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Chapter 3:
3.1

Basic Electrical Concepts

ATOMS AND THEIR STRUCTURE, THE CONCEPT OF CHARGE All matter consists of atoms. An atom consists of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus of the atom. Electrons spin around the nucleus. Protons have a positive charge. Neutrons have no charge. Electrons have a negative charge. The number of protons is equal to the number of electrons in an atom. The magnitude of the positive charge on a proton is equal to the magnitude of the negative charge on an electron. An atom does not gain nor lose protons in a chemical process. An atom can gain or lose electrons in a chemical process. When an atom gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged, because it has more electrons than protons. When an atom loses electrons, it becomes positively charged, because it has fewer electrons than protons.

3.2 FREE ELECTRONS IN A METAL A positive charge and a negative charge attract each other with an electrostatic force. Positive charges repel each other. Negative charges repel each other. oulomb!s law of electrostatic forces states that the electrostatic force between two charges "# and "$ depends on The magnitude of "# The magnitude of "$ The distance %r& between the two charges.

Q1Q2 r2

or

F=

kQ1Q2 r2

This suggests that the larger a charge, the bigger the electrostatic force. an electrostatic force of attraction e'ists between the nucleus %positive& and the electrons.

Electrons are found in energy levels around the nucleus. A full energy level has a large charge. (t will e'perience a strong attraction.

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2 A fairly empty energy level has a small charge. (t will e'perience a wea) attraction to the nucleus. *etal atoms have an outer energy level that is fairly empty. %They have one, two or three electrons only& These electrons e'perience a wea) force of attraction to the nucleus. The addition of a small amount of energy %e.g. heat& is enough to allow these electrons to escape from the metal atom and +roam around freely, between the metal atoms %now positive ions&. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . -

/i'ed positive metal ions 3.3 CURRENT

/ree electrons

(n a neutral piece of metal the free electrons move randomly in all directions. When the metal %conductor& is connected across the terminals of a battery then the electrons of the conductor move towards the positive terminal of the battery. The positive metal ions remain fi'ed. These attract more electrons from the negative battery terminal into the conductor. -

*agnified portion of the conductor

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These electrons that flow in the conductor constitute the flow of charge. This is an electric current. Electron current is from the negative terminal of the battery to the positive terminal. We still use the conventional current, which is from the positive to the negative terminals in a circuit.

I
onventional current urrent flow from a battery is one0directional. This is called d re!t !"rre#t $d!%.

e0
Electron current

An alternating current source %ac& allows current to continuously change direction.

Alternating urrent 1ource

I
We learnt at school that current is the rate of flow of charge. That is
I = Q t

or

I =

dq dt

When we tal) about charge we cannot always refer to electrons. We need to refer to a quantity that is measured in +coulomb, % &. 2obert *illi)an determined that the magnitude of charge on an electron was #.3 ' #40#5 . Question: How many electrons are there in 1 C of charge? -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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3.&

'OLTAGE (n nature any ob6ect has a tendency to move towards a more stable state %lower energy state& when a path is opened for the ob6ect to move. E'ample7 When a stone is released above the ground then it will move downwards where its potential energy will be lower. The path was opened when it was released. The stone moved from a higher potential %energy& towards a lower potential. Wor) is done on the stone as it moves to the lower potential. We say that there e'ists a potential difference between the higher and lower points in the stone!s path.

(n an electric circuit charge %"& flows from one point in the circuit to another point once the path between those points was opened %the switch was closed&. We say that there e'ists an electrical potential difference between the two points. Wor) %W& is done on the charge %"& in moving it across the potential difference %8&. 9efinition7 Potential difference %8& is the wor) done %W& per unit charge %"& in moving that charge from one potential to another potential.
V = W Q

or :nits7

W = VQ

(n circuit theory potential difference is also referred to as +voltage,.

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3.(

FI)ED $DC% SUPPLIES ;et!s confirm something< d! '*+ta,e -*"r!eThus far dc voltage sources are the most familiar. ;et!s start with this. The symbol for a dc voltage source is shown below. . What does +dc, stand for= --------------

Note the relative lengths of the bars and their polarity. dc 8oltage sources can be separated into three categories7 batteries dc generators %electromechanical means of generation& 9iscussed in later years of study. %Electrical *achines& dc power supplies %rectified from an ac source& 9iscussed in Electronics

>atteries Pr .ar/ !e++- %non0rechargeable& Alkaline and Lithium-Iodine cells Se!*#dar/ !e++- %rechargeable& o ;ead0acid batteries %car batteries& o Nic)el0 admium cells o Nic)el0hydrogen o Nic)el0*etal hydride cells A.pere0h*"r rat #, The capacity rating of a battery is given in ampere0hours %Ah& or milliampere0hours %mAh&. E'ample7 A battery with a rating of ?4 Ah will deliver # A constantly for ?4 h ?4 A constantly for # h $? A constantly for $ h ? A constantly for #4 h etc.

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The terminal 1*+ta,e *2 the 3atter/ de!rea-e- 2*r the period that a part !"+ar dra # !"rre#t is delivered.
Life(h) = Amp hours ( Ah) amperesdrawn( A)

E'ercise7

9etermine the lifetime of a battery with a capacity of @$4 mAh when the discharge current is ?4 mA.

A>atteries will be discussed in more detail in a later chapterB 3.4 CONDUCTI'IT5 OF MATERIALS onductors A conductor is a material that allows a generous flow of free electrons under a relatively low voltage %Electromotive force&. Atoms of good conductors typically have one electron in their outermost energy levels. 1ome e'amples are given below. Meta+ 1ilver Copper Cold Aluminium (ron Re+at 1e C*#d"!t 1 t/ $6% #4? 100 @4.? 3# #D

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(nsulators (nsulators have 8E2E few free electrons available. The only way that a current passes through an insulator is when a very large potential difference %voltage& is established across it. This is called a brea)down current and it is due to a brea)down strength AvoltageB 1ome e'amples are mentioned below *aterial Air Porcelain Hils 2ubber Class *ica 1emi0conductors This is a group of elements found between conductors and insulators. Elements of semi0conductors are found mostly in the fourth group of the Periodic Table of elements. These elements have D valence electrons. 1ilicon %1i& is used most. Cermanium %Ce& and Callium Arsenide %CaAs& are also used in important devices. Electronics is firmly based on semi0conductor technology. IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Ave. >rea)down 1trength %)8Fcm& G4 @4 #?4 #?4 544 $444

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! A..eter- a#d '*+t.eterAn A..eter $A% is used in a circuit to measure current. The charge will have to flow through the ammeter. Therefore, the ammeter is connected in series in the circuit. A 0 E .
2E1T H/ (2 :(T

As can be seen above we need to brea) into the circuit in order for the ammeter to ma)e its reading.

A '*+t.eter $'% measures the potential difference between two points in a circuit. . . 8 . 0 2est of ircuit

A *ultimeter or a 9igital *ultimeter %9**& can be used as both an ammeter and a voltmeter. (t can also be used to measure resistance, as will be discussed in the ne't chapter. We shall mainly use the 9** in our laboratories. AThe Ammeter and the 8oltmeter will be discussed again in a later chapter.B

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