.47

700.66

750.71

80 The results of amplitudes of supply frequency and its harmonics for various failure levels in unloaded operation are shown in Table 13.
Table 13. Amplitudes of supply frequency and its harmonics for various failure levels in unloaded operation.
Harmonic number Base frequency 2nd 3rd 4 5
th th

Healthy motor dB 23.8 -0.07 41.2 -13.0 6.4 -11.6 5.2 -30 6.6 -25 -2.3 -8.2 -12.7 -13.4 -4.5 -15.4 -30

2 turns shorted dB 30.5 -9.8 41.8 -9.5 5.4 -13.6 -0.1 -25 8.9 -12.3 1.0 -8.2 -12.7 9.8 -4.9 -13.4 -18

3 turns shorted dB 36.9 -12 40.7 -17 19.5 -18 -0.7 -21 5.5 -15 6.3 0.0 1.7 -4.4 -7.6 -8.1 -6.5

4 turns shorted dB 38.4 -8 42.4 -13 21.8 -13 9.0 -16 7.1 -16 13.2 0.0 2.3 -2 -1.0 -3.7 -3.7

5 turns shorted dB 35.7 -17 42.1 -10 18.9 -17 1.7 -22 1.8 -17 11.6 0.1 -1.5 -4.9 -2.5 -6.4 -5.8

6th 7th 8th 9

th th

10 11

th

12th 13th 14
th

15th 16th 17
th

In unloaded operation slip is nearly zero and the rotor slot frequency components are very near the harmonics of the supply frequency, and thus cannot be easily detected. Fig. 44 shows an axial magnetic flux spectrum of a healthy motor on loaded operation. Fig. 45 shows the same spectrum for a motor with three turns short circuited. The supply frequency and its harmonics are presented.

81
koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Test Motor Squirrel 2245 -FC2 vuokela korkea Cage taajuusMotor

60 150.07

Flux coil High frequency

Route spektri Route Spectrum 30-JUL-98 15:19:40

30 Jul 98

50.02

40

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB flux-au

250.12

350.17

20

450.22

KOKTAS= 37.72 G-DG 15:19:40 dB = 37.65 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80

550.26

100.05

200.10

300.14

-20

400.19

500.24

600.29

650.31

-40 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Taajuus Hz Frequency Hz Taaj: 50.63 Monk: 2.041 Spek: 26.07

Fig. 44. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a healthy test motor in loaded operation: the supply frequency and its harmonics are presented.

60 150.06 50.02

Test Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 Motor -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Flux coil High frequency

koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Route spektri Route Spectrum 03-AUG-98 11:05:13

700.34

750.36

03 Aug 98

40

250.10

350.14

11:05:13 KOKTAS= 39.68 G-DG dB = 39.61 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80
450.18 650.26

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB flux-au

20

550.22

300.12

100.04

200.08

400.16

500.20

600.24

-20

-40 0 100 200 300 400 Taajuus 500 Hz 600 700 800 Taaj: 50.63 Monk: 2.041 Spek: 35.23

Frequency Hz

Fig. 45. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a test motor with three turns short circuited in loaded operation: the supply frequency and its harmonics are presented.

The results of the amplitudes of the supply frequency and its harmonics for various failure levels in loaded operation are shown in Table 14.

700.28

750.30

82
Table 14. Amplitudes of supply frequency and its harmonics for various failure levels in loaded operation.
Harmonic number Base frequency 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6 7 9
th th

Healthy motor 1 turn shorted 2 turns shorted 3 turns shorted 4 turns shorted 5 turns shorted DB dB dB dB dB dB 26.7 27.3 28.8 35.8 35.5 34.0 -8.9 37.3 -20 0.5 -13.2 6.1 -33 10.7 -32 -4.6 -24 -10.6 -43 -4.7 -40 -22 -11 37.1 -22 -0.4 -12.9 5.2 -34 12.3 -28 -3.6 -22 -22 -35 -5.1 -40 -37 -10.8 37.7 -20 2.2 -18 3.8 -30 13.0 -23 -3.8 -16 -8.4 -33 -5.8 -38 -25 -18 37.2 -20 18.3 -15 11.3 -15.5 6.2 -14 -3.2 -8 -0.3 -28 -6.4 -25 -13 -10 37.4 -19 19.9 -15 12.9 -23 4.8 -14 -3.5 -15 -3.1 -28 -10 -29 -15 -10 37.3 -22 17.2 -15 10.1 -24 9.2 -15 -2.7 -16 -7.1 -32 -17 -30 -17

8th
th th

10 12 14

11th
th

13th
th

15th 16th 17
th

It was found in the literature review that 2 times the Line Frequency family of the rotor slot pass frequencies can be used for determination of stator turn to turn failure. Fig. 46 shows a high frequency spectrum of an axial flux for a healthy motor in loaded operation. The rotor slot pass frequency and its 2 times line frequency sidebands are presented in addition to 2 times rotor slot pass frequencies and its sidebands. Fig. 47 shows an equal spectrum for a test motor with three turns short circuited.

83
- SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Testkoe Motor Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Flux coil High frequency

60

Route spektri Route Spectrum 30-JUL-98 15:19:40

30 Jul 98

40

KOKTAS= 15:19:4037.72 G-DG dB = 37.65 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80

Flux Coil Volatge dB dB flux-au

20 569.92

669.96

469.90

0 369.84

770.01

1189.8

1289.9 1390.0

-20

-40 0 400 800 Taajuus 1200 1600 Hz Frequency Hz Taaj: 570.00 Monk: 22.98 Spek: -4.082

Fig. 46. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a healthy test motor in loaded operation: slot pass frequency and its 2 times line frequency sidebands are presented in addition to 2 times slot pass frequency with its sidebands.

60

koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Test Motor Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Flux coil High frequency

Route Route spektri Spectrum 03-AUG-98 11:05:13 03 Aug 98

40 1293.3

11:05:13 KOKTAS= 39.68 G-DG dB = 37.29 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80
1393.4 1493.5

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB flux-au

571.59

20 471.53

671.66

-20

-40 0 400 800 Taajuus 1200 Hz 1600 2000 Taaj: 571.88 Monk: 23.06 Spek: 4.704

371.65

Frequency Hz

Fig. 47. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a test motor with three turns short circuited in loaded operation: slot pass frequency with its 2 times line frequency sidebands are presented in addition to 2 times slot pass frequency with its sidebands.

In Table 15, the amplitudes of probable 2 times LF family of the stator slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of running speed sidebands for a motor with

771.74

1093.4

1193.2

84 various failure levels in unloaded operation are shown. Results for line frequency and its harmonics for these same failures were presented in Table 13. All the determined components were 2 times LF family of the rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of running speed sidebands. Other components are buried under the harmonics of the supply frequency and could not be determined.
Table 15. The amplitudes of the area of the rotor slot pass frequencies for a motor with various failure levels in unloaded operation.
Healthy motor FreAmplitude quency dB 374 Hz -27.4 dB 474 Hz 524 Hz 574 Hz 624 Hz 674 Hz 724.1 Hz 774 Hz 824 Hz 874 Hz 924 Hz -35 dB -32 dB -35 dB -41 dB -39 dB -22.8 dB -42 dB -43 dB -33.8 dB -43 dB 2 turns short circuited FreAmplitude quency dB 374 Hz -32 dB 474.3 Hz -27 dB 524.5 Hz -28 dB 574.7 Hz -21.9 dB 624.9 Hz -17.2 dB 675.1 Hz -15.4 dB 725.0 Hz -18.7 dB 775.1 Hz -20.9 dB 825.2 Hz -21.5 dB 875 Hz 925 Hz -32 dB -35 dB 3 turns short circuited FreAmplitude quency dB 375.2 Hz -9.3 dB 475.0 Hz - 13.2 dB 524.8 Hz - 13.0 dB 574.8 Hz - 8.4 dB 624.6 Hz - 10.2 dB 674.8 Hz -11.2 dB 725 Hz 775 Hz 875 Hz -18 dB -20 dB -18 dB 5 turns short circuited FreAmplitude quency dB 375.3 Hz -9.5 dB 475.2 Hz -9.6 dB 524.7 Hz -13.1 dB 574.9 Hz -10.5 dB 624.8 Hz -8.2 dB 675.5 Hz -15.7 dB 724.9 Hz -13.0 dB 775.1 Hz -14.8 dB 825.0 Hz -9.9 dB 875.0 Hz -14.1 dB 925.0 Hz -8.1 dB Identify

fRSR fRSR fRSR fRSR fRSR fRSR fRSR fRSR fRSR fRSR fRSR

824.8 Hz -8.8 dB 924.8 Hz -10.6 dB

Identifying: fRPF is 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies fRSR is 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of running speed sidebands fLFR is 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by line frequency sidebands

Table 16 shows the amplitudes of the higher frequencies caused by rotor slot with their two times line frequency sidebands for a motor with various failure levels on unloaded operation. The results for line frequency harmonics for these same failures were presented in Table 13. These two frequency groups are situated near each others harmonics because of a small slip (slip was 0.002 for an unloaded motor).
Table 16. The amplitudes of rotor slot caused higher frequencies with their two times line frequency sidebands for a motor with various failure levels in unloaded operation.
Healthy motor DB Rotor slot caused frequency of about 1248 Hz -27.7 -27.5 1st left sideband (1148 Hz) 1st right sideband (1348 Hz) 2nd left sideband (1048 Hz) 2nd right sideband (1448 Hz) 3rd left sideband (948 Hz) 3rd right sideband (1548 Hz) -28.1 -17.3 -29.0 -16.5 -29.0 Frequency 2 turns shorted dB -8.4 -12.8 -22 -17.2 -10 -8.0 -25 3 turns 4 turns shorted 5 turns shorted shorted dB dB dB 6.4 7.5 (1247.5 Hz) 4.9 (1249.6 Hz) -1.4 -1.0 -2.2 -13 -5.9 2 -6.5 Na -2.9 -8.1 5.1 2.7 -2.3 -6.4 -4.9 0.2 -1.0 -2.8

85 Table 17 shows the amplitudes of the area of the rotor slot pass frequencies for the test motor with various failure levels in loaded operation. Results for line frequency and its harmonics for these same failures were presented in Table 14.
Table 17. Amplitudes of the frequency components and their identification in the rotor slot pass frequency area in loaded operation.
Healthy motor Frequency Amplitude dB 269.8 Hz -19 dB 369.9 Hz 426.9 Hz 469.9 Hz 522 Hz 570 Hz 595 Hz 619 Hz 623 Hz 643 Hz 670.0 Hz 690 Hz 770.0 Hz 795 Hz 870.1 Hz 895 Hz -23 dB -16.8 dB -10.4 dB -33 dB -4.1 dB -33 dB -40 dB -35 dB -33 dB -6.8 dB -18 dB -13.2 dB -40 dB -10.1 dB -30 dB 1 turn short circuited Frequency Amplitude dB 269.8 Hz -15.5 dB 369.9 Hz 428.3 Hz 469.9 Hz 520 Hz 570.0 Hz 595 Hz 619 Hz 623 Hz 643 Hz 670.0 Hz 693.8 Hz 770.0 Hz 795 Hz 870.1 Hz 895 Hz -19.0 dB -18.4 dB -9.8 dB -35 dB -8.4 dB -25 dB -32 dB -35 dB -20 dB -5.9 dB -15.5 dB -13.2 dB -40 dB -8.7 dB -30 dB 3 turns short circuited Frequency Amplitude dB 271.4 Hz - 15 dB 371.5 Hz 428.1 Hz 471.5 Hz 523.8 Hz 571.6 Hz 595.6 Hz 619.5 Hz 643.8 Hz 671.7 Hz 771.8 Hz 795.8 Hz 871.8 Hz 895.3 Hz - 14 dB - 9.0 dB - 4.4 dB - 4.3 dB 4.8 dB - 0.8 dB -6.6 dB -7.0 dB 0 dB -7.5 dB -10.3 dB -12.5 dB -11.2 dB 5 turns short circuited Frequency Amplitude dB 270 Hz -20 dB 370 Hz 427.7 Hz 470.8 Hz 523.2 Hz 570.9 Hz 594.8 Hz 618.7 Hz 623 Hz 642.6 Hz 671.0 Hz 694.9 Hz 771.1 Hz 794.8 Hz 871.2 Hz 895.1 Hz -20 dB -8.7 dB -7.3 dB -6.5 dB 3.3 dB -1.6 dB -9.3 dB -20 dB -9.4 dB -6.0 dB -7.8 dB -8.2 dB -9.7 dB -7.5 dB -11.5 dB Identify

fRPF fRPF Unknown fRPF fLFR (?) fRPF fRSR fRSR fLFR (?) fRSR fRPF fRSR fRPF fRSR fRPF fRSR

623.51 Hz -11.9 dB

695.47 Hz -1.3 dB

Identifying: fRPF is 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies fRSR is 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of running speed sidebands fLFR is 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by line frequency sidebands

Table 18 shows the amplitudes of the higher frequencies caused by the rotor slots with their two times line frequency sidebands for a motor with various failure levels in loaded operation. The results for line frequency and its harmonics for these same failures were presented in Table 14.

86
Table 18. The amplitudes of rotor slot caused higher frequencies with its two times line frequency sidebands for a motor with various failure levels on loaded operation.
Frequency Healthy motor DB -8.5 -31.8 1 turn shorted dB -4.8 -19.2 -18.6 -30 -35 -15.8 -21.4 2 turns shorted dB -2.2 -6.9 -7.7 -30 -17.1 -12.8 -16 3 turns shorted dB 16 9.7 8.7 -3 4.3 -10 -6.7 4 turns shorted dB 14.0 9.1 6.8 -1.2 4.6 -14 -4.5 5 turns shorted dB 10.7 6.3 3.7 -3.6 1.5 -17 -6.3

Rotor slot frequency of about 1293 Hz 1st left sideband (1193 Hz)
st

1 right sideband (1393 Hz) -33.0 2nd left sideband (1093 Hz) -35 2nd right sideband (1493 Hz) -33.0 -15.7 3rd left sideband (993 Hz) 3rd right sideband (1593 Hz) -21.9

4.3.3 Detection of turn to turn failures from a time based waveform

The evaluation of the possibility of detecting turn to turn failures from a time base waveform was made by studying the results of high speed sampling of 15360 samples/s. Fig. 48 shows the results of a healthy motor in unloaded operation. There is a base waveform of a cycle about 6.67 ms that means a frequency of 150 Hz. In addition, there is an envelope waveform that has a cycle length of about 20 ms and a frequency of about 50 Hz.
koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Test Motor Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Flux coil High sample speed

300

Aikatason nytt 30-JUL-98 13:27:19

200

Route Waveform 30 Jul 98 RMS = 118.65 13:27:10 LOAD = 100.0

RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80 PK(+) = 192.92 PK(-) = 189.94 CRESTF= 1.63

Flux Coil Voltage

Amplitudi

flux-au

100

-100

-200

-300 0 10 20 30 Aika ms 40 50 60 70 Aika: 33.85 Ampl: 191.43 EAik; 20.05 Taaj: 49.87

Time ms

Fig. 48. The axial leakage flux coil voltage waveform for a healthy test motor in unloaded operation.

87 Fig. 49 shows the test result of a motor three turns short circuited in unloaded operation. There is a significant difference in the amplitudes of the shorter cycles of a frequency 150 Hz when compared with the result of a healthy motor.
Test Motor Squirrel Cage (EPATAHTI) Motor koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI 2245 High -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Flux coil sample speed

300

Aikatason Routenytt Waveform 31-JUL-98 15:26:03

31 Jul 98

200

RMS = 130.81 15:26:03 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80 PK(+) = 251.12 PK(-) = 237.18 CRESTF= 1.92

Flux Coil Voltage

Amplitudi

flux-au

100

-100

-200

-300 0 10 20 30 40 Aika ms 50 60 70 Aika: 33.40 Ampl: 239.33 EAik; 20.05 Taaj: 49.87

Time ms

Fig. 49. The axial leakage flux coil voltage waveform for a test motor with three turns short circuited in unloaded operation.

Fig. 50 shows the results of a healthy motor in loaded operation. There is a base waveform of a cycle about 6.67 ms which means a frequency of 150 Hz. In addition, there is an envelope waveform that has a cycle length of about 20 ms which means a frequency of about 50 Hz.
180

Test Squirrel 2245 Motor -FC2 vuokela korkeaCage taajuusMotor Flux coil High sample speed

koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI)

Aikatason nytt 30-JUL-98 15:19:40

120

Route Waveform 30 Jul 98 RMS = 76.91 15:19:40 LOAD = 100.0

RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80 PK(+) = 135.81 PK(-) = 135.73 CRESTF= 1.77

Flux Coil Voltage

Amplitudi

flux-au

60

-60

-120

-180 0 10 20 30 40 Aika ms 50 60 70 Aika: Ampl: EAik; Taaj: 30.40 128.74 20.05 49.87

Time ms

Fig. 50. The axial leakage flux coil voltage waveform for a healthy test motor in loaded operation.

88 Fig. 51 shows the test result of a motor with three turns short circuited in unloaded operation. There is a significant difference in the amplitudes of the shorter cycles of the frequency of 150 Hz compared with the result of a healthy motor.
300

Test Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 Motor -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Flux coil High sample speed

koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI)

Aikatason nytt Route Waveform 03-AUG-98 11:05:13

30 Jul 98

200

RMS = 96.14 11:05:13 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80 PK(+) = 198.08 PK(-) = 182.77 CRESTF= 2.06

Flux Coil Amplitudi Voltage

flux-au

100

-100

-200

-300 0 10 20 30 40 Aika ms 50 60 70 Aika: Ampl: EAik; Taaj: 35.68 186.60 20.12 49.71

Time ms

Fig. 51. The axial leakage flux coil voltage waveform for a test motor with three turns short circuited in loaded operation.

Fig. 52 is a zoomed presentation of a time base waveform from a test motor with three turns short circuited in loaded operation. There is an extra periodical cycle that has a time length of about 0.781 ms which means a frequency of about 1280 Hz.
300 koe - SAHKOMOOTTORI (EPATAHTI) Test Motor Squirrel Cage Motor 2245 -FC2 vuokela korkea taajuus Flux coil High sample speed Aikatason nytt 03-AUG-98 11:05:13

200

Route Waveform 03 Aug 98 RMS = 96.55 11:05:13 LOAD = 100.0

RPM = 1488. RPS = 24.80 PK(+) = 198.08 PK(-) = 182.77 CRESTF= 2.06

Flux Coil Voltage

Amplitudi

flux-au

100

-100

-200

-300 14 16 18 20 22 24 Aika 26 ms 28 30 32 34 36 Aika: 23.24 Ampl: -1.530 EAik; .781 Taaj: 1280 0

Time ms

Fig. 52. The axial leakage flux coil voltage waveform for a test motor with three turns short circuited in loaded operation: zoomed presentation.

89

4.4 Rotor bar failures in squirrel-cage motors

The literature study showed that detection of rotor bar failures is possible by evaluating the difference between the amplitude of the supply frequency component and the left sideband frequency component that is two times the slip frequency apart from it. During the field measurements, rotor bar problems were found and verified with some motors of suction pumps. A stator current spectrum has already been used to detect rotor bar failures for several years. To make a comparison between the results of these two methods, the measurements were made both using an axial flux coil and a stator current. The selected frequency area of measurement is 0 to 200 Hz and the line resolution of the spectrum is 3200 lines. An axial magnetic flux spectrum for a suction pump having several broken bars is shown in Fig. 53.
Suction Pump Motor PK-3 - PK3 NASHM4 IMUPUMPPU 4 Flux coil Low frequency 32-23-4 -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus
49.96 Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 23-SEP-99 08:26

40

23 Sep 99

20

08:26 AMPL = 7.1254 KUORM = 25%

dB Flux-AU Flux Coil Voltage dB

49.17

50.75

45.32

48.36

RPM = 1487. RPS = 24.78 51.54 54.60

-20

-40

-60 36 39 42 45 48 Taajuus 51 Hz 54 57 60 63 Freq: 49.13 Ordr: 1.982 Spec: -19.66 Dfrq: .813

Frequency Hz

Fig. 53. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a motor with several broken bars: the frequencies of the sideband components around the supply frequency are presented.

Around the supply frequency (49.96 Hz) there are two, probably rotor bar caused, sideband components that are situated at about two times the slip frequency apart from it (49.17 Hz and 50.75 Hz). The difference between the amplitude of the left sideband component, 49.17 Hz, and the supply frequency component is 33.4 dB. In addition, there are two other sidebands on the left side of the supply frequency, 47.89 Hz (not marked in the figure) and 45.32 Hz, probably caused by the suction pump application. The amplitude differences between these sideband components and the supply frequency component are: 43.7 dB for the 47.89 Hz sideband and 45.5 dB for the 45.32 Hz sideband. The amplitudes of these application caused frequency components are thus lower than the amplitude of a rotor bar caused sideband.

90 The result of a stator current spectrum for this same motor, measured during the same measurement period, is shown in Fig. 54. There are similarly two rotor bar caused sideband components around the supply frequency. The difference between the amplitude of the left sideband (49.19 Hz) and the supply frequency component is 34.9 dB. In addition, there are extra, smaller sidebands that are probably caused by the suction pump application, as was detected in the axial flux spectrum. Lang (1994) has presented a guide table for condition assessment of rotor bars using stator current spectrum. It shows that when the difference between the amplitude of the rotor bar caused left sideband component and the supply frequency component is 30 to 36 dB, there are multiply cracked/broken bars or broken end ring, and it is recommended to repair the rotor. Based on this recommendation the motor was removed and overhauled. During overhaul it was found that the end ring of the rotor was broken.
Suction Pump Motor M4 32-23-4 -IU2 2JA3A13-4 TOISIOVIRTA 0-200HZ Stator Current Spectrum Low frequency
PK-3 - PK3 NASH IMUPUMPPU 4

80

Spektri Routenytt Spectrum 27-SEP-99 07:53 27 Sep 99

60

07:53 AMPL = 4.1812 KUORM = 78%

49.19 45.95 46.76 47.57 48.38 50.81

40

Stator Current dB dB Amps

-20

-40 36 39 42 45 48 Taajuus 51 Hz 54 57 60 63 Freq: 50.00 Ordr: 2.660 Spec: 59.68 Dfrq: .00000

Frequency Hz

Fig. 54. The stator current spectrum for a motor with several broken bars: the supply frequency and its sidebands are presented.

In the literature it was suggested that a broken end ring could be detected by the slip frequency component of axial flux. Fig. 55 shows the low frequency part of the axial flux spectrum for the same motor known to have broken bars. The first frequency component is slip frequency and the other numbered ones are odd harmonics of it. The difference between the amplitude of the slip frequency component and the supply frequency component is 10.5 dB. Measurements were repeated after the faulted motor was replaced with a similar healthy motor. Analysis of the measurement variation between the results of a faulty and healthy motor was used to make a verification for the effects of a rotor failure on the measurements. The results of a healthy motor are introduced in the following figures. The frequency components caused by a suction pump application are unchanged. This means that the variations are caused mainly by the rotor condition.

51.62 52.43 53.24 54.05

20

RPM = 1128. RPS = 18.79

91
Suction Pump M4 32-23-4 -FC1Motor vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency
1.18 PK-3 - PK3 NASH IMUPUMPPU 4 Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 23-SEP-99 08:26

.39

20

23 Sep 99

AMPL = 7.1254 08:26 KUORM = 25%

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

-20

1.97 2.76 3.54

RPM = 1487. RPS = 24.78

-40

-60

-80 0 3 6 9 12 Taajuus 15 Hz 18 21 24 Freq: .375 Ordr: .01513 Spec: 6.088

Frequency Hz

Fig. 55. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a motor with several broken bars: the slip frequency and its odd harmonics are presented.

Fig. 56 shows the sideband components around the supply frequency for axial flux coil measurements. The amplitude of the frequency component of rotor bar caused left sideband is so small that it is hard even to detect it, but it looks like the difference between it and the supply frequency component is about 60 dB. There are similar extra sidebands, probably caused by a suction pump application, as it was detected with faulty motor. Amplitude differences between these frequency components and the supply frequency components are on the same level as earlier: 46,7 dB for the 47.99 Hz sideband and 42,8 dB for the 45,33 Hz sideband. So these are now much stronger than the rotor bar caused components.
40

Suction Motormatalataajuus M4 32-23-4Pump -FC1 vuokela Flux coil Low frequency

49.97

PK-3 - PK3 NASH IMUPUMPPU 4 Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 05-JUN-00 09:32

05 Jun 00

20

AMPL = 5.6933 19:32 KUORM = 25%

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

0 RPM = 1491. RPS = 24.85

45.33

-20

47.99

-40

-60 36 39 42 45 48 Taajuus 51 Hz 54 57 60 63 Freq: 49.00 Ordr: 1.972 Spec: -45.45 Dfrq: 1.000

Frequency Hz

Fig. 56. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a motor with a healthy rotor: the sidebands around the supply frequency are presented.

49.04

50.98

51.97

54.61

92 The stator current spectrum of the healthy motor is shown in Fig. 57. The rotor bar caused sidebands are tiny as they were in axial flux spectrum. The amplitude difference between the left sideband (49.09 Hz) and the supply frequency component is about 60 dB. The Evaluation guide given by Lang (1994) presents that when the difference is 60 dB or more, the rotor bars are in excellent condition. Similar extra sidebands, however significantly stronger than the rotor caused sideband, can be detected as with axial flux.
Suction Pump M4 32-23-4 -IU2 Motor 2JA3A13-4 TOISIOVIRTA 0-200HZ Stator Current Spectrum Low frequency
PK-3 - PK3 NASH IMUPUMPPU 4

80

Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 06-JUN-00 15:10 AMPL = 3.8185 15:10 KUORM = 78%

06 Jun 00

60

40

Stator CurrentdB dB Amps

45.39

47.92

52.15

54.69

20

49.09

-20

-40 36 39 42 45

50.98

RPM = 1128. RPS = 18.80

Frequency Hz

48 Taajuus

51 Hz

54

57

60

63

Freq: Ordr: Spec: Dfrq:

54.69 2.909 15.30 4.688

Fig. 57. The stator current spectrum for a motor with a healthy rotor.

The low frequency components in axial flux of a healthy motor are shown in Fig. 58. The first left side frequency component is a slip frequency and the next numbered component is the 3rd harmonic of it. The difference between the amplitude of the slip frequency component and the supply frequency component is now 51.0 dB.

93
PK-3 - PK3 NASHM4 IMUPUMPPU 4 Suction Pump Motor 32-23-4 -FC1 vuokela matalataajuus Flux coil Low frequency

20

Spektri nytt Route Spectrum 05-JUN-00 09:32

05 Jun 00

AMPL = 5.6933 09:32 KUORM = 25%

Flux Coil Voltage dB dB Flux-AU

-20 RPM = 1491. RPS = 24.85 .28 -40 .84 -60 -80 0 3 6 9 12 Taajuus 15 Hz 18 21 24 Freq: .250 Ordr: .01006 Spec: -37.28

Frequency Hz

Fig. 58. The axial leakage flux coil voltage spectrum for a motor with healthy rotor: slip frequency component and its odd harmonics are presented.

5 Discussion
5.1 Literature review of magnetic fields and magnetic leakage fluxes
A literature review was made to gain a better understanding of the basic theory of axial leakage fluxes of induction motors and to study their characteristics both in normal operation and during various failure situations. The target was to find applicable equations for the normal operation of a healthy motor and equations of various failure modes. From the diagnosis point of view the study concentrated on spectral analysis of axial leakage flux measurement.

5.1.1 Rotating torque and leakage fluxes of sine wave supplied machines
In the beginning the known fact was presented that the torque of rotating motors is produced by stator and rotor magnetic fields. A torque is dependent on the mechanical dimensions of the machine and the torque of the stator is transmitted through the frame of the machine to the foundation. Next magnetic leakage fluxes of an induction motor were studied. There are several leakage fluxes in the air gap area that cannot be distinguished. Measuring these fluxes would be difficult because the sensor should be installed inside the motor or at least near the air gap area. The most interesting fluxes from the condition monitoring point of view are stator end winding, rotor end winding and rotor end-ring leakage fluxes. These fluxes leak in an axial direction outside of the motor and can be detected externally by axial flux sensors. The pattern of the stator end winding together with configuration of the rotor end ring and the location of the adjacent magnetic parts give a complex three-dimensional pattern for end leakage flux and makes difficult to determine it. However, the condition monitoring of motors by axial leakage flux is based on the relative changes of certain flux frequency components, and the determining of the absolute amplitude values is not necessary.

95

5.1.2 Magnetic fields and mmf waves of a sine wave supplied healthy motor
It is important in condition monitoring to be able to detect the normal values of healthy motors from the various changes caused by failure situation. Most of the induction motors are sine wave supplied e.g. directly connected to ac voltage. It was found that even with such healthy motors, the magnetic flux is rich in frequencies. There are several harmonics in the air gap and the end winding area caused by stator phase currents and rotating magnetic field. Rotating mmf induces base frequency and harmonics in the rotor winding currents and causes flux frequencies that are related to the slip of the motor. The amplitudes of the harmonics are not easy to predetermine because several factors affect them. Losses of motor and attenuation of certain harmonics are controlled by winding factors. Some equations to calculate these values were presented in literature, but they require detailed information from the winding construction. It is more recommendable to make a reference measurement on a healthy motor and find out experimentally the relative distribution of frequencies. The permeance variation of stator and rotor slots cause high-frequency fluxes called a family of slot pass frequencies due to the presence of slot openings.

5.1.3 Harmonic fluxes caused by currents of variable drives

In production lines where rotating speed control is necessary, induction motors controlled by variable speed drives have become a common solution. Only a little published material dealing with the magnetic fluxes of motors controlled by speed drives was found and so it was especially important to take such motors into the experimental part of the survey. The type of variable speed drive has to be taken into account when predetermining the base frequency and harmonics of axial leakage fluxes of an induction motor. In such applications where the output frequency of the drive is unchanged, as with voltagecontrolled drives using antiparallel thyristors or voltage-source square-wave inverters, the harmonic frequency components are quite similar to sine wave supplied motors. With voltage-source square-wave inverters and PWM inverters it is possible to regulate the output frequency of the drive and this causes changes to the base frequency of the stator currents, air gap magnetic fluxes and axial leakage fluxes. With a control of some PWM inverter types it is possible to eliminate or attenuate certain flux harmonics and in axial flux distribution there can exist special harmonics, even subharmonics caused by them. It is even possible that this distribution changes during the operation. It is recommended to start with a reference measurement of a healthy motor to experimentally determine the distribution of harmonics. With variable speed drive motors, it also has to be taken into account that the sensitivity of the flux coil is the lowest at low frequencies and this can cause sensitivity problems in the low speed area of motor.

96

5.1.4 Low frequency components in normal operation and various failure modes
To determine the applicable parameters for condition monitoring, it is important to identify the frequency components in normal operation and various failure situations. For this purpose a collection of equations of the low frequency components for sine wave supplied motors in normal operation and in various failure modes are presented on Tables 19 and 20.
Table 19. Low frequency equations of sine wave supplied healthy motors in normal operation.
Healthy machine in normal operation Air-gap flux caused by each phase of the stator current Equation Equation number (2) Other information k = odd integer 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, k = 0, 1, 2, 3,

fpc = kfs

Stator current caused axial flux (6) frequencies of a 3-phase motor operating in balanced condition Rotor current caused axial flux frequencies (14a), (14b) and (14c)

fsync =
frc = frc =

fs ( 6k 1) p

fs s p fs [ ( 1 6k + 1)( 1 s )] p

k = 1, 2, 3,

frc =

fs [ ( 1 + 6k 1)( 1 s )] p

97
Table 20. Low frequency equations of sine wave supplied motors for various failure modes.
Equation number Shorted turns of stator winding (30) (Melero) Rotor asymmetries (Vas) Rotor asymmetries (Vas) Broken rotor bar (Stein) (31) (32) (34) Failure mode Equation Other information

fSWF = kfs nfr fRA = sfs fRA = sfs kfs ( 1 s)

fBB = fs k ( ) 1 s s p

n a multiple of the number of the machines poles k = 1, 3, 5,

k = 1, 3, 5, 7, k = 1,2,3,

Broken rotor bar (CSi) Broken end ring (Kliman) Voltage source asymmetry (Henao) Eccentricity (Dorrell) Dynamic eccentricity (Benbouzid)

(36) (37) (40) (43) (44)

fRF = fs ( 1 2s ) fBFR = sfs fSVA = kfs j( 1 s )fs

k = 1, 3, and j =1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,

fE = fs fr
fDE = fs k

(1 s )
p

k = 1, 3, 5,

External vibration (Riley)

(47)

fCE = kfs fve

k = 1,2,3

Based on the equations in Tables 19 and 20 some values of frequencies have been determined for an induction motor with 2 pole pairs. The results are shown in Tables 21 and 22.
Table 21. Frequencies for normal operation of a healthy induction motor of 2 pole pairs.
Order of space harmonic k=1 Flux caused by a stator phase current fs Stator current caused flux Flux caused by rotor curoperating in balanced con- rent dition

fs 2 5 7 fs 2 fs 2

fs 2

k=3 k=5

3fs 5fs

fs ( 6 5s ) 2 fs ( 7s 6 ) 2

k=7

7fs

98
Table 22. Frequencies for various failure situations of an induction motor of 2 pole pairs.
Order of Shorted turns space har- of stator monic winding (Melero) Rotor asymmetry (Vas) Broken rotor Broken bar (Stein) rotor bar (CSI) Broken end ring (Kliman) Voltage source Eccentric- Dynamic asymmetry ity (Dorrell) eccentricity (Henao) (Benbouzid)

k=1

fs ( 3 s) 2

sfs fs (2s - 1)

fs ( 1 + s) 2

fs (1 + 2s) sfs

sfs fs (2 s) fs (3 2s) fs (2s 1) fs (4 3s) fs (3s 2) fs (6 5s) fs (5s 4)

fs ( fs ( 3 s) 3 s) 2 2
fs ( ) 1+ s 2

fs ( ) 1+ s 2 fs ( 4 s) 2
2sfs
fs ( 5 3s ) 2

fs (1 - 2s) fs ( 1 3s ) 2

fs ( 1 s) 2

fs ( 3s 1) 2
fs ( 7 5s ) 2

k= 2 k=3

fs (4 3s)

fs ( 9 3s ) 2

fs (3 - 2s) fs (4s 3)

fs fs (1 2s) fs ( 3 s) 2

fs (4 s) fs (2 + s) fs (5 2s) fs (1 + 2s) fs (3 s) 3sfs

fs ( 5 3s ) 2
fs ( 1 3s ) 2

fs ( 7 s) 2 fs ( 5 + s) 2 fs (4 s) fs (2 + s)

fs ( 3 5s ) 2

fs ( 9 + 3s ) 2

fs ( 3 + 3s ) 2
fs ( 11 5s ) 2
fs ( 1 + 5s ) 2

k=4

fs (6 3s) 3sfs

fs (2 s) fs (2 - 3s)

Based on Table 21, it is seen that even with a healthy motor the axial flux is rich in frequencies. Table 22 shows that with various failures, in addition to the frequencies of Table 21, there can exist a slip frequency component (sfs) and its harmonics or various line frequency sidebands too. So the failures generate frequencies other than the line

99 frequency or its harmonics, and this property makes it possible to separate the failure frequencies from line supply frequencies and its harmonics. The study of the rotor current caused frequencies shows that similar frequency components are presented in cases of rotor asymmetries and voltage source asymmetries too.

5.1.5 Instructions to diagnose the low frequency results

Based on the literature review and the resolved frequency components the following presents an evaluation of various failures and instructions to diagnose the results of axial leakage flux measurement. For the stator interturn failure Melero et al. (2000) presents the six most sensitive frequencies for severe failure: fs + 5fr, 5fs 3fr, fs + 3fr, 5fs fr, fs fr, and 3fs + fr so that the most sensitive frequency component is fs + 3fr. The CSi manual states that, for this failure type, the amplitudes of frequencies at running speed sidebands about line frequency can be significantly larger than for a motor in good condition. These frequency components are fs fr and fs + fr, and they are presented in Table 22 (CSi 1998). However, the same frequencies are presented for broken rotor bar failure, dynamic eccentricity failure and in normal operation of a healthy motor, too. The conclusion is that these frequency components can be used for detection of stator turn to turn failure, but the possibility of other failures has to be taken into account. All frequencies presented for detection of rotor asymmetry failure are applicable, since they do not exist in normal operation of a healthy motor or in other failures. However, no results were found for studies dealing with this failure mode and it is not possible to evaluate the sensitivity of the various components. The literature review gives two different equations for a broken rotor bar failure, presented by Stein et al. (1988) and CSi (1998). However, resolving of them gives the same frequency component: fs(12s). This same component is recommended for detection of broken rotor bar failure using current spectrum analysis and in addition it does not exist on normal operation of a healthy motor or with other failures. Based on these facts it is recommended to use this frequency component for the monitoring of the rotor condition. Kliman et al. 1988) presented one frequency component, sfs, for detection of broken end ring failure. The same component was found also in the cases of rotor and voltage source asymmetry. The conclusion is that this frequency can be used for condition monitoring, but the possibility of other failure modes has to be taken into account. It is recommended to verify the situation by stator current spectrum analysis. Equations to detect voltage source asymmetry or unbalanced voltage are presented by Vas (1993) and Henao et al. (2000) shown in Table 22. Some of these frequencies exist in rotor asymmetry failure and within a rotor current caused fluxes of a healthy machine in normal operation. Henao et al. (2000) have studied the sensitivity of various frequencies and found that the most sensitive frequency for voltage source asymmetry is fs(65s), but this component is also generated by a rotor current of a healthy machine in normal operation. So, this frequency component can be used, but the amplitude of rotor current

100 has to be taken into account, for example by monitoring the amplitude difference between it and the line frequency. The CSi (1998) manual recommends usage of the frequency component fs(2s). This frequency exists also in a broken bar failure situation, shown in Table 22. So also this component can be used to detect voltage source asymmetry, but the possibility of rotor bar failure has to be resolved. This can be done, for example, by surface temperature measurement of the motor because imbalanced voltage increases the temperature of a motor. During the literature review equations were found for rotor eccentricities but no experimental results. The equations are solved in Table 22. The same frequencies exist also in turn to turn failures of stator winding and broken rotor bar failure. The conclusion is that they can be used for detection of eccentricity, but the possibility of other failures has to be resolved. It is presented by Riley et al. (1998) that external vibration causes external vibration frequency sidebands about the line frequency, kfsfve, in the stator current. Rao (1996) says that mechanical disturbances of induction motors such as imbalance and misalignment cause vibration related to the rotating speed. These are called internal vibration. Riley et al. (1998) states that the variable rotating imbalance on the shaft causes internal vibration frequency sidebands about the line frequency, nfsfr, to the stator current. By assuming that stator current on the end winding area generates axial leakage flux of similar frequency distribution, can be assumed that these equations could be used also for axial flux measurement. No test results were found for detection of vibration by axial leakage flux measurement. Mechanical vibration measurements are reliable and commonly used to detect vibrations and so detection of mechanical failures is not in the focus of this study. A summary conclusion of the axial flux measurements on the low frequency area is that various failure modes exist in some typical frequencies, but identifying the failure mode often requires supporting measurements. The most efficient supporting methods are temperature measurement or stator current spectrum analysis for electrical failures and vibration measurements for mechanical failures.

5.1.6 High frequency components in normal operation and various failure modes
The usage of high frequencies in axial flux measurements is based on the observation that stator and rotor slots cause high frequency fluxes, called stator and rotor slot pass frequencies. Again it is necessary to separate frequencies of healthy machines in normal operation from the frequencies existing in various failure modes. Equations for a healthy motor in normal operation were presented in the CSi manual and are shown in Table 23 (CSi 1998). As can be seen, the air gap flux is rich in various high frequencies and their harmonics, too. There are stator and rotor slot pass frequencies and several sidebands around them.

101
Table 23. Equations of high frequencies of healthy motors in normal operation.
Equation Equation number Stator slot frequencies of the base frequency (15) Normal operation Other information

2 times LF family of stator slot pass frequencies 2 times LF family of stator slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of running speed sidebands 2 times LF family of stator slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of slip frequency sidebands 2 times LF family of stator slot pass frequencies modulated by line frequency sidebands. Rotor slot frequencies for the base frequency 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of running speed sidebands 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies are modulated by multiplies of slip frequency sidebands 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies are modulated by line frequency sidebands

(17) (18)

f 2 LFS = (Qs fr fs ) 2 nfs

Q fSS = fs ps 1

(Qs fr fs ) 2nfs]+ kfr fRSS = [

(Qs fr fs ) 2nfs ]+ ksfs fSFS = [
fLFS = [(Qs fr fs ) 2 nfs ]+ fs fRS = fsync ( 1 s )(Qr p ) f 2 LFR = (Qr fr fs ) 2 nfs

n = 0, 1, 2, 3, k = 1, 2, 3

(19)

k = 1, 2, 3

(20)

(21 ) (23) (24)

n = 0, 1, 2, 3, k = 1, 2, 3

(Qr fr fs ) 2nfs]+ kfr fRSR = [

(Qr fr fs ) 2nfs]+ ksfs fSFR = [

(25)

k = 1, 2, 3

(26)

(Qr fr fs ) 2nfs]+ fs fLFR = [

Equations for axial leakage flux for machines with stator winding interturn failure are presented in CSi manual and are shown in Table 24 (CSi 1998). These frequencies exist also in healthy motor. Detection of failure is based on detecting the relative increase of these frequencies. CSi presents experimental results of which three the most sensitive frequency components to detect this failure have been: (Qrfr fs) + 2fs, (Qrfr fs) + 2fs + 2fr and (Qrfr fs) + 8fs (CSi 1998). It can be assumed that at least these frequencies can be used for detection of turn to turn failure. No equation was found to detect eccentricities, but one for detecting air gap eccentricity by stator current is presented by Vas (1993). By assuming that stator current on the end winding area generates axial leakage flux of a similar frequency distribution, it can be assumed that the same equation could be used also for axial flux measurement and it has been added to Table 24. No experimental results dealing with these failures were found.

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Table 24. Equations for high frequencies of motors in various failure modes.
Failure mode Equation number (17) Equation Other information

Detection of turn to turn failure of stator winding by 2 times LF family of stator slot pass frequencies Detection of turn to turn failure of stator winding by 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies Detection of turn to turn failure of stator winding by 2 times LF family of stator slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of running speed sidebands Detection of turn to turn failure of stator winding by 2 times LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of running speed sidebands Static air-gap eccentricity

f 2 LFS = (Qs fr fs ) 2 nfs f 2 LFR = (Qr fr fs ) 2 nfs

n = 0, 1, 2, 3,

(23)

n = 0, 1, 2, 3,

(18)

(Qs fr fs ) 2nfs]+ kfr fRSS = [

k = 1,2,3

(24)

(Qr fr fs ) 2nfs]+ kfr k = 1,2,3 fRSR = [

nQr ( 1 s) k p
k = 1, 3, 5,

(45)

fSE = f 1

Dynamic air-gap eccentricity

(46)

fDE = f 1

(nQr 1)(1 s )
p

k = 1, 3, 5,

5.2 Measurements of magnetic fields and fluxes

In following contains discussion of the results of the literature review and uncertainty of the experimental results.

5.2.1 Literature review of magnetic fields and fluxes

Air core probes e.g. flux coils have a simple and reliable construction and they have been used combined with voltmeters for rms magnetic field measurements from power lines. The winding material of a the flux coil is the same with the motor windings, but the voltage, temperature and operation stresses are lower, and so it can be assumed that the reliability of a sensor is better than of a motor. This makes the usage of the flux coil sensor for continuous motor monitoring highly suitable. The output voltage of a flux coil is equal to the derivative of the flux and for rms field detection integrating amplifiers have been used for preserving the waveform of the magnetic field. However, in an integrating amplifier, the recovery of higher order harmonics will be lost due to signal-to-noise problems. For condition monitoring of motors it is important to recover the higher harmonics of the basic frequency and also the

103 slot pass harmonics. This makes the usage of the integrating stage as a part of signal processing poorly applicable and it is preferable to perform the signal processing straight from the output voltage of flux coil sensors. The sensitivity of the flux coil sensor can be increased by adding the number of turns of the coil or the area of the loop of the coil. The size of monitored motor restricts the dimensions of the coil, and for industrial applications the number of turns seems to be a more practical way of controlling the sensitivity. The recommended installation of a flux coil is to set it axially centred to the outside of the motor end. It is also possible to install the flux coil inside the motor. Based on the constructions presented in the published articles and the experimental results of this survey, it can be concluded that a diameter of about 20 to 30 cm with the number of turns about 200 to 300 is highly suitable for condition monitoring purposes. If the diameter of the coil is increased, the number of turns can be decreased proportionally to the area of the loop. Using various numbers of turns we can be find the applicable flux coil for various diameters of motors. The sensitivity of the flux coil sensor is frequency dependent. The disadvantage is that the dc fields cannot be detected and the sensitivity for low frequencies is poor. This can affect to the detection of fluxes induced by rotor cage winding currents and monitoring of slowly rotating machines. A better sensitivity property for higher frequencies can be utilised by using slot pass frequencies for condition monitoring of motors. The useful frequency range for air core winding can be much higher than for iron core probes because there are not any saturation problems. In addition, it has been shown that the attenuation of the output voltage is insignificant and the frequency range does not restrict the usage of a flux coil in common ac motor monitoring applications in practise. Magnetic flux measurement by a fluxgate magnetometer would require complicated electronic circuits because the output voltage of a fluxgate sensor is based on several factors. The saturation phenomena causes also even harmonics in the output voltage, and for this reason a narrow-band technique has been used. The result is proportional to the mean value of the field to be measured. For condition monitoring of motors by axial flux, it is necessary to have a simple sensor application and for diagnostic purposes it is necessary to use a relatively wide-band (up to 20 kHz) spectrum analysis. Axial leakage fluxes of motors are rich in various frequencies and thus a well known, linear response of the sensor for the analysis purposes is required. In addition, the reliable life time of a fluxgate magnetometer measurement system is probably much lower than the life time of a motor. Therefore the fluxgate magnetometer measurement is not suitable for condition monitoring of motors. With the Hall effect sensors and measurements, the frequency area ranges from dc to several kHz and the sensitivity of a Hall sensor is good enough for condition monitoring purposes. However, Hall sensors have quite a high temperature dependency and they require an external current supply for the sensor circuit. In addition, the reliable life time of sensors is probably lower than that of electrical motors. These properties make them impractical for on-line condition monitoring of motors. However, for periodical measurements it could be possible to use Hall sensors. In applications where the measured magnetic flux frequency is very low, as with motors controlled by variable speed drives and operating in a very low speed area, the sensitivity of a flux coil can be poor and the usage of a Hall effect sensor could be a good alternative.

104 As a summary from comparison of the surveyed methods it is clear that the flux coil is practically the only well suited equipment for condition monitoring of motors. However, if there is a need to detect dc fields or a very low frequency ac field, the usage of Hall sensors is an interesting possibility.

5.2.2 Uncertainty of the experimental measurements

Measurement uncertainty is generated by several factors and in the following we study the uncertainties of experimental axial magnetic flux measurements. This study is based on Taylor and Kuyatt (1994), Barford (1985), Northrop (1997), Bentley (1983) and the laboratory tests of the axial flux sensor used. Because in condition monitoring of motors the relative changes in measurement results are used to indicate progressing failure situations, the accuracy of absolute values is not as critical as it is for example in process control. For this reason the quantitative uncertainty of the experimental measurements has not been studied. In addition to study of qualitative uncertainties of the results of experimental measurements some methods to eliminate these uncertainties are recommended.

5.2.2.1 Reproducibility of results of measurements

Taylor and Kuyatt (1994) state that reproducibility of results of measurements is closeness of the agreement between the result of measurements of the same measurand carried out under changed conditions of measurement. These changed conditions may include principle of measurement, method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, reference standard, location, conditions of use and time.. In the following some characteristics are introduced that has effect to the reproducibility of experimental axial flux measurements and some recommendations how to eliminate them are given.
A. Frequency response of an axial flux sensor

In laboratory and field tests a CSI 343 Flux coil sensor was used. The frequency response of this sensor was measured in the laboratory. Sinewave AC voltage was supplied by a signal generator (Wavetek Model 144) to the magnetic field normal MKN 951 that generated the magnetic flux. The flux coil sensor was centred on the generated flux and the output voltage of the sensor was measured by a Mixed Signal Oscilloscope, type Agilent 546220. The test results are presented in Appendix 1 and are further studied in the following. The output voltage of a flux coil versus the frequency of a magnetic flux for the frequency area of 20 Hz to 1000 Hz is shown in Fig. 59 and for a frequency area of 0.5 kHz to 20 kHz is shown in Fig. 60. The test results show that the output voltage of the sensor increases linearly until a frequency of about 10 kHz. The conclusion is that the

105 flux coil used gives linearly an increasing output voltage over the whole frequency area needed for the condition monitoring of induction motors. In addition, Fig. 60 shows that the output voltage begins to increase strongly due to resonance of the coil from a frequency of about 15 kHz. The conclusion is that the practical useful frequency area for the tested sensor is from about 1 Hz to about 15 kHz.
25

Output voltage [mV]

20 15 10 5 0 50 Hz 100 Hz 200 Hz 300 Hz 400 Hz 500 Hz 600 Hz 700 Hz 800 Hz 900 Hz Frequency of m agnetic flux ( B = 4.4 uT) 1000 Hz

Fig. 59. Output voltage of a flux coil versus the frequency of a magnetic flux for 20 Hz to 1 kHz area.

6000

Ouput voltage [mV]

5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

H z kH 2. z 5 kH 3. z 5 kH 4. z 5 kH 5. z 5 kH 6. z 5 kH 7. z 5 kH 8. z 5 kH 9. z 5 k 10 Hz .5 k 11 Hz .5 k 12 Hz .5 k 13 Hz .5 k 14 Hz .5 k 15 Hz .5 k 16 Hz .5 k 17 Hz .5 k 18 Hz .5 k 19 Hz .5 kH z 1. 5 k 0. 5

Frequency of magnetic flux (B = 4.4 uT)

Fig. 60. Output voltage of a flux coil versus the frequency of a magnetic flux for 0.5 kHz to 20 kHz area.

B. Conditions of measurements

Northop (1997) states that changes associated with temperature rise and ageing can cause long-term component value changes and loss of calibration of measurement electronics. In addition the signal conditioning electronics of the system can cause random noise. By proper design of electronics and periodical calibration these kinds of errors can be eliminated.

106 Slow load variation of the motor probably causes changes in the distribution of flux, because it is known that this kind of phenomena exists in the current spectrum. This problem does not affect the signal processing stage, because the result of each sample is probably reliable. However, in the analysis stage when the results of various measurements are compared with each other or with the reference value, this can cause significant error. This error can be eliminated so that only the results made by similar loading are compared with each other. Significant load variation during the sample period of signal processing probably causes variation in the distribution of the axial flux of the monitored motor. This phenomena exists especially in such cases where the sample period of signal processing is several seconds long, as in low frequency analysis. This in turn causes changes in the frequency spectrum generated by signal processing and makes such results unreliable. This error is hard to eliminate and it is preferable to reject such results. It is recommended to set the axial flux coil axially centred on the motor end. When making measurements with a portable sensor and if this setting is not carefully done, the results of various measurements can no longer be compared reliably with each other. This error can be eliminated by marking the place where the flux coil should be set or by making some mechanical control system to set the flux coil to be always at the same place. When the coil is set against the motor surface it is probable that eddy current losses of iron will significantly attenuate the amplitude of the resonance frequency. Leakage fluxes of other motors or electrical equipment nearby the measured motor can also induce voltage components in the flux coil and have affect to the results. These can be called noise and they are hard to eliminate. This kind of situation was presented in the results of the experimental measurements of this survey. Barford (1985) states that random errors can arise from human mistakes such as reading the instrument before it has reached a steady state or there is overswing in the meter. However, for analysis of axial flux measurements software was used and the results were shown in digital or graphical form and so it is impossible that such errors occurs.

5.2.2.2 Repeatability of results of measurements

Taylor and Kuyatt (1994) state that the repeatability of the results of the measurements is the closeness of the agreement between the result of successive measurements of the same measurand carried out under the same conditions of the measurement. These conditions are called the repeatability conditions and they include the same measurement procedure, the same observer, the same measurement instrument used under the same conditions, the same location and repetition over a short period of time. Repeatability of results is an important factor in calibration of various measurement instruments. However, in condition monitoring of motors the reproducibility of results is more important factor because results of measurements over long time and various conditions are compared against each others.

107

5.2.2.3 Accuracy and errors of experimental measurements

Taylor and Kuyatt (1994) state that the accuracy of the measurement is the closeness of the agreement value between the result of a measurement and the value of the measurand. They also state that the error of the measurement is the result of a measurement minus the value of the measurand. In Fig. 61 a simplified diagram from the signal processing of an axial flux measurement system is shown. There are several stages in the series and each of them effects the accuracy of the measurement and produce the error of the measurement result. In the results of experimental measurements the high accuracy of absolute values were not important because relative changes between various failure situations were studied. In the following sources of errors of the measurements are represented and what kind of effects they have to the condition monitoring purposes.
Flux coil sensor Axial flux -> ac mV mV Amplifier and filtering ac mV mV

AD converter ac mV -> digital Dig

FFT transform Digital -> spectrum dB Frequency

Fig. 61. Simplified diagram from signal processing of axial flux measurement.

The axial magnetic leakage flux of a motor induces ac voltage to the terminals of the flux coil, as was presented by equation 52. When the flux coil sensor is installed outside the motor case, the axial flux is small, and it induces only a small output voltage, normally mV level, to the terminals of the sensor. Installation of the sensor inside the motor case increases the sensor output voltage significantly; a rough estimation is from some hundreds of mV to some volts. If we want to measure the rms amplitude of the axial flux, the sensor should be calibrated towards the magnetic flux. However, for condition monitoring purposes we require the distribution of the frequency spectrum or the form of the time based waveform, and this kind of calibration is not necessary when used same type of the flux coil sensor. The response of flux coil is strongly frequency dependent, as is seen from Appendix 1 and Figs 59 and 60. This has to be taken into account when analysing the results. In the test results of other surveys that were used for comparison of test results of this survey had been used a flux coil sensor too. Thus the frequency response between this and the other surveys has been similar and such should not cause significant error between various surveys. Bentley (1983) states that in the amplifier and filtering stage, the measured signal is transmitted to an applicable mode for AD conversion. This stage does not produce additional error in the condition monitoring measurement if the frequency distribution of measured signal does not change. However, for AD converting the output of this stage is important, because it determines the area of input level of the AD converting. If the output voltage is too low, it restricts quantisation resolution of the ac signal and if it is too high, the highest values of the signal will be cut out. In the filtering stage, the unwanted frequency bands are attenuated and so the AD-converter is passed mainly through the frequency area that is of interest. This reduces errors later in FFT-conversion. The

108 portable analyser used in field tests performs automatically filtering using software after the operator has determined the frequency area of interest and thus aliasing error does not exist in field test results. Bentley (1983) states that AD-conversion includes operations that are sampling and quantisation. If the selected sampling speed is too low, it can cause aliasing error in the output, this means that there will be constructed two different signals from sample values. Analog to digital conversion includes sample and hold states. During the sample state, the measured output signal follows the input signal. In the hold stage, the output signal is held constant at the value of the input signal at the instant of time the hold command was sent. Errors can occur due to the finite-time for the transition between sample and hold states, and reduction in the hold signal. In the quantisation stage, the continuous sample voltages are rounded to quantisied voltage levels and the operation of quantisation produces an error, termed quantisation error. (Bentley 1983.) The quantisation stage is critical for condition monitoring purposes, because it determines the resolution of the output signal being processed further. If the resolution is too low, the frequency components of small amplitudes cannot be detected. For condition monitoring purposes we require a resolution of at least about 70 dB which means usage of at least a 12 bit ADconverter. The portable analyser used in the field test has a 16 bit AD-converter that gives a resolution of more than 90 dB, which means that quantisation error was low. In the FFT stage, the sampled and quantisied digital time based signal is converted to a frequency spectrum. In this stage, it is important that the resolution of the spectrum i.e. the number of lines is high enough. However, if the sample speed is low and the number of lines is high, the sampling and quantisation period takes a longer time and the loading of motor can change and cause additional error in the result. In turn, if the number of lines is too low, the resolution of the spectrum after FFT is poor and all frequency components can no longer be detect. In field tests quite high line resolution numbers were used and so the frequency components of interest were well detected and the errors were so small that the analysis of the results was reliable. In addition, the amplitudes of the surveyed frequencies for each analysis were obtained as numbers from software and they seemed to be reliable enough for analysis. The most critical operation condition from the point of view of the spectrum is in the unloaded operation, because the slip can be very small and it can be difficult to detect some components from supply frequency. This situation requires a high line resolution and it can be necessary to pass by such results and wait until there is loaded operation. During the field tests we normally looked at one low frequency and one high frequency measurement from each motor on the measurement route. The results were then compared to the results of earlier measurements of the same motor and if there did not exist significant variation between them, we concluded that the results are reliable. The reliability of the results can be increased by making several measurements for each motor and by calculating for example the mean value of the amplitude of each frequency component. However, this kind of operation would significantly increase both measurement and analysis costs. During the laboratory test series several measurements for the test motor were made and these results were compared with each other. It was noted that the variation of the frequency distribution between various measurements was small and the results are reliable enough for the implemented studies.

109

5.3 Experimental measurement results 5.3.1 Healthy motors supplied by sine wave currents
The further investigation of the experimental measurements for sine wave supplied motors is made in the following.

5.3.1.1 Time base waveforms

The study of usage of time based flux coil voltage waveforms for condition monitoring of induction motors was made by an inspection of some measurement results. With high speed sampling of signal processing it is possible to study separate ac cycles, but in low speed sampling this is not possible. Several periodical spikes on the waveform existed in Fig. 11, in the results of the Chipper Drive Motor M1. In addition to these smaller spikes, two quite strong negative spikes existed during the rising and two positive spikes during the decreasing ac period. The time difference between spikes seems to be similar for all ac cycles. It is probable that these are caused by the Chipper application. In Fig. 13, in the results of a Compressor Motor 1, voltage spikes do not exist. However, the waveform includes other disturbances, but it is difficult to solve the frequency components from the time based waveform. With time based waveforms it is possible to find out what kind of strong disturbances the application can cause to the flux coil voltage. If these disturbances are not periodical, they cannot be detected after FFT transform and so this information cannot be had from the spectral analysis. From the time base waveform it is difficult to detect relatively small amplitudes and so the smaller frequency components caused by various motor failures are hidden under the base frequency and cannot be detected. The conclusion is that the time base analysis is not effective for the monitoring of failures of motors and so the usage of spectrum analysis is needed.

5.3.1.2 Amplitudes caused by harmonics of phase currents and rotor slots

To create parameters for condition monitoring it would be an advantage if similar parameters could be used for various machines. However, there are quite significant differences in the frequency distributions of various machines and applications, and it is not possible to make general parameters for various machines used in various applications. To study whether it is possible to use similar parameters for similar motors and applications we made a comparison to the amplitude of supply frequency against

110 amplitudes of various harmonics for four similar Compressor motors. The results are shown in Fig. 62.
Amplitude attenuation dB
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 2nd 3rd 9th Compressor 1 Compressor 2 Compressor 3 Compressor 4

Number of harmonic

Fig. 62. Amplitude attenuation of harmonics versus the supply frequency for four similar squirrel-cage motors.

There are quite significant differences between the motors. The conclusion is that it is undesirable to use the same parameters even for similar machines, but we need to make a reference measurement for each machine. An interesting result is that multiplies of the rotor slot pass frequency components often reach higher amplitudes than harmonics around it, because the harmonics of the supply frequency attenuate, as shown in Figs 15 and 16, especially in the frequency area above 1000 Hz. For example by filtering off the lower frequency components the rotor slot pass frequencies will have the highest values and can be detected easily.

5.3.1.3 Detection of sidebands around the supply frequency

In section 4.1.2.2 detection of sidebands around the supply frequency was presented. This is important because these sidebands can be used for evaluation of the rotor bar condition. The results of field measurements showed that rotor bar caused sidebands can be well detected and they are situated two times the slip frequency apart from the supply frequency, as supposed. Stator current spectrum analysis has been used for years to evaluate the broken bars of a squirrel-cage rotor and it is quite a reliable method. A comparison between stator current and axial flux measurements was made with a study of the results of four compressor motors. Fig. 63 shows the summary of this comparison.

111
70

Amplitude difference dB

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Stator current left sideband 57 58.3 54.2 58.1 Stator current right sideband 58.3 58 53.8 55.6 Magnetic flux left sideband 36.4 51.6 42.6 39.78 Magnetic flux right sideband 40 37.83 55.3 39.48

Compressor 1 Compressor 2 Compressor 3 Compressor 4

Fig. 63. Comparison of stator current and axial leakage flux analysis for frequencies generated by rotor bar currents. Amplitude difference between the rotor bar caused sidebands, fs ( 1 2 s ), and line frequency, fs , for four similar squirrel-cage motors is shown.

The sidebands were effectively found with both methods, but there were quite significant amplitude differences. In the stator current analysis there are only slight differences between the left sideband and right sideband amplitudes, but in the flux analysis there exist quite significant differences between them, especially in Compressor 2 and 3. The conclusion is that the result of the stator current analysis cannot be used directly as a reference value for axial fluxes, but we need to have a reference measurement using the axial flux method. The results of the stator currents are quite similar with similar motors and so the result of one motor can be quite reliably used as a reference value for another similar motor. With axial flux results there are so many differences between the various motors that it is necessary to make a reference measurement for all motors. To evaluate condition of rotor bars the use of amplitude difference between the left sideband of supply frequency, fs ( 1 2s ), and supply frequency, fs is recommended.

5.3.1.4 Detection of slip frequency and its harmonics

Slip frequency can be used to detect a broken end ring of rotor cage. Experimental measurements show that the slip frequency could be clearly detected from most of the analysed motors. In some cases, as in Fig. 21, also several harmonics were clearly detected. In addition to detection of broken end ring failures, which happen very seldom, detection of slip frequency could be used to determine the rotating speed of a motor. This can be an interesting property for the condition monitoring system. This requires accurate sampling of the low frequency area. Usually in condition monitoring systems, the rotating

112 speed is counted by an external sensor installed to the shaft or ventilation blades and this requires a separate channel from the measurement system.

5.3.1.5 Amplitudes of frequency components around the synchronous rotating frequency

In most of the measured motors, the amplitude of synchronous rotating frequency was not strongest nearby its frequency area, but it was surrounded by stronger frequency components, as seen in Fig. 23. Probably these frequency components were generated by rotor current, because at least in some cases they were slip frequency apart from synchronous frequency. However, in the literature review no use was found for detection of the amplitude of synchronous speed for condition monitoring of a motor.

5.3.1.6 Amplitudes of frequency components around the third harmonic of supply frequency
Based on the experimental data, the frequency components around third harmonic of the supply frequency were studied. In some cases we found clear rotor bar caused sidebands around this frequency, as seen in Fig. 24. It can be assumed that also these components could be used to detect the rotor condition. However, also in these cases, the sidebands around the supply frequency were detected at least as easily. In some cases, as seen in Fig. 25, an extra strong frequency component existed near the third harmonic. This makes the usage of a third harmonic quite complicated and it seems that there is no special need to use this component for condition monitoring of motors.

5.3.2 Motors supplied by frequency converters

Further investigation of the experimental measurement results for frequency converter supplied motors is made in the following.

5.3.2.1 Time based waveforms

From the time based waveform, sampled at the high sample speed of about 12 000 samples per second, it was possible to detect the switching frequency of a PWM converter, as seen in Fig. 26, by measuring the length of the high frequency cycles. This information has no use for condition monitoring of a motor, but perhaps it could be used to detect switching problems of a PWM converter. From the waveform of a low sampling speed, about 400 samples per second, it is possible to determine the output

113 current frequency of the converter, as seen in Fig. 27, by measuring the length of base frequency cycle. The conclusion is that a time based waveform is of no use in condition monitoring of motors, but it could be possible to use it for monitoring the operation of the frequency converter. This could be a useful property and an interesting subject for further research.

5.3.2.2 High frequency spectrum

The high frequency spectrum of a Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor, shown in Fig. 28, includes the output current frequency of the converter and its harmonics. Amplitudes of odd harmonics are much stronger than even harmonics and harmonics attenuate towards higher frequencies, as can be expected. All these behaviours are similar to directly supplied motors. As with directly supplied motors, there are rotor slot pass frequencies, as seen in Fig. 28. Because amplitudes of these components for the studied motors were usually stronger than amplitudes of the harmonics around them, they were easily detected. It is probable that the rotor slot pass frequencies of a frequency converter supplied motor can be determined by modifying the equations presented for directly supplied motors. The equation of 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies, presented in equation 23, can so be modified to be 2 times the Converter Output Frequency family of rotor slot pass frequencies. By taking account of this assumption, the rotor slot pass frequencies can be determined by the following equation:

fRCOF = (Qr fr fco ) 2nfco

(55)

where fr is the rotating frequency, fCO is the output current frequency of the converter and n = 0, 1, 2, 3, Table 25 presents determination of 2 times the Converter Output Frequency of slot pass frequencies of Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor by combining equations (5), (14a), (14b),(14c) and (23), and measurement data presented in Figs 28 and 34. From Fig. 28, it is determined that the output frequency of converter fCO = 33.46 Hz and from Fig. 34, it is determined that the slip frequency sfco = 0.73 Hz . The rotating frequency is then:
fr = fco sfco 33.46 Hz 0.73 Hz = =16.37 Hz p 2

Additional technical data for the motor under study was the following: p = 2 , Qr = 28 and Qs = 36 .

114
Table 25. Determination of 2 times Converter Output Frequency of rotor slot pass frequencies of a Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor.
Qq 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 n 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 fco 33.46 Hz 33.46 Hz 33.46 Hz 33.46 Hz 33.46 Hz 33.46 Hz 33.46 Hz fr 16.37 Hz 16.37 Hz 16.37 Hz 16.37 Hz 16.37 Hz 16.37 Hz 16.37 Hz fRCOF calculation (28*16.37 33.46) (28*16.37 33.46) + 2*33.46 (28*16.37 33.46) 2*33.46 (28*16.37 33.46) + 4*33.46 (28*16.37 33.46) 4*33.46 (28*16.37 33.46) + 6*33.46 (36*16.37 33.46) 6*33.46 fRCOF 424.9 Hz 491.8 Hz 358.0 Hz 558.7 Hz 291.1 Hz 625.7 Hz 224.1 Hz

Comparison of determined frequencies with the measured values, shown in Fig. 28, shows that these frequencies are very near each other. This verifies that the modified equation (55) is valid. Experimental results of the Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor, shown in Fig. 29, showed that around the switching frequency of the PWM converter there were also several sidebands that are 2 times the output current frequency of the PWM converter apart from each other. These can be determined by the following equation:

fFC = fsc 2nfco

where n = 1,2,3, It can be seen that components around 2500 Hz in Fig. 29 include a series of:
2500 Hz 2n * 33.45 Hz

(56)

It was found that similar sidebands appeared also around 2 times the switching frequency of the PWM converter, as seen in Fig. 30. These can be determined by the following equation:
fFC = 2fsc 2nfco

(57)

where n = 1,2,3, These equations were not found in the literature study, mainly because the surveys of other authors were concentrating on the sine wave supplied motors. Based on these results we conclude that axial flux can be used for condition monitoring of motors controlled by variable speed drives. It can be assumed also that rotor slot pass frequencies can be used for detection of stator winding failures, as with sine wave supplied motors. In addition, from the spectrum we determine the output current frequency of the converter and the switching frequency of the PWM converter.

5.3.2.3 Low frequency spectrum

It is probable that also the equation to detect the condition of the rotor bars of a motor supplied by a frequency converter can be developed by modifying the equations

115 presented for directly supplied motors. This is done in equation (58) that is modified from equation (36). It is probable that the amplitude relationship between determined sideband and the output current frequency of the converter will change if the rotor bars are broken, as was case with sine wave supplied motors.

fBB = fco ( 1 2s )

(58)

Measurements of the low frequency spectrum of a Web Spreading Roller Motor 2, shown in Fig. 31, and Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor, shown in Fig. 32, showed that there existed clear sidebands around the output current frequency of the converter. From the results of the Scouting Pipe Rotating Motor, shown in Fig. 34, it can be determined that the slip frequency is 0.73 Hz. Usage of this slip frequency gave also logical results in the calculations presented in Table 25 and is a reliable value. Determination of fBB for this motor, having fco = 33.43 Hz, seen from Fig. 32, and slip frequency of 0.73 Hz, gives the following result: fBB = 33.43 Hz 2*0.73 Hz = 31.97 Hz From Fig. 32 it is seen that the first left sideband component of fco for this motor is 32.92 Hz, being 0.51 Hz apart from fco. The next sideband, 32.41 Hz, is harmonic of the first one, because it is 1.02 Hz apart from fco. Neither of them is fBB , determined by equation (58), and it seems that they cannot be used to determine the condition of the rotor bars. The results for the Web Spreading Roller Motor 2, seen from Fig. 33, showed that the slip frequency is 0.45 Hz. Determination fBB of this motor, having fco = 40.78 Hz, is seen from Fig. 31, and gives the following result: fBB = 40.78 Hz 2*0.45 Hz = 39.88 Hz From Fig. 31 it is seen that the first left sideband component of fco for this motor is 39.75 Hz, being 1.03 Hz apart from fco. The next sideband, 38.72 Hz, is harmonic of the first one, because it is 2.06 Hz apart from fco. Because again neither of them is fBB , they cannot be used either to determine the condition of rotor bars. The conclusion is that because the measured motors were healthy, it is probable that the component of fBB is so weak that it is hidden below the presented sideband components. The source of the existing sidebands around fco could not be determined. From the results of a Web Spreading Roller Motor 2, shown in Fig. 33, and a Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor, shown in Fig. 34, it is seen that amplitudes of slip frequency and its harmonics are clearly detected. It can be assumed that these components have a similar relationship to the broken end ring failure of the rotor cage, as was presented for sine wave supplied motors. Also it is probable that the equation for frequency converters can be implemented by modifying the equations presented for directly supplied motors. This is done in equation (59), modified from equation (37).

fRFR = sfco

(59)

Based on the experimental results, the conclusion is that the low frequency spectrum of axial leakage flux can be used also for condition monitoring of the rotors. However, such an experimental case was not found during the experimental survey period. Reason for this is probably that rotor failures of the frequency converter controlled motors occur

116 very seldom, because of their better starting and operating torque in comparison with sine wave supplied motors. Finally, a special case was noticed in the axial flux results for the Spouting Pipe Rotating Motor and the Hole Roller Motor. The spectrum of both motors included output current frequencies of the both PWM converters. These two motors are installed near each other and because the flux coil is set outside the motor frame, the fluxes of both motors induce to it. The conclusion is that when measuring motors installed near each other, this kind of possibility has to be taken account when analysing results of axial flux coil.

5.3.3 Detection of stator winding turn to turn failures

In this section we present further handling and analysis of the results of the laboratory test series to detect stator winding turn to turn failures. The test series was made by an ac motor prepared by various temporary solid turn to turn failures in the L2 phase. The test motor was a 3-phase squirrel cage motor, with nominal values of: Power about 2.2 kW, 400 V, 50 Hz. 4 poles, nominal rotating speed of 1500 r/min. Stator winding coil for each phase was made from 2 parallel windings, each having 3 coils in a series. Each coil had 82 winding turns, so the total number of turns connected in series was 246 turns. Stator slot number was 36 and rotor bar number was 26. The synchronous rotating speed of the test motor was 1500 r/min. For the unloaded motor the rotating speed was about 1497 r/min and for the loaded motor it was about 1435 r/min. Table 26 shows the determination of the values that are used in calculations.
Table 26. Determination of the values used in calculations.
Parameter s s fs fr fr Qr Qs Description Slip for unloaded motor Slip for loaded motor Line frequency Rotating speed of unloaded motor Rotating speed of loaded motor Rotor bar number Stator slot number Equation (1500 r/min 1497 r/min) / 1500 r/min (1500 r/min 1435 r/min) / 1500 r/min 1497 r/min / 60 1435 r/min / 60 Value 0.002 0.043 50 Hz 24.95 Hz 23.92 Hz 26 36

5.3.3.1 Low frequency analysis

The evaluation of the reliability of the low frequency spectral analysis of axial flux measurement to detect stator winding turn to turn failures was made by further analysis of the test motor results that were introduced in section 4.3.

117 Fig. 64 presents the summary analysis for the results in unloaded operation. Since in unloaded operation the slip is small, the high line resolution of the spectrum is needed to separate supply frequency harmonics from its rotating sideband components. Measurement data has been presented in Table 11. Since the 3rd harmonic of the supply frequency has the highest amplitude, comparisons are made to it. However, based on field measurements of hundreds of motors, it is unusual that the amplitude of the 3rd harmonic is higher than the amplitude of the supply frequency.
Amplitude difference dB
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Healthy motor 3 turns short circuited fs 16.7 3.8 fs-fr 61.3 63.1 fs+fr 52 51.2 fs+2fr 49.1 58.6 3fs-fr 42.4 43.2 3fs+fr 3fs-2fr 42.6 40.69 49.2 50.7

Frequency components
Fig. 64. Amplitude differences between 3 times the supply frequency and selected rotating speed sidebands versus the condition of stator winding in unloaded operation.

Fig. 64 clearly shows that the most significant change existed between the amplitudes of the supply frequency, fs, and its 3rd harmonic. Results of this kind were not found in the literature review. However, based on experience of measurements in hundreds of motors, only seldom is the amplitude of 3rd harmonic higher than the amplitude of the supply frequency. So this kind of result is unusual. The only sideband component that was changed, was fs+2fr, that weakened from 49.1 dB to 58.6 dB. However, there is uncertainty in this result, because this frequency is the 2nd harmonic of the supply frequency and can be disturbed by it. Result is not reliable enough to make further conclusions based on it. Fig. 65 presents the summary analysis of the results compared to the 3rd harmonic in loaded operation (data presented in Table 12). Sideband components can now be detected from the supply frequency and its harmonics, because of the slip. Significant variation, about 8 dB, existed between amplitudes of the supply frequency and the 3rd harmonic in a healthy motor versus the motor with 5 turns shorted. In addition, the sideband component of fs+3fr strengthened about 7.8 dB when compared to a healthy motor and the motor with 5 turns short circuited. Similar results were found in the literature review, presented by Melero et al. (2000). However, amplitude differences between the 3rd harmonic of supply frequency and the fs+3fr sideband is around 60 dB. This has to be taken into account if this component is to be used for detection of stator winding failures. The conclusion of these results is that the relative change between the supply frequency and its 3rd harmonic was the best indicator to detect turn to turn failure of stator

118 winding. This kind of result has not been introduced earlier and it is recommended that further tests are made before using this result for condition monitoring. The behaviour is clearly seen from the time based waveforms, shown in Figs 48 to 51.
Amplitude difference dB
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 fs Healthy motor 1 turn short circuited 3 turns short circuited 5 turns short circuited 11 11.4 1.4 2.8 fs-fr 65.5 60.2 63.1 65.9 fs+fr 45.7 45.6 47 47.1 fs-2fr 37.8 37.7 38.6 37.9 fs+2fr fs+3fr fs+4fr 48 49.2 48.9 47.9 63.9 59.8 56.9 56.1 29.7 29.6 29.5 29.6 2fs 55.4 56.7 56.2 54.5 3fs-fr 47.9 47.2 46.2 46.6 3fs+fr 3fs-2fr 3fs+2fr 51.3 52.8 48.4 49.5 58.6 59.2 59 60 64.7 62.4 68.2 70.1

Frequency components

Fig. 65. Amplitude differences between the 3 times supply frequency and selected rotating frequency sidebands versus the condition of the stator winding in loaded operation.

Fig. 66 shows the same comparison, but now comparing the amplitudes of the supply frequency and rotating sidebands in loaded operation. In this comparison, the variation between the supply frequency and the fs+3fr component is the smallest. This makes usage of the fs+3fr component complicated, because there is not enough knowledge to determine which behaviour is dominating for each motor.
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Healt hy mot or 1 turn short circuit ed 3 turns short circuit ed 5 turns short circuit ed

Amplitude difference dB

fs-f r 54.5 48.8 61.7 63.1

f s+f r 34.7 34.2 45.6 44.3

fs-2f r 26.8 26.3 37.2 35.1

f s+2f r 37 37.8 47.5 45.1

f s+3fr 52.9 48.4 55.5 53.3

f s+4fr 18.7 18.2 28.1 26.8

3fs-f r 36.9 35.8 44.8 43.8

3f s+f r 40.3 41.4 47 46.7

3fs-2f r 47.6 47.8 57.6 57.2

3f s+2f r 53.7 51 66.8 67.3

Sideband frequencies

Fig. 66. Amplitude differences between the supply frequency and its selected rotating sidebands versus the condition of the stator winding in loaded operation.

As a conclusion, these test results show that it is a possible to monitor the condition of stator winding through low frequency analysis, but there is quite a lot of uncertainty. Based on the results and the literature review it is recommended that a frequency component of fs+3fr is used for this monitoring.

119

5.3.3.2 Harmonics of supply frequency

Figs 67 and 68 show a summary presentation of the amplitudes of harmonics versus the condition of stator winding in unloaded and loaded operation (data presented in Tables 13 and 14). Test results show that none of the harmonics was sensitive to the stator winding failures. The conclusion is that harmonics of the supply frequency cannot be used for condition monitoring of stator winding.
Amplitude difference dB
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Healthy motor 2 turns short circuited 3 turns short circuited 4 turns short circuited 5 turns short circuited 2fs 24.5 40.3 48.9 46.4 52.7 5fs 17.4 25.1 17.4 16.6 16.8 7fs 18.6 30.6 37.6 29.4 34 9fs 17.2 21.6 31.4 31.3 33.9 11fs 26.1 29.5 30.6 25.2 24.1 12fs 32 38.7 36.9 38.4 35.6 13fs 36.5 43.2 35.2 36.1 37.2 14fs 37.2 20.7 41.3 40.4 40.6 15fs 28.3 35.4 44.5 39.4 38.2

Frequency component

Fig. 67. Amplitude difference between the supply frequency and its selected harmonics versus the condition of the stator winding in unloaded operation.
60

Amplitude difference dB

50 40 30 20 10 0 Healthy motor 1 turn short circuited 2 turns short circuited 3 turns short circuited 4 turns short circuited 5 turns short circuited 2fs 35.6 38.3 39.6 53.8 45.5 44 5fs 26.2 27.7 26.6 17.5 15.6 16.8 7fs 20.6 22.1 25 24.5 22.6 23.9 9fs 16 15 15.8 29.6 30.7 24.8 11fs 31.3 30.9 32.6 39 39 36.7 13fs 37.3 49.3 37.2 36.1 38.6 41.1 15fs 31.4 32.4 34.6 42.2 45.5 51

Frequency components

Fig. 68. Amplitude difference between the supply frequency and its selected harmonics versus the condition of the stator winding in loaded operation.

120

5.3.3.3 Rotor slot pass frequencies

In the literature review it was found that rotor slot pass frequencies combined with certain sidebands would be sensitive to the stator turn to turn failure. These will now be studied in more detail.
A.) Detection of stator winding failures by 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies is based on the following equation (equation 23):
f 2 LPR = (Qr fr fs ) 2 nfs

where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, Table 27 presents determination of these frequencies for values of n = 0 to 5.

Table 27. Determination of 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies.
Unloaded motor (fr = 24.95 Hz) n Equation 0 (26*24.95 50) 1 (26*24.95 50) + 2 * 50 1 (26*24.95 50) - 2 * 50 2 (26*24.95 50) + 4 * 50 2 (26*24.95 50) 4 * 50 3 (26*24.95 50) + 6 * 50 3 (26*24.95 50) 6 * 50 4 (26*24.95 50) + 8 * 50 4 (26*24.95 50) - 8 * 50 5 (26*24.95 50) + 10 * 50 5 (26*24.95 50) 10 * 50 Result 598.7 Hz 698.7 Hz 498.7 Hz 798.7 Hz 398.7 Hz 898.7 Hz 298.7 Hz 998.7 Hz 198.7 Hz 1098.7 Hz 98.7 Hz Loaded motor (fr = 23.92 Hz) n Equation 0 (26*23.92 50) 1 (26*23.95 50) + 2 * 50 1 (26*23.95 50) - 2 * 50 2 (26*23.95 50) + 4 * 50 2 (26*23.95 50) 4 * 50 3 (26*23.95 50) + 6 * 50 3 (26*23.95 50) 6 * 50 4 (26*23.95 50) + 8 * 50 4 (26*23.95 50) - 8 * 50 5 (26*23.95 50) + 10 * 50 5 (26*23.95 50) 10 * 50 Result 571.9 Hz 671.9 Hz 471.9 Hz 771.9 Hz 371.9 Hz 871.9 Hz 271.9 Hz 971.9 Hz 171.9 Hz 1071.9 Hz 71.9 Hz

The frequency components of unloaded operation are too near the harmonics of the supply frequency to be determined. In Table 27 we presented components found in loaded operation. Fig. 69 shows a summary of these results. The results are confusing, because for a failure of 2 turns short circuited variation is quite significant, but for other failure situations variation is slight. The conclusion based on these results is that these frequency components were not sensitive enough for reliable condition monitoring of stator winding.

121
Amplitude difference dB
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Healthy motor Rotor slot pass frequency 1st left sideband 1st right sideband 2nd left sideband 2nd right sideband 30.8 37.1 33.5 49.7 39.9 1 turn short circuited 35.7 37.1 33.2 46.3 40.5 2 turns short circuited 18.5 29 13.9 37.2 22.7 3 turns short circuited 31 40.2 35.8 49.8 43.3 4 turns short circuited 30.3 41.1 36.4 52.5 40.8 5 turns short circuited 30.7 41.3 40 54 42.2

Condition of stator winding

Fig. 69. Amplitude difference between the supply frequency and 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies versus the condition of the stator winding in loaded operation.

B.) Determination of 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of running speed sidebands is based on the following equation (equation 24):

fRSR = [(Qr fr fs ) 2nfs ]+ kfr

where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, and k = 1, 2, 3, Table 28 presents determination of these frequencies for values of n=0 to 3 and k=1 to 3.
Table 28. Determination of 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of the running speed sidebands.
Unloaded motor (fr = 24.95 Hz) n k Equation 0 1 (26*24.95 50) + 24.95 0 2 (26*24.95 50) + 2*24.95 0 3 (26*24.95 50) + 3*24.95 1 1 (26*24.95 50) + 2* 50 + 24.95 1 1 (26*24.95 50) 2* 50 + 24.95 1 2 (26*24.95 50) + 2* 50 + 2*24.95 1 2 (26*24.95 50) 2* 50 + 2*24.95 1 3 (26*24.95 50) + 2* 50 + 3*24.95 1 3 (26*24.95 50) 2* 50 + 3*24.95 2 1 (26*24.95 50) + 4* 50 + 24.95 2 1 (26*24.95 50) 4* 50 + 24.95 2 2 (26*24.95 50) + 4* 50 + 2*24.95 2 2 (26*24.95 50) 4* 50 + 2*24.95 2 3 (26*24.95 50) + 4* 50 + 3*24.95 2 3 (26*24.95 50) 4* 50 + 3*24.95 3 1 (26*24.95 50) + 6* 50 + 24.95 3 1 (26*24.95 50) 6* 50 + 24.95 3 2 (26*24.95 50) + 6* 50 + 2*24.95 3 2 (26*24.95 50) 6* 50 + 2*24.95 Result 623.7 Hz 648.6 Hz 673.6 Hz 723.7 Hz 523.7 Hz 748.6 Hz 548.6 Hz 773.6 Hz 573.6 Hz 823.7 Hz 423.7 Hz 848.6 Hz 448.6 Hz 873.6 Hz 473.6 Hz 923.7 Hz 323.7 Hz 948.6 Hz 348.6 Hz Loaded motor (fr = 23.92 Hz) n k Equation 0 1 (26*23.92 50) + 23.92 0 2 (26*23.92 50) + 2*23.92 0 3 (26*23.92 50) + 3*23.92 1 1 (26*23.92 50) + 2* 50 + 23.92 1 1 (26*23.92 50) 2* 50 + 23.92 1 2 (26*23.92 50) + 2* 50 + 2*23.92 1 2 (26*23.92 50) 2* 50 + 2*23.92 1 3 (26*23.92 50) + 2* 50 + 3*23.92 1 3 (26*23.92 50) 2* 50 + 3*23.92 2 1 (26*23.92 50) + 4* 50 + 23.92 2 1 (26*23.92 50) 4* 50 + 23.92 2 2 (26*23.92 50) + 4* 50 + 2*23.92 2 2 (26*23.92 50) 4* 50 + 2*23.92 2 3 (26*23.92 50) + 4* 50 + 3*23.92 2 3 (26*23.92 50) 4* 50 + 3*23.92 3 1 (26*23.92 50) + 6* 50 + 23.92 3 1 (26*23.92 50) 6* 50 + 23.92 3 2 (26*23.92 50) + 6* 50 + 2*23.92 3 2 (26*23.92 50) 6* 50 + 2*23.92 Result 595.8 619.7 643.7 695.8 495.8 719.7 519.7 743.7 543.7 795.8 395.8 819.7 419.7 843.7 443.7 895.8 295.8 919.7 319.7

122 Fig. 70 presents the results of the loaded operation. The presented frequencies, determined by variables of m = 0 and k = 1, 2 and 3, were sensitive to the stator winding condition. The conclusion is that these frequency components can be used for condition monitoring of stator winding. However, the amplitudes of harmonics around them can reach the same or a higher level depending on the application. This makes the usage of these frequencies challenging.
Amplitude difference dB
80 60 40 20 0 Healthy motor Rotor slot pass frequency + running speed Rotor slot pass frequency + 2*running speed Rotor slot pass frequency + 3*running speed 59.7 66.7 59.7 1 turn short circuited 52.3 59.3 47.3 3 turns short circuited 36.6 42.4 42.8 5 turns short circuited 35.6 43.3 43.4

Condition of stator winding

Fig. 70. Amplitude difference between the supply frequency and 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by rotating speed sidebands versus the condition of the stator winding in loaded operation.

Fig. 71 presents the results of the unloaded motor for the two most sensitive components that are applicable for condition monitoring purpose. However, the harmonics around them reached stronger amplitudes even in the severest failures and this has to be taken into account.
Amplitude difference dB
80 60 40 20 0 Healthy motor Rotor slot pass frequency + running speed Rotor slot pass frequency + 3*running speed 64.8 2 turns short circuited 47.7 3 turns short circuited 47.1 5 turns short circuited 43.9

62.8

45.9

48.1

51.4

Condition of stator winding

Fig. 71. Amplitude difference between the supply frequency and 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by rotating speed sidebands versus the condition of the stator winding in unloaded operation.

123
C.) Determination of 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of slip frequency sidebands is based on following equation (equation 25):

fSFR = [(Qr fr fs ) 2nfs ]+ ksfs

where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, and k = 1, 2, 3, Table 29 presents determination of these frequencies for values of n = 0 to 2 and k = 1 to 2.
Table 29. Determination of 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by multiplies of slip frequency sidebands.
Unloaded motor (fr = 24.95 Hz) n k Equation 0 1 (26*24.95 50) + 0.002*50 0 2 (26*24.95 50) + 0.004*50 1 1 (26*24.95 50) + 2* 50 + 0.002*50 1 1 (26*24.95 50) 2* 50 + 0.002*50 1 2 (26*24.95 50) + 2* 50 + 0.004*50 1 2 (26*24.95 50) 2* 50 + 0.004*50 2 1 (26*24.95 50) + 4* 50 + 0.002*50 2 1 (26*24.95 50) 4* 50 + 0.002*50 Result 598.8 Hz 598.9 Hz 698.8 Hz 498.8 Hz 698.9 Hz 498.9 Hz 798.8 Hz 398.8 Hz Loaded motor (fr = 23.92 Hz) n k Equation 0 1 (26*23.92 50) + 0.002*50 0 2 (26*23.92 50) + 0.004*50 1 1 (26*23.92 50) + 2*50 + 0.002*50 1 1 (26*23.92 50) - 2* 50 + 0.002*50 1 2 (26*23.92 50) + 2* 50 + 0.004*50 1 2 (26*23.92 50) 2* 50 + 0.004*50 2 1 (26*23.92 50) + 4* 50 + 0.002*50 2 1 (26*23.92 50) 4* 50 + 0.002*50 Result 572.0 Hz 572.1 Hz 672.0 Hz 472.0 Hz 672.1 Hz 472.1 Hz 772.0 Hz 372.0 Hz

These frequency components could not be detected from the test data and the conclusion is that they cannot be used for the condition monitoring of the stator winding.
D.) Determination of 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by line frequency sidebands is based on the following equation (equation 26):

fLFR = [(Qr fr fs ) 2nfs ]+ fs

where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, Table 30 presents determination of these frequencies for values of n = 0 to 3.

Table 30. Determination of 2 times the LF family of rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by line frequency sidebands.
Unloaded motor (fr = 24.95 Hz) n Equation 0 (26*24.95 50) + 50 1 (26*24.95 50) + 2 * 50 + 50 1 (26*24.95 50) - 2 * 50 + 50 2 (26*24.95 50) + 4 * 50 + 50 2 (26*24.95 50) 4 * 50 +50 3 (26*24.95 50) + 6 * 50 + 50 3 (26*24.95 50) 6 * 50 + 50 Result 648.7 Hz 748.7 Hz 548.7 Hz 848.7 Hz 448.7 Hz 948.7 Hz 348.7 Hz Loaded motor (fr = 23.92 Hz) n Equation 0 (26*23.92 50) + 50 1 (26*23.95 50) + 2 * 50 + 50 1 (26*23.95 50) - 2 * 50 + 50 2 (26*23.95 50) + 4 * 50 + 50 2 (26*23.95 50) 4 * 50 + 50 3 (26*23.95 50) + 6 * 50 + 50 3 (26*23.95 50) 6 * 50 + 50 Result 621.9 Hz 721.9 Hz 521.9 Hz 821.9 Hz 421.9 Hz 921.9 Hz 321.9 Hz

For an unloaded motor these frequency components are near to the harmonics of the supply frequency and could not be detected. These components could not be detected

124 from the test data and the conclusion is that they cannot be used for the condition monitoring of the stator winding.

5.3.3.4 2 times the Line Frequency family of a multiple of rotor slot pass frequencies
Test data showed that there existed an additional group of components around the frequency area of about two times the slot pass frequency. In addition, these components were sensitive to stator winding failures. This kind of behaviour was not found in the literature review. It was found that these components can be determined by following the equation, named 2 times the Line Frequency family of a multiple of rotor slot pass frequencies:

fRMF = (pQrfr fs ) 2nfs

(60)

where p=2 and n = 0, 1, 2, 3, Table 31 presents determination of these frequencies for values of n = 0 to 3.
Table 31. Determination of 2 times the Line Frequency of a multiple of rotor slot pass frequencies.
Unloaded motor (fr = 24.95 Hz) n Equation 0 (2*26*24.95 50) 1 (2*26*24.95 50) + 2 * 50 1 (2*26*24.95 50) - 2 * 50 2 (2*26*24.95 50) + 4 * 50 2 (2*26*24.95 50) 4 * 50 3 (2*26*24.95 50) + 6 * 50 3 (2*26*24.95 50) 6 * 50 4 (2*26*24.95 50) + 8 * 50 4 (2*26*24.95 50) - 8 * 50 Result 1247.4 Hz 1347.4 Hz 1147.4 Hz 1447.4 Hz 1047.4 Hz 1547.4Hz 947.4 Hz 1647.4 Hz 847.4 Hz Loaded motor (fr = 23.92 Hz) N Equation 0 (2*26*23.92 50) 1 (2*26*23.95 50) + 2 * 50 1 (2*26*23.95 50) - 2 * 50 2 (2*26*23.95 50) + 4 * 50 2 (2*26*23.95 50) 4 * 50 3 (2*26*23.95 50) + 6 * 50 3 (2*26*23.95 50) 6 * 50 4 (2*26*23.95 50) + 8 * 50 4 (2*26*23.95 50) - 8 * 50 Result 1193.8 Hz 1293.8 Hz 1093.8 Hz 1393.8 Hz 993.8 Hz 1493.8 Hz 893.8 Hz 1593.8 Hz 793.8 Hz

Fig. 72 shows the results of a loaded operation. These components are sensitive to stator winding failure. In addition, the sidebands have a nearly linear response to the severity of the failure.

125
Amplitude difference dB
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Healthy motor 35.2 58.5 59.7 1 turn short circuited 32.1 46.5 45.9 2 turns short 31 35.7 36.5 3 turns short 19.8 26.1 27.1 4 turns short 21.5 26.4 28.7 5 turns short 23.3 27.7 30.3

2*rotor slot pass frequency 2*rotor slot pass frequency 2*Line frequency 2*rotor slot pass frequency + 2*Line frequency

Condition of stator winding

Fig. 72. Amplitude difference between the supply frequency and 2 times the LF family of a multiple of rotor slot pass frequencies versus the condition of the stator winding in loaded operation.

Fig. 73 presents these same results in unloaded operation. The component of "2 times the rotor slot pass frequency" is in this case most sensitive. The conclusion is that these multiplies of rotor slot pass frequency components were most reliable for detection of stator winding turn to turn failure. Around them, the harmonics of the supply frequency are already strongly attenuated and these components have the largest amplitudes in the existing frequency area.
Amplitude difference dB
60 40 20 0 Healthy motor 2*rotor slot pass frequency 2*rotor slot pass frequency 2*Line frequency 2*rotor slot pass frequency + 2*Line frequency 51.5 51.3 51.9

2 turns short circuited 38.9 43.3 52.5

3 turns short circuited 30.5 37.9 49.9

5 turns short circuited 30.8 37.9 42.1

Condition of stator winding

Fig. 73. Amplitude difference between supply frequency and 2 times the LF family of a multiple of rotor slot pass frequencies versus the condition of the stator winding in unloaded operation.

126

5.3.3.5 Time based waveform

In unloaded operation, shown in Figs 48 and 49, there was a clear difference between the supply frequency component and the 3rd harmonic in cases of a healthy motor and winding with turn to turn failure. This same behaviour was seen in low frequency analysis. In loaded operation, shown in Figs 50, 51 and 52, there existed a similar difference between the supply frequency and the 3rd harmonic, but there existed also a higher frequency waveform riding on the low frequency. Determination of this frequency from a time based waveform shows that it is caused by the same 2 two times the LF family of a multiple of rotor slot pass frequencies that was found from the spectrum. The conclusion is, that it is possible to use a time-base waveform for condition monitoring. However, analysis of the time based waveform is more complicated than analysis of the spectrum and in addition no references of usage of a time based waveform during literature review were found. So it is preferable to utilise spectral analysis for condition monitoring purposes.

5.3.4 Detection of rotor bar failure using axial flux and stator current measurements
Evaluation of the competence of axial flux measurement to detect rotor bar failures was made by analysis of results of five similar pump motors known to have rotor failures. From experience it is known that a stator current spectrum is a reliable method to detect rotor bar failures, and so evaluation was made by comparison of results from axial flux measurements with results from stator current measurements. Documentation of repairs done in two separate service shops has been used to verify the measurement results. Figs 74 and 75 present summary results of axial flux and stator current measurement for the amplitude difference between components of rotor condition related frequency, fs(12s), and supply frequency, fs, for five similar motors. In the following these results are studied in more detail.

127
Amplitude difference dB
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Pump motor 1 Pump motor 2 Pump motor 3 Pump motor 4 Pump motor 5 Sep99 48.5 51 50.5 33.4 26.9 Nov99 47.4 47.2 52.7 50.1 June00 52.6 51.2 50.1 36.9 44.5 Dec00 May01 46.3 48.5 50.2 45 51.6

Measurement date
Fig. 74. Amplitude difference between components of rotor condition related frequency, fs(1 2s), and supply frequency, fs, of axial flux measurements for five similar squirrel-cage motors

The rotor of Pump Motor 1 was repaired in March 1999, before this measurement series, and so differences between various measurements over the monitoring period were small both in stator current and axial flux measurements. Especially the stator current results of the Pump Motor 2 showed a decreased amplitude difference between the monitored frequency components. In addition, a decreasing trend could be identified. The rotor of this motor was repaired in June 2000. It was found that the end ring of the rotor was broken and some of the rotor bars were broken from the other end of the end ring. The repaired motor was installed in September 2000 instead Pump Motor 5 that in turn was sent for overhaul. Effect of the repair work on the measurement result is clear. The stator current and axial flux values of Pump Motor 2, in November 1999, before the repairing, are 50.7 dB and 47.2 dB. After repair work, these values for Pump Motor 5, in May 2001, are 63 dB and 51.6 dB. The results for Pump Motor 3 showed values of a healthy motor in September and November 1999, but, because of bearing degradation this motor was overhauled in January 2000. During the overhaul the rotor had been carefully inspected and found to be healthy. After this overhaul, the motor was installed instead of Pump Motor 2, in May 2000, so remaining values of this motor are found from measurements of Pump Motor 2, in June 2000, December 2000 and May 2001. The results for Pump Motor 4, made in September 1999, showed that amplitude differences between the monitored frequency components of the stator current and the axial flux measurement were 34.9 dB and 33.4 dB. These are significantly lower than the values of the previous motors. To analyse the results of the stator current measurement presented by Lang (1994) is a recommendation table that suggests that such a low result means that there are several broken bars or a broken end ring of the rotor. This motor was sent for repair in December 1999 and it was found that the rotor end ring was broken.

128 After repairing, the motor was reinstalled and the measurement results of June 2000, December 2000 and May 2001 presented in Tables 75 and 76 are for this same motor. As seen, the change in these results is significant. The results for Pump Motor 5, made in November 1999, showed even worse results than Pump Motor 4. The amplitude differences between the monitored frequency components of the stator current and the axial flux measurement were 30.5 dB and 26.9 dB. The motor was sent for repair in February 2000, and it was found that the rotor end ring was broken at both ends of the motor and several rotor bars were loosened from the end ring. After repairing, this motor was installed instead of Pump Motor 8, but results are not available. Instead of Pump Motor 5 a spare motor was installed and the results of May 2001 are for it, showing that the rotor is healthy. This study proved that the results from the stator current spectrum are more useful than results from axial leakage flux, because with the stator current the evaluation of the rotor condition is more accurate. However, also with axial flux measurement we can detect at least serious rotor failures.
Amplitude difference dB
80 60 40 20 0 Pump motor 1 Pump motor 2 Pump motor 3 Pump motor 4 Pump motor 5

Sep99 65 55.5 65 34.9

Nov99 65 50.7 63

June00 55 65

Dec00 65 60 65

May01 65 60 60 60 63

60 30.5

63

Measurement date
Fig. 75. Amplitude difference between components of rotor condition related frequency, fs(1 2s), and supply frequency, fs, of stator current measurements for five similar squirrel-cage motors.

In the literature, it was presented that the amplitude difference between the slip frequency and supply frequency component of the axial flux is changed in the case of a broken end ring failure of the rotor. Fig. 76 presents a summary results of axial flux measurement for the amplitude difference between the components slip frequency, sfs, and the supply frequency, fs, for the same five motors. Differences between these frequency components were significantly lower than those presented in Fig. 75, and there was more variation between the results of various measurements. However, the amplitude differences between the amplitude difference of

129 the monitored components for the most deteriorated rotors of Pump Motor 4, measured in September 1999, and Pump Motor 5, measured in November 1999, showed the smallest values. In addition, during the repairing work, both of these motors were found to have a broken rotor end ring. The conclusion is that amplitude variation between the slip frequency and supply frequency component can be used to detect at least severe rotor end ring failures.
Amplitude difference dB
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Pump motor 1 Pump motor 2 Pump motor 3 Pump motor 4 Pump motor 5 Sep99 21.6 26.9 20.8 10.5 9.5 Nov99 20.8 25.7 22 51 June00 21.2 20.3 19.8 22.3 47.8 Dec00 May01 44.3 19.6 24.1 47.2 34.7

Measurement data
Fig. 76. Amplitude difference between components of slip frequency, sfs, and supply frequency, fs, of axial flux measurements for five similar squirrel-cage motors.

5.4 Diagnosis based on the condition monitoring measurements

For effective condition management it is necessary to implement an effective diagnostic of condition monitoring measurements. We will now present a proposal for a diagnosis system for condition monitoring measurements of electrical machines.

5.4.1 Integrated diagnostics system

An integrated diagnostic methodology system for a fluid system has been presented by Fitch (1992). Based on this an integrated diagnostics system is presented for electrical machines using the simplified diagram shown in Fig. 77. Condition monitoring represents the sensorial part of a diagnostic system symptom detection. It is the way for the system to acquire and compile information regarding the status of systems operation and performance. As an information detection technique, a

130 condition monitoring system transmits in a quantified manner the variations observed in specific operational, physical or electrical parameters. Information is acquired from the sensors either continuously or periodically during operation. System diagnosis establishes symptom identification. It includes decision processing where the compiled measuring signals from condition monitoring are translated to fault indicator models by applicable ratios and limits. Through them we can implement a suitable decision for prognosis purposes. A total diagnosis system includes also the usage of non-measurable state variables, process parameters and characteristic quantities. However, they are beyond the scope of this thesis and shall not be studied further. Failure prognosis is used to forecast the machines future by lifetime prediction. Through prognosis predictions can also be made from the behavioural effects to operation through the failure modes of the system being diagnosed. By prescriptive actions or maintenance actions we accomplish compensation of the system. They refer to the actions or controls necessary to safely prolong system lifetime. These actions can be such as reducing severe duty cycle operation, stopping operation or overhauling the machine.
1 . C o n d itio n m o n ito rin g S y m p to m d etectio n S enso rs C o ntin uo us P erio d ical A cq uirin g m easure m e nts C o m p ilin g d ata to info rm atio n 2 . S y ste m d ia g n o sis S y m p to m id en tifica tio n M easurab le sig nals T im e b ased F req uenc y b ased - RM S N o n-m ea surab le S tate variab les P ro cess p aram eters C haracteristic Q ua ntitie s F ault ind icato r m o d els

F ault ind icato r m o d els R atio s L im its - T hresho ld

3 . F a ilu re p ro g n o sis - F o reca stin g E valua te/D eterm ine failure m o d e E ffec ts o n syste m - D eterm ine lo ss o f fu nctio n

4 . P rescrip tiv e a ctio n M a in ten a n ce a ctio n A ctio ns R ed uce D uty C yc le S everity S to p o p eratio n - O verha ul

E valua te R esid ual life

Fig. 77. Integrated Diagnostic System Design (Based on Fitch 1992).

5.4.2 Condition monitoring techniques of electrical motors

There are several monitoring techniques that are applicable for condition monitoring of electrical motors, and these are introduced in the following sections.

131

5.4.2.1 Visual monitoring

With visual monitoring we can usually detect mechanical material degradation. It is implemented by looking for surface cracks, rust, weld defects and sources of potential weakness such as misalignment. Instructions to determine presence and severity of shaft currents by inspection of surfaces of damaged components have been presented by Costello (1993). Electric motors are normally protected against environmental stresses and it is seldom possible to see inside the motor even with auxiliary equipment. In such cases, the visual monitoring can include manual detection of cooling airflow in surface grooves, openness of ventilation grids and detection of leakage of cooling liquid tubes on externally cooled machines.

5.4.2.2 Compliance monitoring

Once material degradation has reached an advanced stage, incipient failure ends, operational compliance is effected and impending failure begins. Compliance monitoring of an electrical machine during the incipient failure period can be done by evaluation of the load handling capability versus the stator current and rotary speed. Decrease in the speed of a squirrel-cage motor at a reference load level can be caused by degradation of rotor winding. Rotary speed can be measured by a tachometer.

5.4.2.3 Electrical monitoring

Electrical monitoring is a highly suitable method to monitor electrically supplied equipment. Depending on the failure type and/or monitored device, it is possible to determine the deterioration process from an electric supply and/or operating parameters of the equipment itself. By monitoring electric disturbances of the electric supply it is possible to detect the development of some failure types of electrical drives of squirrelcage motors, because in certain failure types, such as semiconductor component failures, they feed back to the distribution network unwanted disturbances such as harmonic voltages and currents. Monitoring of these disturbances requires spectrum analysis to detect the unwanted harmonics. Best applicable techniques for this application are such power harmonic analysers or special analysers with spectrum analysis capability. Electrical and/or mechanical failures of electrical motors often cause variation in the electrical operation parameters of the motor. In addition, certain failures of supplying devices, such as frequency converters, can also cause specific changes to the electrical parameters. That is why monitoring of electrical phenomena and/or parameters of electric motors can be used for condition monitoring purposes. Electric measurement techniques used for condition monitoring of squirrel-cage motors are such as in the following. Shaft voltage and bearing current measurement are used mainly for problem solving of certain bearing failure situations. Costello (1993) has been presented various shaft voltage

132 sources. Applicable sources for squirrel-cage motors are electrostatic source generating dc shaft voltage with belt-driven machines and magnetic asymmetries of electrical winding generating ac shaft voltage. The effect of PWM inverters on ac motor bearing currents and shaft voltages has been presented by Erdman et al. (1996). Small shaft voltage levels are not harmful, but if the level exceeds the electrical strength of the lubrication oil/grease layer of the bearing, they cause electrical current pulses called bearing current. This current, if it has enough energy, erodes the inner surface of the bearing and causes degrading of the bearing. Stator current measurement is done from the supply current of the motor. Detection of broken rotor bars of induction motors by spectral analysis of stator current measurement has been presented by Stein et al. (1988), Elkasagby et al. (1992), Lang (1994) and Vas (1993). In addition Vas has suggested that stator current spectrum can be used to detect eccentricity between the stator and rotor of an induction motor. Also it is known from operation experiences that broken rotor bars of a squirrel-cage motor cause regular slow variation in stator currents when measured by analog ampere meters. Axial magnetic leakage flux measurements are implemented by a flux coil sensor. Using spectrum analysis of axial magnetic leakage flux measurement several failure modes can be detected, such as rotor winding degradation, stator winding turn to turn failure and asymmetry of three phase supply voltage. Axial magnetic leakage flux has been broadly handled in early sections of this study. Terminal voltage measurements are used to detect the existence of abnormal voltage surges on the stator windings of a motor. Analysis of the impact of PWM inverter voltage waveforms on ac induction motors has been presented by Bonnett (1996). These waveforms can cause degrading of stator winding insulation and they can be measured by terminal voltage measurement. With Partial Discharge measurements the condition of stator winding insulation of high voltage motors can be monitored. The basic theory for Partial Discharge (PD) measurement technology has been introduced by Bartnikas (1979). Evaluation of the stator winding condition of high voltage generators and motors by PD-measurement has been presented for example by Stone (1995). With PD-measurements various degradation modes of stator winding insulation can be detected, such as ageing, degradation of semiconductive layer of winding and loosness of stator winding combined with degradation of semiconductive layer.

5.4.2.4 Vibration and noise monitoring

Fitch (1992) presents that mechanical components can generate noise from vibrating surfaces or structure borne noise caused, for example, by imbalance of rotating parts, misalignment of a driving system, defective bearings, and non rigid mounts. Hence, both noise and vibration monitoring can be used to detect degradation in the systems materials. Structure borne noise can be measured by using an accelerometer and airborne noise with microphones. Through spectrum analysis of noise or vibration measurement the internal operating conditions of components can be assessed and described and often impending failures can be predicted.

133 Some equations for condition monitoring of electrical machines by vibration measurements were presented by Tavner and Penman (1987). In addition Rao (1996) claims that using vibration spectrum failures such as misalignment of the shaft, unbalance, bearing failures, rotor winding failure and asymmetry of stator winding can be detected.

5.4.2.5 Temperature monitoring

Change in temperature is an applicable parameter in predicting the presence and severity of incipient failure in mechanical systems. Temperature monitoring is a simple and effective method for condition monitoring of electrical machines. By increased operation temperature it is possible to notice several problems such as ventilation problems, asymmetric voltage supply, stator winding turn to turn failure, severe rotor failure and bearing lubrication problems. Resistive thermometry, such as Pt 100 sensors, are highly applicable to monitor the temperature of stator winding, stator core, bearing surface and ventilation liquid., because they are accurate enough over the whole monitored temperature area. Because thermistors are inaccurate in the lower temperature area, they are mainly used for protection purposes.

5.4.2.6 Wear debris monitoring

When wear or destruction of critical surfaces occurs within mechanical system components, wear debris is generated. Fitch (1992) presents that because the quantity of wear debris can be measured long before any change is apparent in the performance of component, it can be used as a powerful incipient failure identification method In electrical machines the wear debris monitoring can be used for condition monitoring of oil lubricated sleeve bearings. On the surface of a white metal sleeve bearing there is a white metal layer and from the existence of white metal in the lubrication oil the existence of loosen metal from the bearing surface can be evaluated.

5.4.3 Failure detection, prognosis and prescriptive actions

To design an appropriate application for diagnosis of condition monitoring measurements of electrical machines it is necessary to find out the requirements for adequate failure prognosis. This will be done through the development of the failure evaluation model.

134

5.4.3.1 Failure detection methods

Failure detection methods of mechanical machines, presented by Fitch (1992), are measurable signals, non-measurable state variables using a known system model, nonmeasurable process parameters that are constant or time-dependent coefficients in the process and the process model parameters that are intricate relationships of several physical process coefficients. However, in this work we utilise only those failure detection methods and processes that are based on measurable signals. Measurable signals are generated by sensors located in the system and these signals are used to monitor a systems condition. The failure detection process involves amplitude magnitude limits of time base signals or frequency components and trend checking as fault indicators.

5.4.3.2 Failure progression

Fitch (1992) shows that mechanical failure is usually developed through conditional, incipient, impending and precipitous failure stages before catastrophic failure if it is not repaired during this failure progression. Terminal failure of mechanical system is defined as the inability of a material, structure, or system to fulfill its intended purpose in a safe and orderly manner and as a consequence, results in its immediate removal from service for repair, or replacement. In addition, Fitch has presented a description, system effects and proposed actions for each failure stage. These same failure stages can be used for classifying the condition monitoring measurements of electrical motors.

5.4.3.3 A proposal for a failure classification of electric motors

For successful condition monitoring, diagnosis of failure and protection of machines, there are several needs. First, detection of unstable root causes and aberrations, the conditional failure stage, is a key to proactive maintenance. Then, to allow effective maintenance planning, most failures should be detected at the incipient failure stage and all failures should be detected at least in the impending failure stage. Finally, the motor should be protected against serious impending failures, precipitous failures and catastrophic failures to limit damages only to the component level. In addition to detection of failure stages, it is also important to predict the existing operating lifetime before total production loss. Based on the table presented by Fitch (1992) and determinations presented above we now propose the classification of failures of electrical motors in Table 32.

135
Table 32. Evaluation classes of failures for condition monitoring of electrical motors.
*) System effect Conditional fail- Depends upon the existence of one or more Root cause aberration ure unstable root cause in the system. No material or performance degradation has yet occurred. User cannot employ any wear debris or performance monitoring techniques to predict or detect any failure condition. Incipient failure Material degradation is taking place but it Material deghas not reached the stage where the systems radation performance is affected. Operator is not aware of any loss of machine system productivity. Only evidence of material degradation comes from wear debris, vibration or electrical monitoring. Impending fail- Material degradation has reached the point Significant ure where noticeable degradation has occurred. material damage and loss of If the user has not corrected the aberrant performance. root-cause condition by this time and System failure replaced the affected elements of the sysis obvious. tem, failure is imminent (a certainty). Precipitous fail- Material degradation becomes so extensive Loss of perure that physical elements become irreparable. formance impairs machine systems function. Catastrophic A terminal system condition where opera- Inoperable failure tion ceases or becomes so impaired that the function of the machine becomes totally unresponsive to the operators commands. *) Presented by E.C. Fitch, 1992 *) Failure state *) Description Life time prediction Years *) Action Detect and correct unstable rootcauses of aberrations or abnormalities

Months

Correct unstable root cause conditions. Prepare repairing of material degradation.

Days to weeks

Correct unstable condition and replace affected elements.

Minutes to Prepare for shurhours down and overhaul. Correct the unstable root causes of failure. Seconds Remove, repair, rebuild or replace. Correct the unstable root causes of failure.

5.4.4 Proposed parameters for condition monitoring of electric motors

A successful condition monitoring system has to be implemented by diagnostic measurements that closely indicate an ongoing failure process and its effect on a system or component, and the prognostic parameter that indicate the failure mode. Technologically we need an applicable sensor that produces information for diagnostic measurement and data processing that compiles measurements to such form that interpretation is possible. A normal procedure in acquiring information about the condition involves tracking the value of selected component parameters. By supervision of these parameters it is possible to discover in the component one or several changing parameters referred to as prognostic parameters that will provide information about the condition of the motor and the prospects of failure.

136 In this thesis shaft, bearings and ventilation fan blades are called mechanical components. Rotor winding and cage, stator winding and cable connections are called electrical components. The condition of both mechanical and electrical components has to be monitored. Also it is necessary to take into account the possible harmful effects of supplying drives to the motor, and it is necessary to monitor the condition of lubrication fluid of bearings. In this study various measurements are determined to be parameters of the condition monitoring system. Measurement values of a time based signal and selected frequency components are variables of these parameters. Based on these determinations, in Table 33, we present proposed parameters for monitoring of an electrical motor from the component standpoint.
Table 33. Proposed parameters for monitoring of an electrical motor from the component standpoint.
Proposed parameters of electrical motor Proposed variables of parameters Monitored components monitoring system Vibration measurement of bearings and Overall vibration level and Bearing stator core selected frequency components Shaft Rotor winding Ventilation fan blade Stator current measurement Current amplitude and selected Rotor winding frequency components Shaft Axial leakage flux Selected frequency components Rotor winding Stator winding Shaft voltage and bearing current Amplitude Bearing Partial Discharges Pulse amplitudes and counts Stator winding insulation of high voltage motors Leakage of oil/grease of bearings and Amount Bearing liquid of external cooling Wear debris entrained in the lubrication Particle amplitudes and counts Bearing oil/grease of bearings and in the liquid of external cooling Rotational speed of shaft and mechani- Rotating speed and rotating fre- Bearing cal parts that are connected to machine quency Shaft Rotor Stator winding Temperature of bearings, stator windAmplitude Bearing ing, stator core and cooling Stator core Stator winding Cooling

5.4.5 Proposed parameters to monitor the conditional failure stage of electrical motors
Any system conditions that can lead to material degradation and/or performance degradation can be called a root cause of failure. This condition can be presented as the

137 conditional failure stage. Some sporadic conditions of system can cause an unstable condition that becomes a root cause of failure. Such an unstable system condition should not exist when a machine is new and is operating in design conditions. Usually, some transient situation or hostile conditions trigger a system instability problem. A review of the root causes of system failure should reveal the importance of the precursors of conditional failure and the need for proactive maintenance to correct or stabilise the aberrant conditions. Because conditional failure is an unstable condition of the system, detection of the conditional failure stage can be implemented by monitoring of stability parameters.

5.4.5.1 Mechanical stability and fluid stability parameters

A list of mechanical stability and fluid stability parameters of mechanical machines is presented by Fitch (1992). This list was specified for electrical motors and the proposed parameters to detect conditional failure of electrical motors using mechanical and fluid stability parameters is shown in Table 34.
Table 34. Mechanical and fluid stability parameters for electrical motors.
*) Stability parame- *) Description ter Fluid contamination A contaminant is any material or energy that can have a deleterious effect on system operation. Leakage Leakage is an intolerable situation. Fluid chemical Without good fluid, system components fail to operate effectively, reliably and continuously. Temperature Temperature stability is a critical operational characteristic vital to the success of all mechanical systems. Proposed parameters for electrical motors Contamination of bearing lubrication or cooling liquid. Leakage of bearing lubrication or cooling liquid. Chemical composition of bearing lubrication or cooling liquid.

Operational temperature of bearing lubrication both high and low level. High operational temperature cause thermal ageing of insulation materials of stator cores and windings. Some bearing failures can be caused by surface Wear Wear of critical surfaces within mechanical systems results in degrada- to surface wear or electrically caused erosion. tion type failures. Components that are subject to mechanical failMechanical Mechanical stability must exist in mechanical systems in order to have a ure include shafts and gears. Can be caused by viable working system. When the sys- cyclic, impact and vibratory loading as well as tem loses mechanical stability, failure is eccentric and unbalanced loading conditions. imminent. *) Presented by Fitch (1992)

138

5.4.5.2 Electrical stability parameters

Electrical stability can exist with rotating electromechanical systems in order to have a viable working system. When the system looses electrical stability, failure is imminent because the electrical stresses cause wear of the components. In Table 35 a proposal for electrical stability parameters for electrical motors is presented.
Table 35. Proposal for electrical stability parameters for electrical motors.
Stability parameter Shaft voltages and currents Descriptiton Shaft voltages and currents generated by electrical drives can generate bearing currents that cause surface erosion of inner bearing surfaces. Eccessive harmonic currents of supply can cause extra heating of motor. This can lead to slow degradation of insulation systems. Over-voltages of supply voltage caused by inverter drives or switching surges degrade the insulation of stator winding. Asymmetry of supply voltage cause extra heating of motor that degrades insulation of stator winding.

Harmonic currents of supply Over-voltages of supply voltages Asymmetry of supply voltages

5.4.6 Proposed diagnostics system for electrical motors

In Fig. 78 is the proposed diagnostic system for squirrel-cage motors based on applicable condition monitoring measurements.

139
Condition monitoring
Sensors
Current sensor Measurements

System diagnosis
Measurable signals
Time based signals: Stator current Temperature Vibration Partial discharges Bearing current Terminal voltage

Failure prognosis
Failure location, state and cause
Bearings: Lubrication fault Mechanical failure Bearing currents

Fault indicators
Current overload limit Temperature overheat limit Vibration overall limit Partial discharges overall limit Bearing current RMS limit Terminal voltage high voltage limit

Stator current

Flux coil sensor

Axial leakage flux

Temperature sensor

Temperature of bearing, stator winding and core

Stator winding: Short circuit failure Turn to turn failure Ground circuit Increased partial discharges

Vibration sensor

Vibration of bearings

Partial discharge sensor

Partial discharges of stator windings

Frequency based signals: Stator current spectrum Axial leakage flux spectrum Vibration spectrum

Bearing current sensor

Bearing current

Current rotor bar and eccentricity frequencies Axial flux rotor bar, stator failure and asymmetry frequencies Vibration bearing failure, misalignment, unbalance, eccentricity and rotor bar frequencies

Rotor: Broken rotor bars Broken end ring

Shaft: Eccentricity Misalignment Unbalance

Cooling&ventilation: External cooling failure Cooling fan failure Dirty cooling grooves

Voltage sensor

Terminal voltage

Abnormal operation conditions: Overload Overheating Jammed rotor Voltage asymmetry Over voltage

Fig. 78. Diagnosis system design for squirrel-cage motors.

Using the proposed methodology system sensor outputs are first converted to measurement quantities. This stage of the system is called condition monitoring. Each sensor observes variation of specific physical or electrical parameter. All selected measurements are selected so that they are made during normal operation and they do not disturb the operation of motor or cause abnormal stresses to the motor. During the system diagnosis stage compiled measurement signals are translated to fault indicator models using applicable limits. Some of signals are processed as time based signals but some of them are converted to the frequency spectrum and are processed as various frequency components. The function of this stage can also be called decision processing because it allows us to implement a suitable decision for prognosis purposes.

140 In the proposed methodology system, the last stage is the failure prognosis including prediction of the failure mode of the motor. Through failure modes it is possible to make a life prediction prognosis and predict the behavioral effects of the motor on the system operation. In the following section we introduce a prediction of some failure modes detected by axial leakage flux measurement because this is the main focus of this thesis. Prescriptive actions are not included in this proposed methodology system because they include maintenance actions that do not belong to the focus of this thesis. However, in a total methodology system they should not be forgotten because they include the actions or controls needed to safely prolong system life.

5.4.7 Prediction of the failure mode and life prediction prognosis using results from axial leakage flux measurement
We now present some guidelines to predict the failure mode of a motor and to make a prediction of the life prognosis of a motor based on the axial leakage flux measurement results. Development of these guide lines has resulted from using the information found in earlier sections of this thesis. In Fig. 79 we present a proposal for a diagnosis system design for axial leakage flux measurement of squirrel-cage motors.
Condition monitoring
Sensor
Measurement

System diagnosis
Measurable signal
Axial leakage flux spectrum

Failure prognosis
Failure location, state and cause
Broken rotor bars

Fault indicator
Rotor bar failure ratio - RBF

Flux coil sensor

Axial leakage flux

Rotor end ring failure ratio RERF Stator winding turn to turn failure ratio SWTF

Broken rotor end ring

Turn to turn failure of stator winding

Supply voltage asymmetry operation ratio SVAO

Abnormal operation conditions, Supply voltage asymmetry

Fig. 79. Diagnosis system design for axial leakage flux measurement of squirrel-cage motors.

141 To make life time prediction, and to propose the right prescreptive actions for each failure type, we must develop a more sensitive procedure. The proposed procedures for each of the four cases have been presented in Tables 36 to 39. The failure evaluation values that are given in following tables have been selected based on the experimental results and our own understanding of the matter.
Table 36. Failure state evaluation, life prediction and recommended actions for rotor bar failure detection using axial leakage flux measurement.
Measurable signal Axial flux spectrum: 1) RBSF 2) LF Fault mode and fault indicator Rotor Bar Failure ratio RBF = 20 log (RBSB/LF) Failure state evalua- Failure state tion RBF not decreased Electrical from healthy reference stability value RBF decreased 10 to 15 dB from healthy value and is slowly decreasing Incipient failure Life predic- Action tion Several No actions needed years

Months

RBF decreased over 15 dB from healthy value and is decreasing by accelerated speed

Impending failure

Days to weeks

Verify with stator current spectrum. Predict mechanical influences by vibration spectrum. Repair rotor bar failure in planned shut down. Verify with stator current spectrum. Predict mechanical influences by vibration spectrum. Repair rotor bar failure as soon as possible.

1) 2)

RBSB is Rotor Bar Side Band frequency component = Amplitude of component fs(12s) LF is Line Frequency component = Amplitude of component fs

Rotor bar degradation during a conditional failure state cannot be noticed by condition monitoring because there are no unstable root causes before at least some level of material degradation. Failure state evaluation of rotor bars using axial flux is not very reliable and thus it is recommended to verify the results using stator current spectrum. In severe rotor bar failure cases it is to be recommended that a vibration spectrum is made to predict influences of mechanical vibration caused by rotor degradation to the whole machine system.

142
Table 37. Failure state evaluation, life prediction and recommended actions for rotor end ring failure detected using axial leakage flux measurement.
Measurable signal Axial flux spectrum: 1) SF 2) LF Fault mode and fault indicator Rotor End Ring Failure ratio RERF= 20 log (SF/LF) Failure state evaluation RERF not decreased from healthy reference value RERF decreased 10 to 15 dB from healthy value and is slowly decreasing Failure state Electrical stability Life predic- Action tion Several No actions needed years

Incipient failure

Months

RERF decreased over Impending Days to weeks 15 dB from healthy failure value and is decreasing by accelerated speed SF is slip frequency component = Amplitude of component sfs LF is Line Frequency component = Amplitude of component fs

Verify using stator current spectrum and vibration spectrum. Repair rotor end ring failure in planned shut down Verify using stator current spectrum and vibration spectrum. Repair rotor end ring failure as soon as possible.

It is not possible to notice rotor end ring degradation or broken rotor bars during the conditional failure stage either, because there are no unstable root causes before material degradation. There is not enough knowledge from failure state evaluation of rotor bars using axial flux and thus it is recommended that results will be verified using stator current spectrum. We also recommend using vibration spectrum to predict influences of rotor failure on the mechanical vibration of the whole machine system.

143
Table 38. Failure stage evaluation, life prediction and recommended actions for turn to turn failure of stator winding, monitored using axial leakage flux measurement.
Measurable signal Axial flux spectrum: 1) RSF 2) LF Fault mode and fault indicator Stator Winding Turn Failure ratio SWTF= 20 log (RSF/LF) Failure state evaluation Failure state Life predic- Action tion SWTF not decreased Electrical No actions needed from healthy reference stability value

Monitor with stator winding or core temperature. Disconnect motor and verify condition with surge wave test in planned shut down. Impending Minutes to Add cooling and monitor failure hours using stator winding or core temperature. Prepare to change the motor. Disconnect motor and verify failure with surge wave test as soon as possible. SWTF decreased over Precipitous Seconds to Add cooling and monitor minutes using stator winding or core 10 dB from healthy ref- failure temperature. erence value during Disconnect motor immedifew minutes and stator ately and verify failure with winding temperature is surge wave test. Change the increasing by accelermotor. ated speed. 1) RSF is Rotor Slot Frequency component = Amplitude of component: (Qr fr fs) + fr 2) LF is Line Frequency component = Amplitude of component:fs SWTF decreased less than 5 dB from healthy reference value and stator winding temperature is not increasing. SWTF decreased about 5 to 10 dB from healthy reference value during few minutes and stator winding temperature is slowly increasing

Probable incipient failure

Hours to days

It is not possible to notice stator winding turn to turn degradation during the conditional failure stage, because there are no unstable root causes of failure. Turn to turn failure develops quite rapidly and causes a sudden rise in motor winding temperature. Thus it is recommended to monitor temperature continuously. The most reliable method for verifying turn to turn failure of stator winding is a surge wave test. However, it requires a shut down of the motor.

144
Table 39. Evaluation of supply voltage asymmetry operation using axial leakage flux measurement, failure state evaluation, life prediction and recommended actions.
Measurable signal Axial flux spectrum: 1) SVA 2) LF Fault mode and fault indicator Stator Voltage Asymmetry Operation ratio SVAO= 20 log (SVA/LF) Failure state evaluation SVAO not decreased from healthy reference value Failure state Life predic- Action tion Electrical Several No actions needed stability years

Detect root-causes using supply voltage symmetry measurement. Add external cooling and correct rootcause of asymmetry in planned shut down. Impending Hours to Detect root-causes using failure days supply voltage symmetry measurement and stator winding resistance measurement. Add external cooling and correct root-cause of asymmetry as soon as possible. 1) SVA is Supply Voltage Asymmetry frequency = Amplitude of component fs(2s) 2) LF is Line Frequency component = Amplitude of component fs Beginning incipient failure Several months to years

SVAO decreased less than 10 dB from healthy reference value and operation temperature of motor has not increased. SVAO decreased 10 to 20 dB and operating temperature of motor has increased from healthy reference value SVAO decreased over 20 dB and operating temperature of motor is continuously increasing.

Conditional failure

Several years

Detect unstable root-causes using electric quality measurement and correct abnormalities.

Detection of supply voltage asymmetry operation can be used also for detection of conditional failure of motor because asymmetry does not directly cause the failure. Asymmetry causes a slow rising of the operation temperature of the motor. This causes an increase in lubrication temperature of the bearings and slow degradation of the stator winding insulation when temperature is above the specification ratings. Severe asymmetry causes continuous increasing in the operation temperature. This in turn causes continuous increasing of the lubrication temperature of bearings and stator windings. Catastrophic failure of the motor can thus be caused either by sudden bearing failure or sudden burning of the stator winding insulation.

6 Conclusions
Condition monitoring of squirrel-cage motors using axial magnetic flux measurements was studied by literature reviews and an experimental test series, with special attention given to the detection of electrical failures of the motor components using spectral analysis. In the literature review, the axial magnetic leakage fluxes of sine wave supplied healthy motors were found to include wide variety of frequency components caused by stator currents, rotor currents, stator slots and rotor slots. Currents of variable speed drive cause similar harmonics, and with modern frequency converters the amplitudes of the harmonics can be changed. Since the distribution of the frequency components of each motor is affected by stator winding factors, installation tolerances, operating conditions and mechanical load, it is complicated to predetermine the frequency components of axial leakage flux, and a reference measurement for each motor is required. Specific failures of each motor component cause specific variation in the frequency distribution. From the low frequency area of about 1 Hz to 200 Hz we found equations to detect turn to turn failures of the stator winding, rotor asymmetry, broken rotor bar, broken rotor end ring, rotor eccentricity, mechanical vibrations and supply voltage asymmetry. From the high frequency area of about 300 Hz to 2 kHz we found equations to detect stator windings turn to turn failure. All the studies found were made using spectrum analysis and studies made using time based analysis were not found. Nor did we find any studies made for frequency converter used motors. Based on the results of literature review of magnetic leakage fluxes we developed instructions for analysing the results of flux coil measurements. The equations for sine wave supplied motors were classified and presented in four tables that include both low and high frequency equations for healthy motors both in normal operation and in various failure modes. In the literature review of measurements of magnetic fields and leakage fluxes it was found that the fluxgate magnetometer measurement is too complicated and unreliable for condition monitoring purposes. The reliability of Hall effect sensors and measurements is worse than the reliability of induction motors and they are therefore poor application for this purpose too. An air core probe e.g. a flux coil sensor is reliable enough for condition monitoring of electric motors. The output frequency of a flux coil sensor is frequency

146 dependent. The only identified drawback is that a dc signal or a low frequency signal of about under 0.2 Hz cannot be measured by flux coils. The useful frequency area of a flux coil sensor is from about 0.2 Hz to about 15 kHz. That is highly applicable to condition monitoring of ac motors because there is no need to measure dc signals or very low frequencies, except for motors controlled to rotate with low rotating speed. The output frequency dependence can be taken into account during the analysis stage. The property that the sensitivity of the sensor increases with the increasing frequency can be utilised in the detection of stator winding failures by the rotor slot pass frequency components, because they are at higher frequencies. The sensitivity of the sensor can be improved by increasing the diameter or the number of turns of the coil. When a flux sensor is placed outside the motor case, the output voltage of the sensor is typically a mV level and so amplification of the signal is usually needed for signal processing. Installation of a sensor inside the motor case increases sensor output voltage significantly; a rough estimation is from hundreds of mV to some volts. The reproducibility and reliability of measurements using portable sensors is best when the sensor is always placed similarly axially centred against the motor end. It is recommended that the placement of the sensor is marked and the sensor is fastened against the motor surface, for example using magnets to prevent movement during the measurement period. Fast variation of mechanical load causes variation in the motor speed and disturbs signal processing, especially the FFT of the signal, so it is recommended that measurements are made during as steady operation as possible. It is also recommended that measurements are made with a loaded motor, because the detection of most of failures requires the loading current. A time base signal sampled using high sampling speed, for example about 15 000 samples per second, can be used to study fast disturbances of flux caused by mechanical loading or switching of a frequency converter. Rotor condition cannot be detected from a time base signal, because the amplitudes of the frequency components sensitive to rotor failures are tens of dB smaller than the amplitude of the supply frequency. The stator winding turn to turn failure causes periodical disturbances in the signal wave, but they are quite complicated to identify. The conclusion is that from the point of view of condition monitoring the time base analysis is only the supporting tool that cannot practically be used to detect component failures. The spectral analysis of flux coil measurements is a more effective tool for condition monitoring, because failures of various components cause amplitude variation of specific frequency components and these can even be predetermined. From the spectrum we have to detect large amplitude differences between various frequency components. The results of the field tests showed that this resolution has to be at least about 70 dB, which requires usage of at least a 12 bit AD-converter in the data collection instrument. The frequency components sensitive to various failures are usually separated by some coefficient times the slip frequency from the supply frequency and the line resolution of the spectrum has to be high enough to separate amplitudes of these components from other frequencies. Broken rotor bars can be evaluated by low frequency analysis of axial flux coil measurement. Evaluation is made by the difference between the amplitudes of the 1 2s ) and the supply frequency fs . Recommendations of the amplitude frequency fs ( difference between these frequency components cannot be given, but monitoring is based on the change in the difference. A comparison between the flux coil analysis and stator

147 current spectrum analysis was made by experimental test results and it was found that the stator current spectrum is more reliable for this purpose. In addition, there is an evaluation table to evaluate the rotor condition using stator current spectrum. Severe rotor failures can be detected from vibration measurements too. A broken rotor end ring can be evaluated with low frequency analysis using the difference between the amplitudes of the slip frequency sfs and the supply frequency fs. We did not find experimental results for this failure type, but it is known that this failure type can be evaluated using stator current spectrum too. Severe failures can be evaluated from vibration measurements. Detection of stator winding turn to turn failure was studied in a laboratory test series and it was most reliably detected from a high frequency spectrum, 0 to 2000 Hz. There were practically two sensitive frequency components, 2 times the line frequency family of the rotor slot pass frequencies modulated by rotating sidebands and 2 times the line frequency family of a multiple of the rotor slot pass frequencies. The failure is evaluated using amplitude the difference between the sensitive component and the supply frequency. The latter component was found by the experimental tests of this thesis and it is more preferable, because it exists on a higher frequency area where the harmonics of the supply frequency are strongly attenuated. No experimental data was found from the detection of turn to turn failures using the stator current and it seems that the flux coil method is better applicable for this purpose. It is known that the turn to turn failure of stator winding increases the temperature of the stator winding too, but the flux coil measurement gives more time for further action. In the literature review we found that the supply voltage asymmetry can be evaluated with low the frequency analysis and the most sensitive frequency component is fs(6 5s ). Evaluation is made between the supply frequency fs and the amplitude difference of this component. In this study this operation was not tested. It is known that motor temperature increases also in the supply voltage asymmetry operation. As a result of this thesis a new equation set for condition monitoring of frequency converter controlled motors has been presented. These equations were developed from the equations for sine wave supplied motors. In the equations the supply frequency was replaced by the output frequency of the frequency converter. In addition the developed equations were verified to the results of experimental measurements of healthy motors. The design of a diagnostics system for condition monitoring of electrical motors was developed from the system design found for mechanical machines. The overall system includes four parts; the first is condition monitoring including sensors and data acquiring. The second part is the system diagnosis including symptom identification from measurable signals and fault indicator models. The third part includes failure prognosis by determination of failure modes and the evaluation of the residual lifetime based on them. The fourth part includes prescriptive actions that were beyond the focus of this study. A proposal for a failure classification of electrical machines was developed based on classifications found for mechanical machines. The classification has five levels of failure states: conditional, incipient, impending, precipitous and catastrophic failure. For operation it is most important to predict the lifetime before the motor has to be taken for repair. For this purpose we developed a proposal for lifetime prediction for each failure state.

148 To develop a design for condition monitoring of electrical motors we developed a proposal for the monitoring parameters from a component standpoint. The selected parameters, or various condition monitoring methods include vibration measurement, stator current measurement, axial leakage flux measurement, shaft voltage measurement, bearing current measurement, leakage of oil or grease from bearing, wear debris analysis, rotational speed and temperature measurements. For all these parameters we developed the variables to be used for the evaluation of the condition. Recent development in condition monitoring makes it possible to move to proactive maintenance of electrical motors. Proactive maintenance is based on monitoring the conditional failure stage using stability parameters so that the problems can be detected and eliminated before they cause any material degradation. For this purpose we propose parameters to monitor the conditional failure stage of electrical motors. These were divided into two parts. The first part includes mechanical and fluid stability parameters. The second part includes electrical stability parameters such as shaft voltage, shaft current, the harmonic currents of the supply voltage, over voltages of the supply voltage and asymmetry of the supply voltage that can be detected using axial flux measurement or from motor temperature rise. A proposal for a diagnostic system for electrical motors was developed and presented. It includes a condition monitoring stage based on current, flux coil, temperature, vibration, partial discharge, bearing current and voltage sensors and measurements. In the system diagnosis stage, the measurable signals are divided into time based and frequency based signals and for them fault indicators are determined. During the failure prognosis stage by fault indicators failure location, state and cause are determined. The maintenance personnel can then plan further actions. Based on the developed model of the diagnostic system and other information developed in this study a proposal was made for prediction of the failure mode and lifetime prediction prognosis using results of axial leakage flux measurement. In the diagnosis part the measurable signal is the axial leakage flux spectrum and the fault indicators are rotor bar failure ratio, rotor end ring failure ratio, stator winding turn to turn ratio and supply voltage asymmetry operation ratio. By using these fault indicators the failure location, state and cause are determined. In addition, instruction tables were developed to evaluate failure states, to make lifetime predictions and to give recommended actions based on fault indicators. A summary conclusion is that axial leakage flux measurements can be used for condition monitoring of squirrel-cage motors. Based on the results of this work it seems to be the best method for detection of stator winding turn to turn failures. It can be used also for condition monitoring of the rotor condition, but the referable method for that purpose is the stator current measurement. Axial leakage flux measurements can be used to detect supply voltage asymmetry operation too, even though this case was not studied in here. Detection of mechanical failures was beyond the focus of this thesis, because the vibration measurement is a reliable method for that purpose. For further research it is worth studying more carefully the axial leakage flux method for condition monitoring of motors controlled by frequency converters, because such motors are usually part of critical production lines. The output voltage of converters can supply unwanted voltages to motors terminals and increase the risk of stator winding failures. Another potential problem found with converters is the voltage asymmetry that increases the temperature of the motor. These operation situations should be studied also more carefully using axial leakage flux measurements.

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Appendix 1 Frequency response test of the CSi 343 flux coil sensor
The frequency response of the CSi 343 flux coil sensor was tested using the test arrangement shown in Fig. A.1. The principle diagram of the test method used is shown in Fig. A.2. Tests were made 05.04.2002 in the magnetic field test laboratory of the Electrical Engineering Department of the University of Oulu.
Flux coil sensor CSi 343

HF Sweep generator Wavetek Model 144 (Sinewave setting) Magnetic field normal MKN 951

Mixed Signal Oscilloscope Agilent 546220

Fig. A.1. Test arrangement. A signal generator supplied the magnetic field normal. The CSi 343 flux coil being test was centred inside the supplying flux coil of the magnetic field normal.
Rg 50 47 k R

31.5 Vpp 15.7 Vpp

4.7 n

15.7 Vpp

Fig. A.2. Principle diagram of magnetic field normal system used in tests. Values for the MKN 951 Magnetic Field Normal are the following: D = 0.586 m, N = 5, L = 26 H (Diameter, Number of turns and inductance of the supplying magnetic flux coil), R = 51.1 ohm and B0 = 4.4 TP-P / 15 VP-P. The supplied voltage of the signal generator was 31.5 VP-P.

Appendix 1 continued
Table A1.1 shows the test results. Table A1.1 Test results of the frequency response of the CSi 343 flux coil sensor.
Frequency area 20 Hz to 1000 Hz Frequency [Hz] Response [mV] 20 2.0 50 2.75 100 3.57 200 5.1 300 6.7 400 8.1 500 9.7 600 11.4 700 13.1 800 15.2 900 17.3 1000 20.0 Frequency area 0.5 kHz to 20 kHz Frequency [kHz] Response [mV] 0.5 10 mV 1.0 21 mV 1.5 32 mV 2.0 37 mV 2.5 48 mV 3.0 57 mV 3.5 67 mV 4.0 80 mV 4.5 89 mV 5.0 106 mV 5.5 121 mV 6.0 125 mV 6.5 136 mV 7.0 158 mV 7.5 174 mV 8.0 192 mV 8.5 217 mV 9.0 231 mV 9.5 261 mV 10.0 286 mV 10.5 330 mV 11.0 363 mV 11.5 406 mV 12.0 453 mV 12.5 522 mV 13.0 613 mV 13.5 714 mV 14.0 810 mV 14.5 900 mV 15.0 1.33 V 15.5 2.30 V 16.0 3.80 V 16.5 4.91 V 17.0 3.81 V 17.5 2.50 V 18.0 1.80 V 18.5 1.45 V 19.0 1.12 V 19.5 963 mV 20.0 853 mV Frequency area 20 kHz to 50 kHz Frequency [kHz] Response [mV] 20 853 25 381 30 260 35 195 40 161 45 133 50 117

Notice:

It was found after the printing of the thesis that there are mistakes in the equations of (16) to (20) and (22) to (26) on the pages 29 to 31. However, these equations are correctly presented in the Table 13 on the page 101. The presented calculations of the Chapter 5 : Discussion, are based on the error-free equations and can be used for reference purposes if necessary.
Oulu, March 2003-03-22

Voitto Kokko