Mechanical Failure

How do flaws f in a material initiate failure? f ? How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different material classes compare? How do we estimate the stress to fracture? How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature affect the failure stress?

Cyclic loading from waves: Ship

Cyclic thermal loading: Computer chip

Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.

Cyclic loading due to walking: Hip implant.

Fracture mechanisms
Ductile fracture Occurs with plastic deformation Brittle fracture Little or no plastic deformation Catastrophic C t t hi

Ductile vs Brittle Failure

Classification:
Fracture behavior: Very D til Ductile Moderately D til Ductile Brittle

Adapted from Fig. 8.1, Callister 7e 7e.

%AR or %EL
Ductile fracture is usually desirable!

Large
Ductile: warning before fracture

Moderate

Small
Brittle: No warning g
3

Example: p Failure of a Pipe p

Ductile failure:
--one piece --large deformation

Brittle failure:
--many yp pieces --small deformation

V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.),

Moderately y Ductile Failure

Evolution to failure:
necking

void nucleation

void growth and linkage

shearing at surface

fracture

Resulting fracture surfaces

(steel)
particles serve as void nucleation sites.

50 50mm mm

100 mm
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed ) Fig ed.), Fig. 11.28, 11 28 p p. 294 294, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp. 347-56.) Fracture surface of tire cord wire loaded in tension. Courtesy of F. Roehrig CC Technologies Roehrig, Technologies, Dublin Dublin, OH. Used with permission. 5

Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture

brittle fracture

Brittle Failure
failure

From Fig. 11.5(a) Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.

Brittle Fracture Surfaces

Intergranular
(between grains)

Intragranular
(within grains)
316 S S. St Steel l (metal)

304 S. Steel (metal))

4 mm 160 mm

Polypropylene ( l (polymer) )
.

Al Oxide ( (ceramic) i )

3 mm 1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol. 3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.) 8

Stress-Strain Curves

Brittle solids:

Ceramics and Glasses

Ductile materials:

Metals and Polymers (above Tg)

Ductile and brittle fracture

Cup-cone ductile Cupfracture in Al

Brittle fracture in MS

Ceramics along with some polymers and metals (steels at low temperature) show little ductility ductility failure in an un predictable brittle manner under tensile loading

Fracture and Flow

propagation of crack: brittle fracture

dislocation motion: plastic p s c flow ow

Why metals are tough?

When stress ahead of a crack tip exceeds the metals yield strength, the metal will yield locally - dissipates energy, blunts the crack tip, and leads to toughness. yield i ld strength h applied li d crack x

This material yields (plastically deforms)

Why ceramics are brittle??

Ionic bonding (dislocation movement restricted only to specific planes due to charge neutrality conditions) Covalent bonding (high energy required to distort highly directional bonds) Dislocation core width is narrower than that in metals (higher Pierls Pierls-Nabarro Nabarro force) (failure of Von Mises criterion!) Less than five independent and active slip systems

Difficult for a ceramic grain to change its shape by rotation : strain incompatibilities at grain boundaries lead to high localised stresses and brittle fracture!!

Ideal vs Real Materials

Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
E/10

perfect matl-no flaws

carefully produced glass fiber

TSengineering << TS perfect

materials materials

E/100

typical ceramic 0.1

typical strengthened metal typical polymer

DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed observed...

-- the longer the wire, the smaller the load for failure. Reasons: -- flaws cause premature failure. -- Larger samples contain more flaws!

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics g g of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.4. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996.

15

Flaws are Stress Concentrators!

Results from crack propagation Griffith Crack

a m = 2o t
t

1/ 2

= K t o

where t = radius of curvature o = applied stress m = stress at crack tip

From Fig. 11.8(a) Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.

16

Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip p

17

Engineering g g Fracture Design g

Avoid sharp corners! o max Stress Conc. Factor, K t =
w
max

25 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0 0.5 1.0 sharper fillet radius increasing w/h

r, fillet radius

Adapted from Fig. 8.2W(c), Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H. Neugebauer Prod. Neugebauer, Prod Eng Eng. (NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87 1943.)

r /h

18

Crack Propagation p g
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip A plastic material deforms at the tip, blunting the crack. d f deformed d region
brittle plastic

Energy balance on the crack Elastic strain energy e energy e gy s stored o ed in material a e a as it is se elastically as ca y de deformed o ed this energy is released when the crack propagates creation of new surfaces requires energy
19

Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture

Energy criterion gy associated Increase in surface energy with crack : Us = 4cs

2c

Reduction in stored elastic strain energy: Uel = 2c2/2E Overall system energy U= Us- Uel

For the spontaneous crack extension above a critical crack length

dU d 2c 2 = 4c s =0 dc dc 2E

2 s E f = c

1/ 2

When Does a Crack Propagate? p g

Crack propagates if above critical stress i.e., m > c or Kt > Kc
where
E = modulus of elasticity s = specific surface energy c = one half length of internal crack Kc = c/0
1/ 2

2 E s c = c

For ductile => replace s by s + p where p is plastic deformation energy

21

Crack opening in different mode of loading geometries

Cracks in engineering components loaded in one of three ways (or a combination of all three):

mode I

mode II

mode III

Mode I is the most dangerous, since the K-factor K factor is much larger in mode-I than in other modes of crack opening as the tensile stress tries to open up the crack more severely.

Measurement of K
Long crack fracture toughness measurement : SENB Chevron Notch test

Short crack fracture toughness measurement : Indentation tests

Single Edge Notched Beam test (SENB)

Indentation Microfracture method

KIc = 0.016 (E/H)1/2P/c3/2

(Anstiss formula)

For the Plamqvist cracks (0.25<l/a<2.5), (0 25<l/a<2 5) the fracture toughness (KIc) can be computed from the expression given by Niihara et al.: ( KIc/H a1/2) )*(H/E ( )2/5 = 0.035(l/a) ( )-1/2 Where = 3 and l= Plamqvist crack length =c-a

Indentation Microfracture method

For median cracks (c/a 2.5), the corresponding expression is

3/2 (KIc/H a1/2)*(H/E)2/5 = 0.129(l/a) 0 129(l/a)-3/2

Shetty y at el.163 modified the equation q of Niihara et al. KIc = 0.025(E/H)0.4(HW)1/2 where W= P/4a (P the indentation load, 2a the Vickers diagonal).

Indentation strength in Bending

KIc = (E/H)1/8(P1/3)3/4
Chantikuls formula

where = 0.59 and the strength.

failure

Fracture Toughness g
Metals/ Alloys 100 70 60 50 40
Steels Ti alloys Al alloys Mg alloys Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 C/C( fibers) 1 Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 Glass/SiC(w) 6

Graphite/ Ceramics/ Semicond

Polymers

Composites/ fibers
C C(|| fib C-C(|| fibers) ) 1

K Ic (MP Pa m0.5 )

30 20 10 7 6 5 4 3 2

Based on data in Table B5,

Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version. Composite reinforcement geometry is: f = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers; p = particles. Addition data as noted (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
1. ( (55vol%) ) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, , ASM Int., , Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606. 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc., Waltham, MA. 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press (1986) pp (1986). pp. 61 61-73. 73 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO. 5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in Technology for Advanced Engines Program", ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992. 6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.

Diamond Si carbide bid Al oxide Si nitride PET PP PVC PC

1 0.7 0.6 0.5

Si crystal <111> Glass -soda Concrete

<100>

PS Polyester

Glass 6

29

Design g Against g Crack Growth

Crack growth condition: K Kc = Y a Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Result 1: Max. flaw size
dictates design stress.

--Result 2: Design stress

dictates max. flaw size.

design

Kc < Y amax

amax

Kc 1 < Ydesign

fracture no fracture

amax
fracture

amax

no fracture

30

Design g Example: p Aircraft Wing g

Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5 Two designs to consider consider... Design A
--largest flaw is 9 mm --failure stress = 112 MPa

Design B
--use same material --largest flaw is 4 mm --failure stress = ?

Use...

Kc c = Y amax
112 MPa

Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.

--Result: R lt

9 mm

amax

) = (
A

4 mm

amax

Reducing flaw size pays off!

Answer: ( c )B = 168 MPa

31

Loading g Rate
Increased loading g rate...
-- increases y and TS -- decreases %EL

Why? y An increased rate

gives less time for dislocations to move past obstacles. b t l

y
TS larger TS

smaller

y
32

Impact p Testing g
Impact loading:
-- severe testing case -- makes material more brittle -- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 11.12(b), Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version. (Fig. 11.12(b) is adapted from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties p of Materials, Vol. III, , Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

(Charpy)

final height g

initial height g

33

Temperature p
Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc

Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impac ct Energ gy

BCC metals (e.g., (e g iron at T < 914 914C) C) polymers Brittle More Ductile High strength materials ( y > E/150)

Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle t transition iti temperature t t

From Fig Fig. 11 11.15 15 Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.

34

Design Strategy: Stay Above The DBTT!

Pre-WWII: P WWII Th The Tit Titanic i WWII: WWII Lib Liberty t ships hi

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Discovery of the Titanic.)

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci., Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)

Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp temp.

35

Fatigue
Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress. Ex: Rotating shafts, connecting rods, aircraft wings and leaf Adapted from Fig Fig. 11 11.18, 18 springs etc etc. Callisters Materials
specimen compression on top
b i bearing
Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.

bearing

motor

counter

flex coupling tension on bottom

Stress St varies i with ith ti time.

-- key parameters are S, m, and frequency

max m min

(Fig. 11.18 (Fi 11 18 i is f from Materials Science in Engineering, 4/E by Carl. A. Keyser, Pearson Education, , Inc., , Upper pp Saddle River, NJ.)

S time

Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though max < c. --causes causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures failures.
36

Fatigue g
Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top
bearing bearing motor counter
Adapted from Fig Fig. 11 11.18, 18 Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version. (Fig. 11.18 (Fi 11 18 i is f from Materials Science in Engineering, 4/E by Carl. A. Keyser, Pearson Education, , Inc., , Upper pp Saddle River, NJ.)

flex coupling tension on bottom

Stress St varies i with ith ti time.

-- key parameters are S, m, and frequency

max m min

S time

Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though max < c. --causes causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures failures.
37

Fatigue g Design g Parameters

Fatigue limit, Sfat:
--no no fatigue if S < Sfat
Sfat safe 10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9 N = Cycles to failure
From Fig. 11.19(a), Callisters MSE Adapted Version.

S = stress amplitude unsafe f

case for steel t l (typ.) (t )

Sometimes, the fatigue limit is zero!

S = stress amplitude p unsafe safe 10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9 N = Cycles to failure

case for Al (typ.)

From Fig. 11.19(b), Callisters MSE Adapted Version.

38

Fatigue g Mechanism
Crack grows incrementally

da m = (K ) dN

typ 1 to 6 typ.

~ ( ) a
crack origin g

increase in crack length per loading cycle

Failed rotating shaft

--crack grew even though Kmax < Kc --crack grows faster as
increases crack k gets t longer l loading freq. increases.
From Fig. 11.21, Callisters Callister s Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version. (Fig. 11.21 is from D.J. W l i Understanding Wulpi, U d t di How Components Fail, American Society for Metals, Materials Park, OH, 1985.)

39

Improving p g Fatigue g Life

1. Impose a compressive surface stress
(to suppress surface cracks from growing)
m
S = stress amplitude
From Fig. 11.24, Callisters Materials Science and E i Engineering, i Ad t d Adapted Version.

Increasing

near zero or compressive m moderate tensile m Larger tensile m N = Cycles to failure

--Method M th d 1 1: shot h t peening i

shot put surface into compression

--Method M th d 2 2: carburizing b i i
C-rich gas

2. Remove stress concentrators.

bad bad

better better
From Fig. 11.25, C lli t M Callisters Materials t i l Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.

40

Creep p
Sample deformation at a constant stress () vs. time

It i is high hi h temp. t deformation d f ti T > 0.4 0 4 Tm;

(Tm is MP in K)

Creep p
Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm

tertiary primary elastic secondary

From Figs. F Fi 11.29, 11 29 Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.

Creep

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate) decreases with time. Secondary Creep: steady-state i.e., constant slope. Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) increases with time time, i.e. i e acceleration of rate rate.

Secondary y Creep p
Strain rate is constant at a given T,
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery

stress exponent (material parameter)

strain rate material const.

Qc & s = K 2 exp RT
n

activation energy for creep (material parameter)

applied stress

 Strain rate increases for higher T,

200 100 40 20 10 10 -2 10 -1 Steady y state creep p rate 649 C 1 s ( (%/1000hr) )

Stress (MPa)
427C 538 C

From Fig. 11.31, Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.

Creep p Failure
Failure:
along grain boundaries.
g.b. cavities applied stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon Press, Inc.)

Time to rupture, tr
temperature

T ( 20 + log gt r ) = L

function of pp stress applied time to failure (rupture)

Creep p Failure
Estimate rupture time
S-590 Iron, T = 800C, = 20 ksi
100 20 10 data for S-590 Iron 1 12 16 20 24 28 L(10 3 K-log hr) Stress, ksi S i
From Fig. 11.32, Callisters Materials Science and Engineering, g ee g, Adapted dapted Version. (Fig. 11.32 is from F.R. Larson and J. Miller, Trans ASME, 74, 765 Trans. (1952).)

24x103 K-log hr

T ( 20 + log gt r ) = L
1073K

A Ans: tr = 233 h hr

Dr. Anandh, IITK

Dr. Anandh, IITK

Dr. Anandh, IITK

Dr. Anandh, IITK

 Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength. Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause premature failure. Sharp Sh corners produce d l large stress t concentrations t ti and premature failure. Failure type depends on T and stress: - for noncyclic and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size, - decreased T, - increased rate of loading. - cycles to fail decreases as increases.

- for cyclic :

- for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):

- time to fail decreases as or T increases.