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UPWI' 12 INTERVENTIONS IN ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE

Objiectives
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After going through this unit you will be able to understand to dt:fine and explain the concept of intervention, types of interventions and their use, and to get acquainted with some interventions which are applied in organisations.

Structu~~e
12.11 2 12.3 12.4 2 12.6 12.'7 12.8 Introduction F'ocus on intervention Intergroup Intervention I'ersonal, Interpersonal and Group Process Intervention ComprehensiveInterventions Structural Intervention !;elf-Assessment Questions Further Readings

121 INTRODUCTION Tht: term intervention refers to all the planned programmatic activities aimed at bringing changes in an organization. These changes are intended to ensure improvement in the functioning of the organization-in its efficiency and eff(:ctiveness. The changes are brought through the employees in the organization while consultants facilitate the change process. Any OD intervention, therefore, involves close interaction between the consultants and the client organization. Intervention basically refers to an intended activity to bring change in the organization ancl the consequent activities within the organization. In a general sense, intervention refkrs to activities that happen in the organization's life. Who makes the interventions? The intervention can be brought by an external cor~sultant who acts in consultation with the client members. A member within the org,aniza.tion,acting as the in-house consultant can also make the intervention. The org,anizationitself could plan the intervention without employing either an internal or external consultant. Where a consultant is employed, any intervention is a collaborative activity between the client and the consultant. Wlhere does an intervention take place? An intervention can take place at the task, process, and system levels and their interface or at any hierarchy levels of an org;aniza.tion. For example, it can be at a task level as to how a decision is made or at the level of a series of'tasks to improve their interconnectivity,to identi@ an underlying problem or at ii team level to create a better synergy at work. The intervention can also relate to ths whole organization as to how to achieve better vertical integration/horizontal integration among all the different levels.

Orgailizations need to basically analyze where, how, when, what etc., to carry out an intervention to improve their p w m a n c e , which in other words, refers to 'intervention strategy'. lnterveiltionsare carried to move an organization from its current position to a desired position and to achieve the desired change a number of techniques are used. To quote, French & Bell, Jr. (1994), "Interventions are sets of structured activities in which selected organizational units (target groups or individuals) engage in a task or a sequence of tasks where the task goals are related directly or indirectly to organizatio~lal improvement. Interventions constitute the action thrust of organization development; they "make things happen" and are "what's happening". ,Assuggested above a number of interventions can be carried out. They may be classified as to their focus and purpose and the intensity or depth. could be: Individual, interpersonal, group or team (intra and The focus of interve~~tion inter-group), system or subsystem, organization and the external environment. The purpose of intervention could be to improve the process (for ex., process reengineering), Action (ex., performance), and provide feedback (ex., has the system produced the intended results)? The depth of intervention could be less intensive (setting up of a task force) or more intensive (dealing with individual self and emotions).
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Interventions in Orgrnisatiennl Change

Specific reasons for intervention could be:

i

. :

to provide feedback about task, individual, team and other aspects of' orga~lizatioilal dynam ics

to provide awareness of changing nonns, to confront and deal with issues cor~structively to develop positive attitudes, openness and improve interaction among people, to educate employees, improve their knowledge and skills to bring constructive and desirable changes to improve individual and organizational performance

12.2 FOCUS ON INTERVENTION

Experience with Indian organizations indicates that the most frequently used interventions are: person focused, role focused, action research based, process feedback based and training based.
Person Focused Intervention: These focus on individuals and can be classified in different ways:

Who does the intervention?-Individuals themselves, a group or organization, or facilitators. The form of intervention-self-introspection and reflection, self-study, or a consulta~lt or facilitator who provides feedback, coaching or does mentoring. What is the theoretical basis or school ofthought? Depending upon one's theoretical approach interventions could have basis in any ofthe following approaches:-Psychoanalytical(Freud, Jung etc.) transactional analysis (Eric Berne), Operant conditioning and behaviour modification, achievement motivation (Skinner, Pavlov and McClelland), Sensitivity analysis or t-group (Bion's work), field forces and group dynamics (Lewin), socio-psychological and anthropological approach to role theory (Merton and Goffman)

Diagnosis and Intervention

Who takes the active role-person himself or the consultantlfacilitator?Pareek ( 1998)classifies the intervention mechanismsltechniques. Participant-active Interventions (Individual) Facilitator-active Interventions (Behavioural Scientists)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Encounter Groups Roll: Playing Instrumentation Self-study and Reflection Awiueness Expansion

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Psy cho-dynamicMethods . Motivation Arousal Training Feedback Coaching and Mentoring

OD Interventions are the techniques and methods designed to move an organization frorn 'here' to 'there' or from "where it is" to "where it wants to be". The inte~ei~tions are aimed at improving individual and team activities and efforts so that they may better accomplish their targetsfgoals in accordance with the organization's envisaged vision and strategy. The interventions also assist to change the culture of the orgimization. In today's organizations nearly 90% of the work is accomplished directly or indirectly through groups or work-teams. Each employee performs not only as an individual but also as a member of work-group. Some times, one may be a member of multiple tearns. For example, one can be member of production planning group and also member of quality circle apart from one's own job as a tool designer. There is a significant degree of interdependency between individual work and teamwork and such a recipro1:ity is part of organizational architecture. Work teams exert influence on individual work behavior. In turn, individuals also influence team behavior. According to L,ikert. organizationsare best conceptualized as systems of interlocking groups. Work groups are connected by linking pins- individuals who occupy membership in two groups (as a subordinate in one group and a boss in the other). Most of the organiza1:ional work gets done though the interlocking groups. It is the recognition of the signilicanceof the teamslwork groups for organizational efficiency and effectiveness that forms the basis of the theory and practice of OD. OD is concerned with the different types oftechniques or interventions that contribute to 'cteam-effectiveness". Most important single group of interventions in OD are the team-building activities, the goals of which are the improvement and increased effectiveness of varl~ous teams within the organization. The interventionsfocus on different types of groups: those that are more enduring and rather permanent such as the role-set (superior-subordinatesand colleagues), the others which are created for a specific purpose imd hence are less enduring (such as specific task-teams constituted to facilitate mergers, acquisitions, or organizational restructuring). The team-building interventions are typically directed towards four major substantive areiis: diagnosis, task accomplishments, team relationships, and team and organization processe:;. The Family Group Diagnostic Meeting The purpose is to examine the performance of the group and to take stock of the situation-the what, and how? of its performance in the context of the goalsltargets to be achieved. Such an examination will assist the group to identify its strengths and weaknesses and the problems it could be currently facing. The group could benefit from the suggestions of its members in addressing its problems and in planning its future actions.

Variei~es ol I earn-Building interventions

Diagnostic meetings Team building focused on: - Task accomplishment, including problem solving, decision making, role clarification, goal setting, etc.

Interventions in Organisational Change

- Building and maintaining effective

TEAM-BUILDING ACTIVlTIES lnterpersonal relationships, including boss-subordinaterelationshipsand peer relationships

- Understanding and managing - Role analysis technique for role clarification

and definition Special Groups (Start-up teams, / Special project T \ ) .cie Teams, Role negotiation techniques diagnostic meeting team building focused Task Problems, accomplishment, role and goal especially clarification, special resource Utilization, etc Group processes and culture

- Relationships, especially interpersonal or

interunit conflict, and underutilization of each other as resources - processes, especially communications, Decision-making and task allocations

- Role analysis technique for role

Clarification and definition

- Role negotiation

The Family Group Team-Building Meeting

The family group team-building meeting has the purpose of examining its performance, culture etE., to improve its performance and managing of the task demands, internal relationships and group processes. The meeting is aimed at developing appropriate strategies to improve its operations while minimizing the dysfunctional behaviours. Most often, a consultant may be employed with the knowledge and acceptance ofthe group of the need for studying its activities and behaviour. The consultant talks to the group leader and the members of the group to gauze what their problems are, how they think ofthe group functions, and what are the difficultiesor hindrances affecting the group's performance. The collected data is analyzed and presented to the group for further analysis. The group examines the information, prioritizes the problems, works on solutions and prepares an action plan for improving the group performance.

Role Focussed Interventions

These aim at bringinglimprovingthe compatibility between a job incumbent and the role demands and expectations associated with hidher job.

Role Analysis: Role analysis is a structured exercise to provide: a Why the role exists?-the rationale
a a a

What the role is supposed to achieve? How the role contributes to the achievement ofthe groupJdepartmentIunitgoals? How the goal is related to other roles in the department and in the organization?

Di:~gnosis
ant1 Intervention

Role Analysis Technique (RAT) has been developed by Dayal(1969) for redefining the managerial roles in an organization. The technique has the following steps (Pareek, 199 8). Analysis of the role by the occupant as to the main functions of the role, its location in the organogram, why it should be there - or its relevance in the ~rganiz~ation, and how does it contribute to organizational goals. Discussion by the group as to what does the role occupant expect from the other ro'les in their role set in order to arrive at a consensus. Building the consensus regarding the expectations of other roles in the role set from the role occupant. Dr:veloping of a role profile by the role occupants of their roles, classifying what are the 'prescribed' and 'discretionary' elements ofthe role, (b) the obligation of one role to anothe; in the role set, and (c) the expectation of this role from the others in its set. The role anallysis process includes
1.

Preparation: this involves (a) identifyingthe focal role which is being examined is the role occupant (b) identifying the other roles in the role set that and wlic~ have expectations from the focal role such as: the boss, subordinates and peers having fiequent interactions. Mlission~ Statement of the Focal Role: developed through discussion by the role set members Expectrrtions of the Focal Role: Defined by the focal role occupant. Taking in to ; ~ C C O how U ~ ~the role contributes towards the departmentaVorganizational goals. Expectations of the role set members regarding the focal role as to the beliavioural norms necessary for the role occupant's effectiveness and the critical attributes for the focal role that the occupant should possess such as key competencies, experience, qualifications,etc. Co~nsoli~dation of Expectation: Is done through systematic documentation and comprelhensiverole analysis

2.
3.

4.

5.

Comprehensive role analysis (CRA) is a six-step model of role analysis that deals with: Contextual analysis (mission, goals and tasks of the organization) Activity analysis (activities performed by the various roles, identified by the role occupants, role set members ar~d outside experts through interviews, diaries, log books, and questionnaires) Competc:ncy analysis (knowledge, skills, abilities, orientation, and experience needed to perform a role effectively) Pel-farmanceanalysis (indicators of process and outcome indicators of role performimce) Functiordtask delineation (grouping activities into broad functions) Discrepancy analysis (between activities reported by different resource persons, the importance given to and the time spent on activities, the existing and required competencies, etc.

Role ElEcac:y Lab

Role efficacy refers to the psychological factor underlying role effectiveness and the potential effectiveness of an individual occupying a particular role or the potential effectiveness of a role. Role Efficacy Lab (REL) used to develop work commitment.

REL is a sllort process-oriented programme aimed at:

a) b) c) Sharing of thoughts and of individual as well as group commitments with the top management, Get moral support and reinforcement from the top management, and Providing an opportunity for the top management to examine why certain expectations are unrealistic or unattainable, and suggest their own action plans taking to account other suggestions. Writing an essay on my role, completion of Role Efficacy Scale for Subordinate roles and other instruments (1 hour) Micro lab (I hour) About the REL (112 hour) The concept of role efficacy, its aspects, and scoring method concept Session with discussion and examples (1 and % hours) Scoring one's own essays (314 hour) Exchange of essays in triads, and scoring (1 hour) Plenary session, discussing some essays (314 hour) Scoring of RES (112 hour) Small group-work on own and subordinates' roles to identify areas for Strengthening (1 12 hour) 2. Plenary session, reporting and integrating (314 hour) 3. Work on increasing one's role efficacy (1 hour), 4. Work on increasing efficacy of subordinate roles (314 hour)

Interventions in Organisational Change

Role Efficacy Lab: A Suggested Design

5. Force field analysis for role efficacy in the organization (small group)
(314 hour)
6. Plenary session (314 hour)

7. Work on expectations from the organization (in three or more of eight

to ten groups) (314 hour)

8. Plenary session (314 hour)

Day 3: 1 . Co~lsolidating recommendations and action suggestions (in three

Groups) (314 hour)

2. Plenary sessio~l for finalization (1 hour)

3. Action planning for role efficacy (individual, then group work) (1 hour)

4. Review of action plans and collaborative plans (1 hour) 5. Preparation for dialogue with top management (1 hour)

6. Dialogue, evaluation, and closing (2 hours)

Role Negotiation Technique

This tech~lique is developed by Roger Harrison. The technique assists to improve alnong members. One of the causesfor the ineffectiveness ofteams work relatio~lsllips is members' behaviour influenced by their unwillingnessto lose power, authority and influence they wield or have to share it with others. Role negotiation intervenes

Diagnosis arid Intervention

din:ctly in the relationships of power, authority, and influence of the members within the group. The technique does not deal with personal attitudes of likes and dislikes among the members. Harrison details the steps invol,ved in the technique: Contract setting: Deals with setting up the ground rules and establishing the required clirnate, which is set by the consultant. What actually examined are work behaviours, not feelings about people. Each individual should be specific in stating what helshe warits others to do more of, do better, do less of or stop doing, or retain unchanged. 'These expectations and demands are clearly written down. Dia~gnosis:Is concerned with how others' behaviour influences one's work eflkctiveness. Individuals specify how others need to change their work behaviours to contribuxe to hislher own effectiveness. Each person fills out an Issue Diagnosis Form for eveqrother person in the group. On this Form, the individual states what he or she woluld like the other to do more of, do less of, or maintain unchanged. These messages are then exchanged among all members, and the messages received by each person are written on a chalkboard or newsprint for all to see. Influence Trade: or negotiation period, in which two individuals discuss the most important behavior changes they want from the other and the changes they are wiling to nnake 1:hemselves. A quid pro quo is required in this step: each person must give soniethirlg in order to get something. Often this step is demonstrated by two individuals with the rest of the group watching. Then the group breaks into negotiating pairs. The negotiation process consists of parties making contingent offers to one another such as "if you do X, I will do Y." The negotiation ends when all parties are satisfied that they will receive a reasonable return for whatever they are agreeing to giv'e.All agreements are written, with each party having a copy. The agreement may be published for the group which the group may either see or may not see. The infli~enct: trading, is concluded when all the negotiated agreements have been made and written down. It is best to have a follow-up meeting to determine whether the contracts have been honored and to assess the influence of the contracts on role effkctiveness. Foirce field analysis Force field analysis is a management technique developed by Kurt Lewin for diagnosing situations. It is useful when planning and implementing a change managenlent program and also in 'team building' efforts. Any change implies movement- movement towards something or away from something. Force Ficld Analysis enables listing, discussing, and evaluating the various forces for and against a proposed change. The analysis includes identifying the driving forceswhi~ch give change momentum, and restraining forces-which inhibit change. Force helps us to look at the big picture by analyzing all of the forces field a~ialysis impacting the cliange and weighing the pros and cons. By knowing the pros and cons, we can develop strategies to reduce the impact of the opposing forces and strengthen tlie supporting forces. Lewin a:,silmes that in any situation there are both driving and restraining forces that influeric~: any change that may occur. Driving Forces are those forces affecting a situation. They tend to initiate a change and keep it going. For example, pressure from a supervisor, incentive earnings, and competition tend to be driving forces to improve group productivity.

Restraining Forces
Restrailling forces are forces acting to restrain or decrease the driving forces. Apathy, hostility, and poor maintenance of equipment may be examples of restraining forces against increased production.
Equilibrium: Refers to the balancing between the driving and restraining forces. Most often situations exist in a state of quasi-equilibrium. This equilibrium can be raised or lowered by cllanges in the relationship between the driving and the restraining forces. A desired situationlcondition can only be achieved by dislodging the current equilibrium by adding driving forces or by removing restraining forces.

Interventions in Organisational Change

Force Field Analysis assists to develop an action plan to implement a change, more so, to:
1.

Determine if the proposed change can get needed support Identify obstacles to the intended change Suggest actions to reduce lovercome obstacles

2.
3.

The Force Field Analysis involves the following steps:

Step 1. Identification and description of a problematic situation, which needs to be

improved
Step 2. The desired condition is carefully and completely described. Step 3. Identification of the forces and factors (force field) operating in the current

situation--driving forces pushing towards the desired condition and restraining forces pushing away from the desired condition. This should be done thoroughly and exhaustively to get a clear picture ofthe situation
Step 4. Analysis the forces as to their relative strengths, weaknesses, extent of susceptibility to influence, amenable to control etc. Step 5. Developing strategies for moving to the desired condition, which could be:

increasing the intensity/strengthof the driving forces; minimizing the strengthlintensity ofthe restraining forces; or does both. As restraining forces are minimizedlremoved, the equilibrium shifts toward the desired condition. New driving forces may also be planned and action plans developed to implement them.
Step 6.1 ~nplementing the action plan in order to achieve the desired condition. Step 7. Description of those actions requires freezing the equilibrium at the desired condition and imple~nenting those actions.

12.3 INTERGROUP INTERVENTION

Often two or more independently working groups have to coordinate tasks, on either a temporary or permanent basis, to achieve the required organizational goals. This could give rises to disagreement and conflict among groups affecting group morale and productivity. Where there is competition among groups, it may give rise to tension and conflict and each group may perceive the other as an "enemy". To resolve such intergroup conflicts many strategies are identified. These include: Increasing the interaction and communication among the groups (increased interaction under favourable conditions enhances positive feelings and sentiments) Identifying a "common enemy ' (another group that both groups dislike, which brings the groups closer together);
7

Dingnosis ant1 Intervention

Finding a superordinate goal (a goal that both groups desire to achieve but that neither can achieve w i t h o ~mutual ~t support); Rotating the members of the groups; and instituting some forms of training. To get success in these strategies a number of interventions are used.

Intergroup team-building Interventions

Till=focus of this team-building group is to improve intergroup relations. It is to increase communication and interactions between work-related groups, reduce dy:;functional competition, and the need for interdependence of action to maximize the best effc~rts of both the groups. Organization development methods assist to enhance i~it~ergroup cooperation and communication. developed Blake, Shepard, and Mouton has a strong application to improve The ~notlel relation:; between groups that are strained or are overtly hostile. It has a number of steps:
Step 1. The leaders of the two groups (or the total membership) meet with the consultant and are asked to express their opinions ifthey think the relations between thr: two groups can be better and if they are willing to search for mechanisms or procedures that may improve intergroup relations. Ifthey are positive in their ideas to do so, they are asked to commit themselves. Step 2. The intergroup intervention commences with the two groups meeting in separate rooms and building two lists. In one list they give how they think, perceive and feel about the other group - as to what it is like, and what it does that gets in their way, eti;. In the second list, the group tries to predict what the other group dislike about them, how the other group perceives them, etc. The two lists are prepared by both groups. Step 3. The listed information is shared between the two groups. Sttep 4. Each of the two groups react to and discuss what they have learned about themselves and the other group. This assists to sort, of the many areas of disagreement and friction between the groups that can be easily resolved through information sharing: of the lists. Consequent to this discussion, the group is given a second task, which .ISto make a list oftlle priority issues that still need to be resolved between the two groups. Step 5.. The two groups share their lists with each other, and together discuss to list out issues and problems that should be resolved. Priorities are set to the items in the list as to their importance and immediacy. Then jointly they prepare action plan for resolving the issues and assign responsibilities for the intended actions. Roles and responsibilities are agreed upon for the most important items. That concludes the intervention. Step 6. Finally, it is desirable to have a meeting of the two groups or their leaders to determine the effectiveness ofthe action plan. This ensures that the momentum of tlie intervention is not lost.

Orgainization Mirror Interventions

The organization mirror refers to a set of activates in terms of which a given group gets feedback from representatives of several other groups about how it is perceived and regarded. Such mirroring assists to improve relationships between groups and increases intergroup work effectiveness. In this process, an organizational unit that has working relationships with other units could get a feedback from key people of those other units as to how they see the host

unit. The co~isultant often interviews the people attending the meeting before hand to get an awareness of the problems and their intensity. This enables the Consultant to prepare the participants, and to get the best out of the whole process. Tlie discussio~is take place in a fish bowl kind of a setting. A fishbowl is a group seating and talking configuration in which there is an inner circle for those who talk and an outside circle of observers and non-interactors. The invited participants talk about tlie host unit in a natural, uninterrupted way while the host group members listen and learn. In the host group members fishbowl turn, and talk about what they have heard, ask for any clarification, and generally seek to understand the information they have heard.

Interventions in Organiaational Change

12.4 PERSONAL, INTERPERSONAL, AND GROUP PROCESS INTERVENTION

Tlie central theme of the interventions is learning through an examination of underlyi~ig processes. In process consultation, which is generic to OD interventions, the focus is exclusivelyon the diagnosis and managementof personal, interpersonal, and group processes. Third-partypeacemaking focuses on interpersonal conflict and the dynamics of cooperation and competition among groups. Sensitivity training typically yields learning's about self, interpersonal relations, and group dynamics. Transacrional analysis (TA) can be a form of psychotherapy, a framework for analyzing i~iterpersonal relations and transactions. TA has also been used as a technique for team building. Behaviour modeling is atraining technique designed to increase effectiveness in problematic interpersonal situations. Life-and career-plannii~g interventions are less process oriented than the other interventions and reflect more a systematic approach to a substantive area.

Process Consultation Intervention

Process Consultation (PC) is a method for intervening in an ongoing system. In this approach, a skilled third party (consultant) works with individuals and groups to help them learn about human and social processes and learn to solve problems that stem from process events. This is an often- used approach by many OD consultants and practitioners.

The process consultant helps the organization to solve its own problems by making it aware of organizational processes, ofthe consequences of these processes, and of the ~necha~iisnis by which they can be changed. It is to enable the organization to address its problems by itself. The consultant works with the organization, in work teams, and helps them to develop the skills necessary to diagnose and solve the process problems that arise. The organizational processes that are important to be dealt with, include: communications, clarifying tlie roles and functions of group members, group problem solving and decision making, group norms and group growth, leadership and authority, and intergroup cooperation and competition. The process consultation follows the order-agenda setting, feedback of observations or other data, counseling and coaching. Suggestions for structural modifications could take place but most often they are least likely.

Third-party Peacemaking Interventions

Third-party i~iterventions have the potential to control (contain)the conflict or resolve it. The two groups must be willing to deal with the conflict and appreciate that it has

L)i:tgnosis a~ttl Intervention

consequences for their effective functioning. The third party must know how, when, and where lo utilize confrol~tation tactics in resolvi~ig the conflict. First it must be able to diagnose co!?!!ict situations. The Diagnostic model of interpersonal conflict is based on fo~lr basic elements: what are the conflict issues? What events, factors liave precipitated it? What are the co~iflict-relevant acts of the groups involved and the consequr:nces of the conflict. Conflict is a cyclical process, and the cycles may be benevolent, malevolent, or self-maintaining. The accurate diagnosis ofconflict will be facilitated ifthe source oftlie conflict is identified. In a conflict situation both substantive and emotiorial issues are involved. Substantive issues relate to disagreements over policies and practices, sharing of resources, and differences in the perception of roles and role relationships. Emotio~ial issues arise from negative feelings between the parties finding expression in behaviors such as anger, distrust, scorn, resentment, fear, rejection. Understanding as to what is tlie substantive and emotional issue in\rolve3 in under lying the conflict is necessary for constructive conflict resolution. While substantial issues are dealt with by problem solving and bargaining be11:iviors engaged by the groulos, emotional issues could be dealt with by restructuring tlie perceptions and feeling:; ofthe members within the groups. A third party interventio~i in settling intergroup conflict is in terms of structuring confrontation and dialogue between the group in conflict.

Sensitivity Training Laborat!>ries

A T-group I S an unstructured, age:ida less group session for about 10 to 12 members. A prol'essional "trainer" acts as a catalyst and facilitator. The data for discussion arises from the interaction of the group members as they strive to create a viable societ:y for themselves. What are discussed and analyzed etc., are tlie actions, reactions, interactions, and feelings arising out oftlie member interactions. Conceptual material relating to interpersonal relations, individual personality theory, and group dy~ian~ics also form a part oftlie program. The 'group-experiences' form the fulcrum of learning.
The T-group is a powerful learning laboratory facilitates learning more about oneself as a person, learning how others react to one's behaviour, and lqarning about the dyna~r~ics o-Fgroup formation, groap norms and group growth. It assists to improve one's interpersonal skills. These insights are coupled with growth of skills in diagnosing and taking more effective iliterpersonal and group actions that provide the participa~its the basic skills necessary for more compete~~t action taking up in the organization. Uses of T-group in OD are varied. bui they are particularly appropriate to give a basic skills level relevant to youp a ~ l d individual dynamics to learn. T-group may also be constituted in several diffeN.e~ii ways jepending upon the desired outcome. There could be: "~:ousi~i" laboratories consi.;ti.ip of peilpie from tlie same organization who do not have direct working relatio~?sl~ips dnd in fact may not know each other. "Cluster" lab consisting of perscj;!~ froin different parts of the organization but each group has "clusters" of u,ori,-related people. For example, a 12-person group ]nay liave three separa~le gro:lps of four persons each who are related in their own work teams.
A "stranger" lab composed of people from different organizations.

Transactional Analysis (TA) It was developed primarily by Eric Berne. TA is a valuable tool both for disturbed people and for healthy individuals. It is use in OD mainly as an educational intervention, ofcourse to deal with healthy normal people. Tra~lsactional Analysis focuses on such areas as the structure of the personality (structural analysis), the way in which people interact (transactional analysis), or the way i n which people structure their time (time structuring), and the roles that people learn to play in life. In terlns of Structural analysis human personality is made up of three ego states: the parent, the adult, and the child. Individuals are always acting out of one ofthese three ego states. The parent ego state reflects the behaviors of superiority, authority, being others, and tlie like of that of a parental ego. The adult ego state reflects right, ji~dging maturity, objectivity, problem solving, logic, and rationality and capacity for mature, wholesome cornlnerce with the world. The chiId ego state reflects one's behavior as a child when one is dependent, rebellious, and perhaps inadequate. Analysis of the transactions or communications between peopIe is a major aspect of TA. Transactions call be ( I ) complementary, (2) crossed, or (3) ulterior. Complementary transactions are transactions across appropriate ego state where response is natural and expected such as Adult-Adult, parent-child, parent-parent, and involve messages from one ego state responded to with so forth. Crossed tra~lsactions lnessages from an inappropriate or unexpected ego state. Crossed transactions make people feel angry, hurt, and put dofin. Ulterior transactions are those in which the lnessages are not directed by the real ego states. When co~npleme~ltary transactions ale increased, and ulterior and cross transactions minimized interpersonal relations and tlie communication process are vastly improved. People are trained in seminars to identify dysfunctional life scripts, time structuring, games, and crossed and ulterior transactions in themselves and others so that they may enjoy better relations with themselves and others. The assumption is made that this knowledge will make them more effective in their organizational roles and personal lives. Anecdotal evidence from the Inany organizations using this intervention suggests that it makes individuals more effective in theirjob-related interactions with others. Behaviour Modeling Behaviour nodel ling is a training technique designed to improve interpersonal competence. Firstly tlie most pressing problems/issues facing a target group, say, are identified. These could be issues such as counseling the poor first-line si~pervisors performel-,correcting i~nsafe work behaviour, etc. Training modules for each of about 10 problems are developed, with videotapes showing a person (model) correctly handling the situation. Weekly training sessions of four hours each are scheduled for each module for groups of approximately 10 participants. At tlie training sessions the problem situatio~i is announced and briefly discussed. Participants then observe avideotape in which the model (who looks similar to them) successfi~l ly solves the problem by enacting specific behavioural skills. The trainees discuss the behavioural skills and then role-plays the situation, receiving feedback from the group and the trainer on their performances. Role-playing continues until each participanr successfully masters all the specific skills. Participants then commit to practicing the new skills on the job in the coming week. At the beginning ofthe next session participants report on how their new skills worked on the job. If necessary, additional practicc is held to ensure mastery of the skills. Then a new problem is addressed, the model is observed on videotape, and role playing and feedbackoccur i~ntil all part~cipants learn how to solve the new problem. Behaviour modeling teaches the ski1Is and behaviours needed to deal with interpersonal problems.

Interventions in Organisational Change

Diagl~osis and Intervention

Life and Career-planning Interventions

Managing against a set of objectives is important for individual and organizational effectivenl=ss.A series of interventions are planned that focus on the life goals and the career goals of employees so that they may better exert control over their own destinies. 'The interventions have a time focus i.e. past, present, and future. The tasks are cornp1t:ted by individuals and then discussed in small groups.

I.
2.
3.

An assessment of life and career paths as up to the present, noting highlights, important events, clioice points, strengths, and deficiencies A formulation of goals and objectives regarding the desired life style and career path --which are future-oriented goals A realistic plan for achievil~g the goals. The goals are specified, action steps needed to reach the goals are determined, and schedule of target dates is established for measuring progress.

12.5 COMPREHENSIVE INTERVENTIONS -The Confi-ontation Meeting 'The confrontation meeting,'developed by Richard Beckhard, is one-day meeting d t h e entirl- management of an organization to take a stock of the organizational health. In a series of activities, the management identifies the organization's major problems, analyzes the underlying causes, develops action plans to correct the problems, and sets a schedule for the remedial work. The confrontation meeting is a quick, simple, and reliable wily in which to generate data about an organization and to set action plans for o~rganii!ationalimprovement. The steps nvolved in the confrontation meeting are as follows. Step 1. Climate Setting (45 to 60 minutes). Is done by the top manager and the Consultant goals for the meeting are stated citing the necessity for free and opens discussiol~ of issues and problems, and tlie importance ofcommunication within the organizations, and the desirability of addressing and solving organizational problems. Step 2. In formation Collecting (1 hour) Small heterogeneous groups of seven or eight members are formed with people from different functional areas and working situations for each team. However, bosses and subordinates not be put together on the same tean-I.The top management group rrieets as a separate group during this time. Several issues are examined by the groups like: Wliat are the "demotivators," inadequate procedures or policies, unclear goals, or poor attitudes etc. Also examined are the different conditions, that would make the organization more effective and life in the organization the better? Step 3. Information Sharing (lhour): Each group makes a presentation of the findings to the total group and these are also exhibited for the group's cc~mplete groups' reference. The list of items is categorized into a few major categories that may be based an type of problem (e.g., communications problems), type of relationship (e.g., troubles with top management), or type of area (e.g., problems with the accountii~;; department), etc. Step 4. Priority Setting and Group Action Planning (1 hour and 15 minutes). In a 15-minute:general session, the meeting leader goes through the list of items and puts a category assignment on each one every member has his or her own copy of the categorize:ditems. The participants then form into functional, natural work teams

reflecting the way they are organized in the organization. Each group is headed by the top manager in the group. The group's are asked to do three tasks: First, they are to identify and discuss the issues and problems, decide on the priorities of these problems, and determine early action steps to remedy the problems that they are prepared to c-mit themselves (in the total group) to work on. Second, they are asked to identify the problems which they think should be given top priority. Third, how they will communicate the results of the confrontation meeting to their subordinates. This completes the confrontation meeting for all the managers except for the top management group. Step 5. Immediate Follow-up by Top Team (1to 3 hours). The top-management team meets after the rest of the participants have left to plan first follow-up action steps and to determine what actions should be taken on the basis of what they have learned during tlie day. Step 6. Progress Review (2 hours). A follow-up meeting with the total management group is held four to six weeks later to report progress and to review the actions resulting from the confrontation meeting. Confrontation riieeting provides a quick and accurate means for diagnosing organizational health promotes constructive problem identification and problem solving, enhances up-ward communication within the organization, and increases involvement and commitment to action on the part ofthe entire managerial group.

Intervent~ons~n Orgasirational Change

Strategic Management Activities

Strategic Management refers to the development and implementation ofthe organization's "grand design" or overall strategy in relation to its current and future envil-onmentaldemands. According to Schendel and Hofer six major tasks co~nprise the strategic management process: (1) goal formulation(2) environmental analysis; (3) strategy formulation; (4) strategy evaluation; (5) strategy implementation;and (6) strategic control." These six components ofthe process are related to each other. ~evelo~ organizational i~i~ goals is the first step, followed by an assessment ofthe constraints and opportunitiesafforded by the environment- both the present environment and the future environment. Environmental analysis includes monitoring the present environment and seeing the constraints and opportunities with respect to the future environment. Strategic plans, derived from goals and environmental analysis, are then developed, implemented, and monitored for results. A strategic planning technique developed by Thomas Rogers uses a series oftwo-day meeting with tlie top policy makers. The group discuses to examine issues such as what business are we in? What is the organization's mission? followed by the mission statement, the various"domains" or environmentalsegments that make demands on tlie organization. For example, the suppliers, consumers, competitors, and reg~~lators." The domains are (1) analyzed with respect to how the organization is responding to demands made by the domain (2) What are the likely domain demands in future and how the organization needs to respond, and (3) What will be ideal or desired domain demands alongwith the ideal responses. Next an action plan along with its implementation is designed to act on the environment to bring about desired conditions. Subsequently, the action plan is initiated and implemented.

Diagnosis and Intervention

Figure 1: Schendel and Hofer strategic management process

The surv~:yfeed back method refers to the systematic collection of data about the sys1:emand feeding back the data to individuals and groups at all levels of the organizalion to analyze, interpret the meaning of, and then design corrective action steps. Thms it includes major components; the use of an attitude survey and the use of feecl back workshops. Sur~ey Feedback steps as follows:
Step 1. Organization members at the top of the hierarchy are involved in the preliminary planning. Step 2. Data are collected from all organizational members. Step 3. Data are fed back to the top executive team and then down the hiefarchy to the functional teams. Step 4. E,achsuperior presides at a meeting with his or her subordinates (a) the subordinates assist in interpreting the data, (b) plans are made for making constructive changes, and (c) plans are made for the introduction of the data at the next lower level. Step 5. Most of the feedback meetings include a consultant who has helped the supe:riorto prepare for the meeting while he also serves as a resource person.

The Survey Feedback technique is essentially a procedure for giving objective data about the system's functioning to the system members so that they can change or improve selected aspects of the system.

1 2 ~ 6 STRUCTURAL INTERVENTION
This refers to interventions or.change efforts aimed at improving organization effectiveness through changes in the task and structural and technologicai subsystems. This class of interventions includes changes in the division of overall work of

the organization into units, reporting relationships, work flow and procedures, and role definitions, methods of control, and spatial arrangements of equipment and people, etc.

Interventions in Organi~tional Change

Structural Interventions Job Design

Job design refers to the way that set of tasks, or an entire job, is organized. Job design helps to determine: What are the tasks done, how they are done and what is the order in which they are done, etc. It takes into account all factors, which affect the work, and organizes the content and tasks so that the wllole job is less likely to be a risk to the employee. Job design involves administrative areas such as: job rotation, job enlargement, tasklmachinepacing, work breaks, and Working hours.
A well designedjob takes into account the basic principles of ergonomics that will. encourage a variety of 'good' body positions, have reasonable strength requirements and reasonable amount of mental activity. A well designed job also contributes to feelings ofachievement and self-esteem.

Job design principles can address problems such as: work overload, work under load, repetitiveness,

I im ited control over work, isolation, shiftwork, delays in filling vacant positions, excessive working hours, and
Limited understanding of the whole job process. Job design also assists in minimizing job stress.

Difference between Job Design and Work place design:

Job design and workplace design are often used interchangeably because both contribute to keep the physical requirements of ajob reasonable. Job design refers to administrative changes that can help improve working conditions. In comparison, workplace design concentrateson dealing with the workstation, the tools, and the body position that all influence the way a person does his or her work. Good workplace design reduces static positions, repetitive motions and awkward body positions.

Diagnos~s and Intervention

Fe;aturt:sof Good Job Design:

Good jot)design accommodates employees' mental and physical characteristics by paying attention to: Muscular energy such as .workirest schedules or pace of work, and Mental energy such as boring versus extremely difficult tasks.

Good J'obDesign:
Allows for employee input i s . the option to vary activities according to personal needs, work habits, and the circumstances in the workplace. Gives employees a sense of accomplishment. Includes training so that employees know what tasks to do and how to do them properly. Provides good worklrest schedules. Allows for an adjustment period for physically demanding jobs. Provides feedback to the employees about their performance. Minimizes energy expenditureand force requirements. Ba1,ancesstatic and dynamic work. Job design is an ongoing process. 'The goal is to make adjustments as conditions or tasks change within the workplace. Actiieving good job design iilvolves administrative practices that determine what the employel: does, for how long, where, and when as well as giving the employees choice where ever possible. In job design, you may choose to examine the various tasks of an ind ividui~l job or the design of a group ofjobs. Cornmoi-I approaches to job design include:

Job1 Enls~rgement: It is to include more andlor different tasks to provide job variety. It adds interest to the work but rnay or may not give employees more responsibility. Job1 Rotsltion: It is to move employees from one task to another. It distributes the group tasks among a number of'employees. Job1 Enrichment: It is to provide employees more of responsibility,accountability, g job. If satisfied higher order needs by allowing for and independence in d ~ i n the greater participation aid ~tew opportunities.
Work Dtsign (Job engineering): Work design allows employees to see how the work methods, layout and handling procedures link together as well as the interaction between ;peopleand machines. Go:alsof Job Design: Goals can be in many difference areas and include:

To alleviate boredom, a goo job deign avoids both excessive static body positions and repetitive movements. Jobs must be designed in order to have a variety of tasks that require changes in body position, muscles used, and mental activities.

Two methods used for a good job design are job enlargement and job rotation. For example, if an employee normally assembles parts, the job may be enlarged to include nevr task:;such as work planning, inspection I quality control, or maintenance. Altt:rnatively, ihe tasks may include working in the same department, but changing tasks every hour as it provides for a change in physical or mental expenditure.

Work Breaks 1 Rest Breaks

Rest breaks help alleviate the problems of unavoidable repetitive movements or swic body positions. More frequent but shorter breaks are sometimes preferable to fewer long breaks. During rest breaks, employees must be encouraged to change body position and to exercise. It is important that employees stretch and use different muscle groups. If the employee has been very active, a rest break should include a stationary activity or stretching.

Interventions in Organisational Change

Allowance for an Adjustment Period

When work demands physical effort it is necessary to have an adjustment period for new employees and for all employees after holidays, layoffs, or illnesses. Employees must be given some time to become accustomed to the physical demands of work to "get in shape."

Provide Training
Training in correct work procedures and equipment operation must be provided so that employees understand what is expected ofthem and how to work safely. Training should be organized, consistent and ongoing. It may be either a classroom training or on the job training.

Vary Mental Activities

Tasks should be coordinated so that they are balanced during the day for the individual employee as well as balanced among a group of employees. Employee must be allowed some degree of choice as to what types of mental tasks they want to do and when. This choice allows the employees to do tasks best suited to their 'alertness' patterns during the day. Some people may prefer routine tasks in the morning (such as checklists or filling in forms) and save tasks such as problem solving until the afternoon, or vice versa. Job design can be used for teams also. In some cases, teams can be created that have an overall responsibility for larger task or set of tasks. The tem will make decision as to who will do what and when and how the job will be accomplished. In most cases, team members will be multi-skilled which allow them to change jobs from time to time. As with job design for individuals, additional opportunities such as inspection1 quality control, maintenance, and related tasks such as ordering supplies are often assigned to the team in addition to their regular tasks.

Quality Circles (or) Quality Control Circle

Quality Circles have been extensively used in Japan since the introduction of quality control techniques. Quality Circles usually include a group of 7 to 10 employees from a unit (or across units) who volunteer to meet together. The group regularly analyzes and make proposals about product quality and related problems. Recommendations are forwarded to a coordinatingor steering committee once a week for an hour or so, on company time. An employee elected from the group chairs the meeting. A high degree of participation is created within the group. Prior to the formation of quality circles, the group (the supervisors and members) is trained by quality control experts and facilitators in all matters of quality control concepts including statistical tools, participative group discussions, group dynamics and co~nmunication skills. The facilitators also help each circle in its linking with other groups and with the overall coordinating committee. Groups are also encouraged

1)iagnosis
and Intervention

to use:experts within the organization where their specialties are relevant. The QC are authorized by management to make changes without prior approval whenever feasible.

MBO
MBO is es'sentiallybased on a very simple fact-wherever people work in an organization together there will be a wide variety of objectives. Each individual has his 01- her own personal goals (e.g. better working conditions, better training, better pay); each department has its own business targets (higher output, better equipment, more funding), and the top management, too, has its own strategic aims (organizational success, corporate identity, corporate image). MBO is the art of getting all these varied interests to correspond to one common goal. Talks can also be conducted collectively with the departmental teams. The main object of MI30 is to make individual goals voluntarily coincide with the goals of the organization. MBO only works when management and staff agree to support mutual goals in an atmosphere of confidence and trust, commitment and motivation. The concept is based on the asslimption that employees are, by nature, willing to perforni. MBO succeeds where there is a dialogue on objectives between the employee and the management founded on fairness and clarity.

Socio-technical Systems and Work Restructuring

The term aocio-technical system is largely associated with experiments of the Tavistock Institute in Britain and have stemmed from the Tavistock approach. The approach is to achieve a better "fit" among the technology, the structure, and the social interaction of a particular production unit in the organization. One of the earliest studies was in British coal industry. The consultant researchers found that by reintroducing a team approach to mining coal, broadening job scope, and lsrovitiing team pay incentives a number of benefits accrued, including improved productivity, safety, and morale. Corr~mon characters in socio-technical systems are use of semi-autonomous work teams, participative decision making, and considerable team autonemy in planning and ,controllingproduction and in screening new team members, and pay geared multi skills an employee is capable of.

Quality of Work Life Projects

Quality of worklife is a "attempt to restructure multiple dimensionsof the organization"and to "institute a mechanism which introduces and sustains changes over time." Aspects of the change mechanism are usually an increase in participation by employees in shop floor decisions and an increase in problem-solving between the union andl management.

QPJL Projects include some of the following features:

Voluntary involvement ofthe employees Union agreement with the process and participation in it Assurance of no loss ofjobs Training of employees in team problem solving The use of quality circles where employees discuss problems affecting the pedormance ofthe plant and the work environment Team participation in forecasting, work planning, and team leader and team member selection

Regular plant and team meetings to discuss such matters as quality, safety, customer orders, and schedules Encouragement of skill development and job rotation within work teams Skills training and Responsiveness to employee concerns

Interventions in Organisational Change

12.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

I)
What is intervention and what are the reasons for intervention to be used in an organization? Examine as to when Person-focussed intervention could be used. What is the rationality for using Team-based intervention? 1 llustrate with regard to Mole-focussed intervention. When do you use Survey Feedback? Examine some of the structural interventions and how could they be used.

2) 3)
4)

5)

6)

12.8 FURTHER READINGS

Organization Development (Behavioural Science Interventions for Organization Improvemient),(Wendell L. French, Cecil H. Bell, Jr.) (Eastern Economy Edition). (A Human Resource Strategy Approach) Managing Change (Adrian Thornhill, Phil Lewis, Mike Mi Ilmore, and Mark Saunders), (Financial Times - Pearson Education). Managing Corporate Change (Klaus Doppler, Christoph Lauterburd Diagnostic Organizations (Methods, Models, and Processes) - Second Edition (Michael I. Harrison) (Sage Publications)