Finding Visual Information: A Study of Image Resources Used by Archaeologists, Architects, Art Historians, and Artists Author(s): Joan

E. Beaudoin and Jessica Evans Brady Source: Art Documentation: Journal of the Art Libraries Society of North America, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Fall 2011), pp. 24-36 Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Art Libraries Society of North
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A StudyofImageResources VisualInformation: Finding and ArtHistorians, Used byArchaeologists, Architects, Artists

E. Beaudoin andJessica EvansBrady Joan
that usergroupsacknowledged whichidentified theimageresources thefindings ofa recent Thisarticle study professional presents - archaeoloto of several usergroups wereuseful workprocesses. The information behaviors to their relating images professional in here in a conducted 2008-2009. Presented art and artists were examined research architects, historians, study gists, qualitative influenced their thatclarify wherethesepatrons turned fortheir visual information needs and what factors are findings image of theseuser groupsand to improvethe image-related resource decisions.The finalsectionprovidessuggestions experiences future research. discussesavenuesfor

Introduction
In thisstudy, are defined as any observimageresources a able material whichcan be employed userto by professional a of resources work task. The format current complete image can be print, or real,lived experience. Resources may digital, in specialty be heldwithin or institutional collections, personal or on theopen web. Accessto imageresources databases, may whiletheuse ofthe be freely or prohibited, restricted, granted, within canbe similarly diverse. contained these resources images Userswho attempt to meettheir needs to their complete image within thiscomplicated setofconditions. worktasksoperate For a number ofprofessional usergroupsin theacademic and creative visual information rolein disciplines, playsa central the work While studies haveacknowledged they complete. many this needfor visualinformation various usergroups, few among used by archaeologists, studiesaddress the image resources A reviewof the literature arthistorians, or artists. architects, reveals levels of research theimagebehaviors regarding varying An ofthese overview is from below, groups. presented arranged theleasttothemostfully researched group.1 of theseuser groupswhichare generalin Investigations natureare providedwhen theirfindings information present A multithatimpacts theselection and use ofimageresources. discipline studyof imageusersacrossa university campusis add to the discussedat the end of thissectionas its findings the broad need for in the academic of images understanding Two additional notable the aspectsconcerning literasetting. turefoundand presented hereshouldbe mentioned. of First, the existing studieswhichexaminedimage users' behaviors, manywere foundto focussolelyon imageneeds and image retrieval. Second, fewerdiscussionsaddressingthe topic of werefoundin theliterature. set Thissituation imageresources thefoundation for thecurrent examination oftheimage study's resources used byprofessional usergroups.

Literature Review Archaeologists

behaviorsare rare. Studiesof archaeologists' information Two recent studiesby Isto Huvila publishedin 2008 and 2009 with examined theuse ofinformation sources by archaeologists in and that visual various work roles found information varying was sought.2 The mostextensive use of visual informaforms inteaching; tion was found for academic involved archaeologists and thesematerials consisted ofdiagrams, videos,photographs, theobjects themselves.3 Severalother articles have been publishedwithin thepast and few decades on image-rich useful systems technologies of forthediscipline of archaeology. These includediscussions the DigitalArchive NetworkforAnthropology (DANA),4the and multispectral PerseusDigitalLibrary,5 techniques.6 imaging Information has also seen (GIS) technology System Geographic However, heavyadoption community. amongthearchaeological no studiesof archaeologists' use of thesesystems were found. ofthesesystems and their Giventheexistence use within strong have of thedomain, there been so few studies archaeolowhy information behaviors is unclear.7 gists'

Architects
Severalpublications on theinformation behaviors ofarchitects discussedtheir imageneeds,although onlya fewofthese have examinedtheimage resources thatwere used. In a 1991 Chidlow the ofinformation discussed article, Joyce typical types to perform their neededbyarchitects work.Imagesarenotedas and used atthestart ofarchitectural for being projects inspiration in reference as well as the for designstage peripheral purposes, artto complement thestructure and createan overallenvironand builtupon by ment.8 Chidlow'sfindings were supported Makriand Claire Warwick in theirthorough study Stephann of theinformation behaviors of graduatearchitecture students

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foundthatthe students These researchers publishedin 2010.9 of used a largenumberof images and videos in the creation means of and that their theirarchitectural primary designs, their was or Furthermore, discovery Google Google Images.10 of studyrevealedthe commonbehavioramong the students in their to assist them of collections images developing personal and Hinda Sklaralso studiedarchitecture design processes.11 in 1995that lookfor and reported images they designstudents, that include"periodicals, in a variety ofresources videos, books, Sklar plans,and sketches."12 maps,drawings, planning reports, states that an immenseamountof materialwas used very with seenworking and they wereoften rapidly by thestudents, - copying, foundthem wherethey thematerials disassembling, the imagesto workthrough and reconstructing reassembling, Bradfield their Valerie and stimulate thinking.13 designproblems locatedwithinan use of image collections studiedarchitects' in the UnitedKingdomand founda similar academicsetting also noted Bradfield several images.14 of pattern combining had precise in thisstudypublishedin 1976thatthe architects plansto imagesoftwobuilding imageneeds,suchas overlaying in thedesign.15 discern differences Artists In theliterature yearsthathas publishedin thelast thirty recurareseveral there information examined artists' behaviors, in finding visual interest their rent strong surrounding findings All of the authorswho have looked at thisuser information. have acknowledgedtheirneed for images. However, group have typically focusedon individuals studies teaching existing artists. thanon practicing rather in a collegeoruniversity setting artists attention on theneeds ofpracticing Thislackofresearch 2008reviewof was notedby William Hemmigin his thorough and in his 2009 literature on artists16 theinformation-behavior sources including information-seeking practices, studyof their visualelements.17 ofspecific Bradfield's1976 study of institutional image collections were not heavy users of slides. Although found that artists recordedthat theywould incorporate Bradfield images into used images in artistsgenerally theirlecturesoccasionally, a simplepoint to illustrate lectures either plannedor informal to werefound Fortheseneeds,bookillustrations or technique.18 were as slides.Thesefindings be as adequate an imageformat who found in the 1996 article reiterated by Susie Cobbledick, as well as thoseof of thatartists' collections materials, personal were consulted.19 and institutional libraries, Jacquelyn public and art artists' thesis examined 1999master's Challener's faculty all oftheartists that Shefound behaviors. information historians' Theseincluded of imageformats.20 in herstudyused a variety books and magazines, from plaster reproductions photocopies, worksof art, book plates,original casts,computer printouts, and diagrams.21 blackboardforsketches and the classroom's artists' use of a wide the also 2009 supports study Hemmig's that when artists He found of resources. inspirasought variety ofnature, direct observations did so through tion, personal they man-made works of art seen in person,non-art experiences, (books, photographs), magazines, imagesin analogform objects, word,digitalimages,and music,theprinted movingimagery, radio,amongothers.22

of artists have Additional studiesof the image resources these is the 2006 in recent One of been conducted report years. conducted onehundred on a survey ofnearly artist-participants The at theUniversity ofWashington.23 MLIS students by three the of this corroborate from many previously survey findings that publishedstudies on the topic,includingthe findings more heavilythan textuse visual materials suggestartists and thattheyhave well developedpersonal based resources Information collected to supporttheirneeds.24 collections by art of 165 studio another ToriGregory faculty survey through and western United in thesouthern from universities members the resources detailed results States concerning specific provided This 2007 studyreports thatartists employto findimages.25 thatGoogle Images,used to access otherInternet sites,was with67 percent of the means of image retrieval, the primary Various use ofit.26 online their image noting faculty-respondents databaseswere employedby a smallergroup of the faculty theimagedataof therespondents). (16 percent Amongthese, Art for10 percent of theuse, Wilson's accounted base ARTstor databasesuch and another MuseumImageDatabase4 percent, as MDID (MadisonDigitalImageDatabase) was employed by 2 percent.27 theremaining Art Historians researched Art historian users are the most thoroughly of The vastmajority study. groupto be includedin thepresent art historians have use mention which image among publications Bradfield commented on their heavyneed forvisualmaterials. and heaviest werethemostprevalent notesthatarthistorians she studiedin her1976 usersofimagesamongtheparticipants Challeneralso foundimages to be of primary publication.28 she studied.29 to thearthistorians Theyvisitedthe importance own personalcollecused their slide collection, departmental the had slidesmade through museumimages, tions, employed and used textbook audio-visual institution's sets, department, in situ. madetheir own slidesorphotographs Grahamexaminedthe and Margaret Bailey Christopher and how thismay have influof images availability digitized ofthis Thefindings ofart encedthediscipline preliminary history. that at a 2000conference,30 working suggested presented report, methodsappear to have been affected only slightly. Digital on theweb,wereseento found alongwithall material images, invesarthistorical neededto support fallshort ofthereliability of databases the use also discuss The authors image tigation. and suggestthatthe larger, broadlyfocused by arthistorians becauseof should receive the use databases do not they image thediverseapproaches Baileyand by arthistorians. employed fortheoriginal thedata gathered Grahamrevisited studyin a statethatthearthistoin 2006,and they laterarticle published riansnotedseveralpositive imageuse, along aspectsof digital about A basic lack of knowledge to use.31 withseveralbarriers was noted the of 58 resources respondents among percent image as beingthegreatest problem.32 oftheuse oftechnology Trish Rose,inher2002examination on print noted thatmost were stillreliant by art historians, she suggested In thecase ofimages, work.33 resources fortheir from theoverallpoor quality(or thattheir resulted reluctance Her surveyrevealedthat33 percent lack) of digitalimages.34 barrier faced a lackofimageaccesswas thegreatest believed they
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A 2007 studyby Barbara Elam of in performing theirresearch.35 the use of digital images also examined art historians'adoption She interviewed six art historiansabout their of this format.36 use of online materialsand found thattheyeitherdid not use or were unimpressed by digital images. Elam connected this lack of adoption to two main factors:a lack of comfortwith using technologyand a lack of awareness of resources.

Participants
A study of professional image users conducted in 2008author of this articleexamined these questions. 2009 by the first Twentyparticipantsfromfour professional image user groups art historian,and artist)were recruited (archaeologist,architect, for the study. These user groups were selected based on their similarlystrongreliance on images of culturalmaterialsin their work. It was believed that selecting user groups employing similar visual materials in their work would help clarifyany differences thatmightbe discovered among the groups. Finally, considerations played a role in the selection of the four practical - the first had easy access to individuals in three author groups of the fourchosen groups. Beyond the user groups selected for study, the selection criteriaforthe participantswere based on the particularcareer path chosen withintheirrespectiveprofessions.As each of these professionshas multiplepossible careertracks,the selectionwas restricted by the kind of work performedby each of the user The groups. participantsincluded in the archaeologist and art historianuser groups were expected to be actively involved in teaching and research at the college or universitylevel. These two groups shared a common foundation in the pedagogical and research-oriented work they performed.The participants included in the study of the architectand artist user groups also shared a similarprofessionalgoal. These participantswere included iftheywere presently producing creativeworks (archiwere included in the study if they tectureor art). The architects firmor self-employed were working either in an architectural and were paid to create architectural designs; the artistswere expected to be practicingfineartistsworkingin any media who as artists. self -identified For inclusionin thestudyitwas also expected thattheartists were creating works that had a primarily aesthetic purpose ratherthan a functionalone, and that these individuals were activelyexhibitingtheirwork. Of the fouruser groups included in thestudy, theartists were the only individuals who performed supplemental work to support themselves. While all of these

ACross-Discipline Approach
A 2004 multi-discipline Copeland studyconductedby Attig, and Pelikan investigatedthe importance of visual material to users on the campus of Pennsylvania State University(Perm These researchersreportthat 44 percentof facultyand State).37 student respondentsmaintained personal collections of digital images for teaching and research. The researchersalso noted withissues surrounding thattheusers were concernedprimarily thattheusers "are less state contentas opposed to retrieval. They concerned with how to discover images than with whetherthe will containrelevantimages at all."38 image library The above studies help to informour knowledge of image behaviors. It was against this backdrop that users' information the currentstudy set out to examine professionalimage users' selectionand use of image resources.

Current Study
Several researchquestions focusingon the image resources of theseprofessionaluser groups were developed forthe current study.These include: What image resourcesare used by these professionalsin of theirwork? the performance Which image resources are preferredby these professionals? What impact, if any, does theirdiscipline have on their selectionof image resources?

1: Demographic Table Characteristics ofParticipants byUserGroup No. m _ Group _ Gender _Education Years in _ , . Profession ... Position Archaeologist User Group Asst. Professor& Instructor, Professor Architect User Group 6
OE ob

A Area

o ... Setting

Etruscan,Greek,Roman, Hellenistic

Small College &

Large University
u L r L Consultant,Small to . T Large Firm ~ ,,

3M

Arch & i MArch

t^aio

A 4-40

TT

j ,i Head of Graphic Design, ^ . ai... Architect Designer,

Civic, Educational,

,. , . ., L. . ., Medical & Residential, . , T T Urban Renewal

ArtHistorian User Group . 4 4F MA& nun PhD tit BFA& WA MFA 15"41 ^ L & 0 Instructor ProfeSSOr ArtistUser Group , 6 - 4F 2M APi 7-40 Multimedia, _ . . . ' Painter, . . ' . , Mixed Pnntmaker, Sculptor, v .. -. Media _. .. Q . . & Abstract Figurative ,. 0 OL ,. ^ nL Own Studio & Studio .. n , .. with Collaborative Small College & ' Ancient,Medieval, ~ TT -4, Renaissance, Contemporary Large University

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individuals twoofthesixparticipants in self-identified as artists, a part thisgroupperformed someform ofworkwhichdiverted timefrom of their their As thispaid workdid not art-making. withtheir interfere to worksfor exhibition, ability produce they wereincluded in thestudy. Recruitment of participants was completed using the so-called snowball or chain method.39 Throughthis method actedas contacts foraddicolleaguesknownto theresearcher tional werecontacted Thesepotential professionals. participants and a seriesofbasic questions wereasked to by theresearcher, if the individuals determine metthestudy'sinclusion criteria. If the participants met the criteria and expresseda desireto in the study, continueparticipation a meeting was arranged between thetwoparties. After therequisite institutional review had beenexplained boarddocuments thestudy and concerning data collection signed, began.

a summary The member checkconsisted ofsending ofthe in each ofthefour to participants The findings groupsstudied. aimwas tospeakwithoneindividual eachgrouptoensure from that whatwas beingreported an accurate was in fact reflection oftheseusers'workwithimages.Telephone re-interviews were carriedout, and the participants' comments on the summary were gathered.Participants' responsesreceivedduring the member-check interview confirmed that theresearcher had been able to capture and working in the users'experiences methods As theresearcher had setoutto provide an accurate summary.42 and experiof the image users' thoughts, beliefs, description of the the was ences,support by participants a critical findings in the ofthestudy. component ensuring credibility

Findings

ofthestudy related to the Presented belowarethefindings ofimageresources. The study selection conducted participants' author reaffirmed someof thefindings ofprevious by thefirst Data forthis studywas collectedfromeach participant research studiessurrounding thistopic,uncovered new infora paper survey semi- mation, A) and a one-on-one through (Appendix and in some cases revealedchangesin attitudes and interview structured (AppendixB). The participants' survey behaviors. Ofparticular notearethefindings on preferences for and theinterviews weretranscribed responses usingMicrosoft imageresources userssurveyed. amongtheprofessional Word. The image users' processes,behaviors,and opinions of Resources discussedin the surveysand interviews were analyzedusing Participants' Image Ranking case-ordered displays(see below) and theconstant comparative the surveyinstrument Responseswere gathered through method thequalitative research software NVivo.40 through aboutthevariouskindsofimageresources used by theparticiThe surveyand interview into responseswere imported One survey of (What question pantsand their preferences. types NVivo and examinedfor several kinds of content. The first resources do youuse tofind the images?) presented participants methodof analysis, case-ordered consisted of culling witha listof displays, (books, analogimage possiblechoicesofresources all direct, fact-based responsesto the researcher's questions. libraries,43 and websites) imagedatabases, personalcollections An exampleof this typeof question-response would be one as well as providing themthe optionto writein theirown thespecific resources theparticipants notedas being concerning responses. Theywereaskedto ranktheresources usinga Likert used sourceforimages.The responses ofall of their mostoften scale (1-most to how to 5-leastimportant) important according the participants were thencomparedwithintheiruser group each resource was believedto be in theperformance important and acrossall ofthestudy's usergroups. Theconstant compara- of theirwork.While the majority of individualsrankedone thethematic selection tivemethod ofdata analysis was used to examine theinstructions foreachnumber, appearto havebeen patternsthat emergedfromthe participants' responses.An who to unclear to several participants appliedthesamenumber exampleof a themewould be a responsewherea participant multiple resources. in usingparticular notedhis or herfrustration imageresources. were examined As can be seen in Table 2, severalfacets the data revealedfurther Additional, repeatedpasses through Theseconsisted of thepreferred thissurvey through question. The emergent the themesand sub-themes. codes representing or analog)and thelevelofuse ofperson(digital imageformat themes wererecorded, and revised as thedatawas read defined, and/or experienced ally owned,created, images.The overall and re-read. to a for resources amongthe findings point preference digital Two checkswere completed forthisstudyto evaluatethe in and art historian the architect, professionals archaeologist, These consistedof an inter-coder user of the findings. reliability and The other artists, however, preferred print groups. and a member check. To ensure thatthecodes were assessment The artist user was also found to resources. group prefer analog in thedata,eightcoders to use reflective oftheactualthemes present their collections. The responses of personal imagesfrom were recruited to checktwenty-five passages takenfromthe thearchitect that their owncollections usergroup, too,indicated list of codes collecteddata. The coderswere givena defined role in the performance of their of imagesplay an important and asked to assigntwo codes,one at a broadleveland one at work. a detailedlevel,to each of thetwenty-five passages.The codes and theinter-coder from each coderwerecollected, agreements codes applied to the were thentallied.The broaderthematic rateacrossall codersand passages saw a 96 percent agreement theresearcher. The morefocusedcodes achievedan agreement ratesamongthecodersand rateof81 percent. Theseagreement theresearcher weresufficient toOle Holsti'sreliability according measure threshold of80 percent.41

Data Collection and Analysis

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2: Type Table Resource of Preferred byUser Group Digital Analog Personal

ja S s I
I44 Archaeologist 2 Archaeologist Archaeologists 4 Archaeologist 1 Architect 2 Architect Architect3 Architect 4 Architects Architect 6 1 ArtHistorian 2 ArtHistorian ArtHistorian 3 ArtHistorian 4 Artisti Artist 2 Artist 3 4 Artist Artist 5 Artist 6 Ranked1st Ranked 2nd Ranked3rd Ranked 4th Ranked 5th Ranked 6th Number of responses 12 12 5 2 2 2 5 2 4 13 2 2 12 3 3 5 6 6 5 115 5 6 2 1 4 2 10 3 4 2 4 14 4 5 3 3 15 14 3 13 13 14 14 14 1

il

* I 1 s i i i
4 3 4 3 4 1 5 5 5 3 3 3 6 4 4 5 5 2 5 3 4 4 13 4 9 4 1 2 1 2 1 2 5 4 1-334-1414 - 5-12-----2 1 1 5 3 12 14 2 1 1 4 4 2 5 3 3 3 5 2 2 4 4 3 2 3 2

$ g ! 3 S &

li .s

8) -g -S s

S ^

in wereseenas far ofparticipants less important bythemajority them theartist ranking groupwithonlytwo(ofsix)participants highly. Overhalf(eleven oftwenty) oftherespondents noteddigital resource databases as the most or second-most important image fortheirimage needs. Theywere seen as being important to all the of archimembers of four), (three nearly archaeologist tect(fourof six) and arthistorian of four)user groups. (three Discussions oftheuse ofdigitalimagedatabasesby theseuser theinterviews centered on theavailability ofthe groupsduring "I ... It a went ARTstor first. is content needed. to good they forthemainstream repository imagesthatI would need foran course." 2,lines86-88oftranscribed introductory [Archaeologist interview] Howeverdigital imagedatabasesdid notsharea similarly in the artist high level of importance among the participants of the artists, the digital group.Fromtheinterview responses thecontent they imagedatabaseswerenotbelievedto contain their work."Mostly[I findimagesin] books to perform sought I neveruse and also from from theInternet. mypersonal library it is pretty I don'tlikethelanguageand I think stockcatalogs. me." [Artist clich.It justbothers 1, lines164-66oftranscribed Or theywere able to findwhat theysoughton the interview] I am able to find open web. "I findthatformy own practice whatI needthrough publicvenues... I knowhow touse search and such thatI can engineswell enoughusingBooleanterms I want what So I don't narrow down usually quickly. pretty I use them need academic databases for really images, although a for lot." lines 164-66 of transcribed 1, interview] [Artist journals in the artistgroup rankedthese highly, One participant however.Duringthe interview, this artist discussedhow the she soughtwas easier to findin a database of subjectmatter I probuse Flickr. digital imagesoron theopenWeb."I primarily that areso many there ablywon'tuse books... I usually justfind moreon there thanI would findin thebooks in one library." lines 151-54 oftranscribed 6, interview] [Artist Websites were seen to be an important resourceby the and by the of of overall, (thirteen majority twenty) participants inthearchaeologist ofparticipants offour), archi(three majority tect(fiveof six),and arthistorian of four)user groups. (three ranked websitesas theirmost While two artist-participants resource forfinding members important images,theremaining of of this found them less fortheir (four six) important group needs. image

Resources Analog
Severalkindsof analog materials appeared in the list of of these consisted books and magasurvey responses; printed and andanalogcollections ofvisualmaterials zines, (photographs were noted through slides).Additionalformats photographic the participants' own written-in responses. Analog resources, whilestillholding a degreeofimportance to theseusergroups' were seen as being only modestly image seeking, important and so were rankedat third or below by themajority (eleven in the study. of twenty) of participants One exception to this was found the artist book resources were scored among group When the (fiveof six) of participants. highly by the majority in all fourusergroupsare oftheparticipants survey responses it is clearthatanalog collections of visual materials examined,

14 - 1

| 20 | 20 | 19 | 20 | 1 | 2 | 15 5 | 1

Resources Digital
in the werefoundto figure Digitalresources prominently resources of twenty) of the (fourteen employed by a majority in thearchaeologist offour), architect (three (sixof participants and art historian of user These resources six) (three four) groups.
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and photographic slides)werenotbelievedto be (photographs a highly their work.A singleparticipant resource to important (ArtHistorian 4) rankedthesein second place in importance withthemajority ofparticipants ofnineteen) (fourteen placing in fourth analogcollections place orbelow. The usefulness of books fortheparticipants' imageneeds in theway they in terms saw an even distribution wereranked ofimportance. Thereappearto be personal at work preferences the of the various since the among responses participants could from within a one to five rankings range singlegroup. whenthevotesareexamined itis clearthat However, bygroup, thestrongest was for books found preference amongtheartists. The majority of artist-participants books as (fiveof six) ranked their mostimportant or second-most resource in their important efforts. image-seeking The artists' comments theinterviews the during regarding in format used their work offer some into their image they insight One artist mentioned how shefound preferences. analogimages to be more conduciveto her workingmethodsthan digital it'seasierfor me images."[I]fit'sina bookorifit'sa photograph, toworkfrom." oftranscribed 3,lines1578-79 [Artist interview] with via thecomputer Frustration was also retrieving images notedas havinga negative on seeking visualinformation impact online.The amountof timespentonlinesearching fordigital I was often seen as "Like, giveyou images counter-productive. . .aah! IfI ask for a name,I giveyou a date,I giveyou thecity. a in and I don't need to know about city Pennsylvania specific guy, I don'tevenknowaboutsomeguyin someguyinSan Francisco. Texaswhosenamemight Areyou onlybe one ofthetwonames. me?What, do I gotnothing to do withmytime? kidding Sitting and scroll tenthousand... aah!" heretwiddling through through lines 1319-24 of transcribed 1, [Artist interview] intheir Thearchitect-participants, werecohesive too, opinion of books. However,in the case of the architects, books were ranked lowerthanwas thecase withtheartists. Each uniformly architect's of themfellin thethird (six of six) ranking place or that below.Interestingly, thearchitects stated outimages seeking onlinewould be less timeconsuming, and that theuse ofdigital "I lovetheidea that I can benefitted their workprocesses. images Earth and that I to out need to see. go Google figure everything Thenpre-plan whereI am goingto takephotographs, or send Thatsaves me thetime else to takethephotographs. somebody and energy." 3, lines446-49oftranscribed [Architect interview] Relatedto books,in thattheyare printed was the matter, written-in 5 responseregarding magazinesgivenby Architect and rankedas his second-most resource. important Although the responsesto the surveyquestiondo not recordthis,the in thearchitect use ofmagazinesamongtheparticipants group withthe majority was strong, of (five six) notingduringthe interviews how magazineimagesplayed a rolein their work. or "Whether it'sa designmagazineorit'sa bookon architecture itis ... historical. It can be a variety it's a book on whatever of And thenreading an article evenin thenewspaper or in things. a magazinewillgiveme ideas,oryouwillsee an advertisement And so, forsomething like a tilecompany or a stonefoundry. ..." [Architect thatsendsyou off lines on tangents 882-86 of 1, transcribed interview] The cause of the omissionof magazinesin theirsurvey is unclear. It maybe because thisresource responses typewas

linkedto books.Another reasonfortheomission conceptually be that the the of may surveyquestionpresupposes wording thatthe participant would be performing a directsearchfor an imageas opposedto following behaviors. general browsing itwas discovered theinterviews thatmagazines were Through used in thearchitects' casual information-gathering commonly Thearchitects notedthey wouldkeepabreast ofwhat processes. in thefieldand makeserendipitous was occurring discoveries whenbrowsing magazines.

Personal Resources
A majority oftheparticipants oftwenty) notedthat (fifteen their collections were useful resources fortheir personal image work.Whiletheranking oftheimportance ofthisresource was modest atthird inmost orbelow)among theparticipants (ranked all (fiveofsix) oftheartists usergroups, saw it as their nearly "I have thisdisease mostor second-most resource. important whereI'm notallowedto throw a magazineaway onceI buyit. I don'thave enoughspace forthem. So, now I will geta whole stack ofthem and I willsitand I'lljustgo through thepagesand - I willjustpullthat I see that whatever whatever stimulates out, and I willgeta wholestackofthose. I willcutoutthe And then that I wantedand then I willgetlikea bigsketch bookand thing I'll arrange theshapes.Theysortofrelate to one another. Not a becauseI'm really track oftheshapes, whatthey collage, keeping willsortofbe classified are,so I don'tlayeranything. But,they lines 898-904 of transcribed 3, [Artist interview] visually." in creating The effort involved an organized sketchbook of that in the this artist's collecimagessuggests images personal tionarecritically Related totheuse ofpersonal important. image collections is theimportance of imagescreated by theparticiFiveparticipants noted theimportance ofthese (oftwenty) pants. resources written-in "I takemysketchbook through responses. I also started to my studioand draw from to my sketchbook. I make[lithograph] from sketchbook so then on plates my print ... I photocopy andthen I turn them mydrawing mysketchbook intoplatesand thenI print on paper."[Artist 3, lines898-904 oftranscribed Whilepersonally created was interview] imagery ranked and as an important resource by severalofthearchitect in thestudy, theartist noneoftheacademicimage participants usersnotedtheuse oftheir visualcreations. a singlewritten-in One last resource, surveyresponseof first-hand visual was "observational," meaning experience, mentioned a sole in the (Artist 3) by participant study.The in of visual information the world around theparticimportance notrecorded hereinthesurvey's was ipant, although responses, mentioned theinterviews ofthearchitects during by a number ofsix)and artists ofsix)."I am alwayslooking atstuff. (four (five I am alwayscataloging. Whatcomestomind... is ... whenever I am walking I am,I am alwaystaking aroundorwherever note ofmyenvironment is thelanguage aroundme.Itis just. . . .that I workin." [Architect 2, lines372-74of transcribed interview] Becauseofthisdiscovery itis likely that direct personal engagewith intheir ment visualstimulus dailylivesplaysan important rolein whateach of thesetwo user groupsperceive as image seeking.45 The development ofpersonal collections was found to be a the the mechanism from frustration coping resulting professional in association withtheir imageusersexperienced imageneeds.
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theinterviews The theme offrustration was discovered during and several causes of frustration were ofthestudy's participants, due barriers to access,barriers to availability, difficulties found: to theamountof timeand effort needed to meetneeds,financial issues,and technological obstacles. The mostcommon way was to that these tried to overcome these usergroups challenges In fact, threecreate their own collection ofpersonal materials. had developedpersonal collections oftheparticipants quarters in order to bypassthechallenges ofmaterials theyfacedwhen to find The academic users noted theydid this trying images. in the online web, open by purchasing through finding images works availableimages,and by photographing commercially "I that add ve taken themselves their travels. images during in museums. . . thatI've takenwhileI've traveled, [and] that IVe collected overtheyears."[ArtHistorian 4, lines444-47of transcribed interview] in printed was another Scanning imagesfound publications methodmentioned fordealingwitha lack of suitableimage and so I do have to go to books resources. "Theyare notthere, I that I geta lotofbookswhen at that and also make sure point, I'm traveling around.Especially oneswithnicecolorpictures." 4, lines284-86oftranscribed interview] [Archaeologist The architect-participants too developedseveralways to in their One workplaces. cope withthelackofimageresources method was theuse oftheir ownpersonal materials orresources "A lotofpeoplein theoffice to their they belonging colleagues. would say 'Do you want have booksat their deskand so they to look at thatarchitect?' Oh, of course!" [Architect 6, lines of 330-31of transcribed interview] Collecting images designs often unrelated to the current theyfoundinteresting, projects on whichtheywere working, was another commonactivity theproblems mentioned as a waytoalleviate causedbya lackof a library, in effect, in thehopes "We're useful resources. building thatthesethings lines 114CML1 of arejuston file."[Architect 3, transcribed interview] The artist-participants, to cope too, noted theirattempts witha lack of access to resources the of through development Alloftheartists their ownpersonal collections. discussed having a personal material at their collection ofresource disposal.Some noted theirown personalcollection was richer of the artists their local fortheir needsthanthoseavailableto them through "In a it libraries. lot of for interests [his ways myspecific public thanmyregional If I wantto book collection] is better library. I don'treally branch out intothings look at thatoften, thenI'll the to Smith [fictitious name]. [Artist go County Library" library not To accessresources 2, lines315-17oftranscribed interview] in their and factors suchas distance, collections, time, personal effort wereweighed theneedfor theimage(s). against

Table3: FavoriteImage Resourceby User Group

Digital

Analog Personal

So .5
V

II

I I j
< U S R - - 1 15 3 1 11

'S
I-J w

lilii
U U -

i 1
M 1 1 1

2 Archaeologist Architect 3 3 ArtHistorian 4 - - - 1 _- - 1 Artist 9 ^3__2__2 1 NUMBER

Favorite Resources Participants' Image

In orderto discoverwhichresources the were preferred, a written were asked to participants provide response naming their favorite resource (Ifyou had to name one specific image whatwould it be?).46 resource as yourfavorite, As can be seen inTable3,theresponses werevaried, oftheparticipants ranging fromdigitalimage databases,searchengines,websites,and materials suchas books and magapersonal imagesto printed zines.Nevertheless, several werefound. patterns interesting

R (for T (for research) teaching); thatthere thefinding was a preference The results support in the of participants fordigitalresources amongthemajority andart historian offour), architect ofsix), (five (three archaeologist The preference forcommercial offour). (ARTstor,48 groups(four and in-housedeveloped Dreamstime, Archivision) Viewport, (MDID) digitalimage databases was foundonly among the (threeof six) user (threeof four)and architect archaeologist inTable3 sinceit as a uniqueentry ARTstor is included groups.49 The other commercial was notedby morethanone participant. wereall unique databasesmentioned by theparticipants digital individual. was instances Somewhat surprising given bya single identified thatnoneofthearthistorian-participants thefinding resource. The reasonbehind favorite digitaldatabasesas their and warrants additional research. thisfinding is unclear Insteadof a digitalimage database,all of theparticipants (fourof four)in the art historian group were unanimousin favorite resource. This their selection ofGoogleImagesas their here:halfof brings up a keyissue thatneeds to be emphasized nameda search as their favorite resource. theparticipants engine It is clearfrom thearthistorians' selection ofGoogleImagesas resource whilethey werekeenon usingonline their favorite that, there was no singleoutstanding resource resources, theycould needs. or to meet their identify image Google Google Images resource was also notedas beingthefavorite amongthemajority it Fromthesefindings ofsix) ofthearchitect-participants. (four thatthemajority ofuserswithin thesethree is apparent groups for aresearching imagedatabases imagesonlinethrough digital and/orsearch engines. - a preference for analog Showing the opposite trend - were the surveyresponsesof the majority of the resources in two this of While individuals (four six). artist-participants onlineresources (Google Images and Flickr, groupidentified as their favorite, the remainingartistsnoted respectively) theirpreference forprinted materials (books,magazines,and in thestudy, Two individuals bothfrom personal photographs). thecreative notedthattheir favorite resource was user groups, personal images.50

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Discussion ofFindings
totheimageresources consulted Thefindings related bythe in add to the of this user knowledge study professional groups individuals seekoutvisualinformation. where Beyond addingto users' thelimited research resources, image surrounding image a competing vision offer thepresent sometimes study'sfindings Thefollowing their visualinformation. ofwhere theseusersfind and how ofthecurrent focuses on thefindings discussion study efforts. The first of past research thesecompareto the results in ofimage terms to be discussed is the users' preferences aspect of the an examination followed format, imagecollecpersonal by tionsdevelopedbytheusers. revealed The resource amongtheparticipants preferences in thearchaeologist, archithatthemajority oftheparticipants foronline and arthistorian tect, preference groupsnotedtheir websites. through imagesfound imagedatabasesand/ordigital withearlier studiesare difficult ofthesefindings Comparisons and and architects' becausethearchaeologists' imagebehaviors The existing limited attention. have received use of technology behaviors information literature presaddressing archaeologists' that literature illustrates One of entsa conflicting body picture. has embraced thediscipline ofarchaeology tools,51 technological information behaviors and yetwhen academicarchaeologists' informaitappearsthatat leastfor textual have been examined While the materials.52 continue to favor tionthey printed analog use of and the Huvila examines images supports strong study by itremains silent on the frustratingly byacademicarchaeologists, find materials. to visual resources they employed inforSeveral studieshave been publishedon architects' of these were mationbehaviors.53 However,as the majority completeda numberof years ago, discussionsare generally offer fewcomparilimited to analog materials. Theytherefore the architects' for sonsto thecurrent preference study's findings 2002study ofarchitects' AmeElliott's for online imageresources. had notyetembraced that this usergroup use ofimagessuggests The current web-based or image searching.54 digitalimages methods were that found architects' heavily working study technoloon digital images,theweb,and computer dependent in theworking thata marked shift indicate gies.Thesefindings in the intervening have occurred processesof the profession recent research Makriand Warwick's thestudies. yearsbetween students architecture behaviors ofgraduate intotheinformation the offers concerning study'sfindings supportforthe current researchers architects.55 These materials to of visual importance that found entry point Googleand GoogleImageswerethechief and thatthedevelopvisual content to finding by thestudents, ofimageswas widespread.56 collections ment ofpersonal has been relaThe use of digitalimagesby arthistorians a but offer in these studies recent well examined years, tively and to the view Bailey presentstudy'sfindings. contrasting use of digitalimagesin their arthistorians' Grahamexamined 2000 studyand foundtheseusers had negativeconnotations At thattimethey associatedwith itemsfoundon the web.57 foundon theweb believedmaterials foundthatarthistorians a lackofinterest also report Theseresearchers lackedauthority. in usingdigitalimagedatabasesamongthearthistorians they with similar Rose's 2002 studypresented findings, surveyed.58 the majority of her arthistorian notinga lack of respondents A a lack of useful and resources images.59 scholarly in-depth

that arthistorians have morerecent byElamalso suggests study In in their work notfully embraced images practices. her digital Elam that their lack of digital art notes of six historians study a of withtechwas the result of lack comfort imageadoption theart and limited awareness of resources.60 However, nology in thecurrent lookedmorefavorably historians upon the study with for thedivergent Thereason use ofdigital findings images. Itmaybe that the is unclear. and thecurrent studies study prior in the after a watershed moment studywas conducted present It is and adoption ofdigital arthistorians' images.61 acceptance interviewed forthe also possiblethattheseveralarthistorians levelofcomfort allhad an unusually current working high study in thecurrent is an inconsiswithtechnology. Thisfinding study research for clarification. that necessitates additional tency user groupin the The findings associatedwiththe artist than that ofthe anentirely different current picture study presents noted twoartist-participants other three usergroups. Although thatdigitalimage databasesand/or websiteswere important for was a marked there to their preference print imageseeking, The artist also of the artists.62 resources the group among majority These collections. their from personal using images preferred artists' two findings heavy use of printmaterials concerning is supported and their own personallibraries by thestudyof behaviors artists' byCobbledick.63 information-seeking reported for online aboutartists' However, preference findings conflicting in recentstudies. have been reported versus printresources noted of theartist-respondents foundthat67 percent Gregory Internet or other accessed GoogleImages imagesthrough they was a strong there Visick et al. also found sites.64 for, preference examined.65 and use of,onlineresources they amongtheartists studiesseem to suggesta trendtowardthe These two recent It is interesting increased use ofonlineresources amongartists. thestudies corroborate do not thatthecurrent findings study's inthe thevariation etal.A possible causefor orVisick ofGregory different data collecthe of the be result studies'findings may or artists' information used to examine tionmethods behaviors, a groupwhoseimage contained thecurrent itmaybe that study when comparedto were markedly resources analog-oriented in thefindings their requires peers.The cause of thevariation clarification research for additional purposes. were found to Personallydeveloped image collections of in role the work-related an imagebehaviors play important withthree-quarters of the all fourof the study'suser groups, studies toexamine use. Previous their image noting participants userssuggestthisis a common Attig, Copeland,and practice. onPennState's usercommunity Pelikan's oftheacademic survey and student offaculty responcampusesfoundthat44 percent ofdigital As has collections dentsmaintained images.66 personal the information been mentioned regarding image previously, is and practicing architects ofacademicarchaeologists practices the in literature for evidence the limited. personal Supporting is absent. ofarchaeologists However, practices imagecollection all Elliott foundin herstudythatthey in thecase ofarchitects, andthat these could ofimages, collection had their ownpersonal A number of studiesof art containseveralhundredimages.67 and artists corroborate thepresent historians study'sfindings Challener's theuse of personalcollections. studyof regarding their collections that used arthistorians personal reported they Elam and made their own slidesor photographs.68 ofmaterials
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also foundpersonally amongart developedimagecollections in her thatone academicarthistorian historians. She observed to move intothedigitalrealmbecause she studywas hesitant overthecourse a sizablepersonal slidecollection had developed career.69 ofherthirty-five-year werefound tobe themost ofresources Personal collections This is supported the used heavily by artist-participants. finding that collections who notedin herstudy personal byCobbledick, More andconsulted weremaintained ofmaterials bytheartists.70 that artists also found etal. and Hemmig studies recent byVisick their needs.71 have developedpersonalcollections supporting createdby individualswere noted as being The collections of severalarchitects critical to theworkprocesses (two of six) in of the and one artist (one six) Hemmig's study study. present from that"imagesgenerated also found directly yourimaginafor area major source ofvisualinformation tion" artists, working in any thattheseimagesbe fixed he does notsuggest although theartists' use of personmedium.72 Visicket al. also mention of theseimages Additional discussions ally createdimages.73 or theartists' in theliterature werenot discovered addressing information behaviors. thearchitects'

Research andFuture Conclusions

theimageusersin this The mostcritical challenges facing weretheinadequate of,and accessto,approavailability study to meettheirneeds. Codifiedcollection priatevisual content collections do to thoseforprint similar development practices so thereis no standardagainst not existforvisual materials, or a database. whichto judge the holdingsof an institution attention to Becauseofthelimited imageusers paid providing and in quality,74 in bothsubject matter withadequate content to meetmanyoftheir to use print werefound publications they themajority ofthestudy's needs.Thiswas thecase eventhough An even clearer usingonlineresources. participants preferred is the additional needfor indication ofthecritical imagecontent in the were the that of study finding three-quarters participants future to avoid their collections own probactively developing lemswithimageavailability. could information There areseveral professionals waysthat of these involveshelping assist theseimage users. The first and preserve their personal image manage, imageuserscreate, inthestudy felt their oftheparticipants collections. Themajority with to the tasks associated skills were inadequate technological and maintenance of theirimage collections. the development about from clearinstructions Theseimageuserswould benefit the varioustechnologies associatedwith digitalimages.This and in lay terms forthehardware written includes information ofimagefile useful methods software used for imageprocesses, Theseuserswould also and imagefilenaming. manipulation, in archiving their and assistance benefit from instructions image in the studywere not performing files.Several participants forthe personalimages any formof digitalimage archiving information had and accumulated. created profesFinally, they later sionals needtohelpusersmanagetheir imagesfor personal Theseaspectswerefoundto be particularly retrieval. pressing saved to thecreative userssincetheir imagefileswere rarely As personal in a way thatallowedthemto be easilyretrieved. ofusers'skills imagecollections growin size,thedevelopment a challenge. more of seek becomes for the finding imagesthey
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is the Relatedto their buildingefforts personalcollection that were the realization they probably participants among and the work of othersin theirimage processing replicating stated in the academic The users efforts. groups management to and to contribute thatthey would welcometheopportunity Itis sharedacrossmanyinstitutions. use a largeimagecollection to think ofan onlinedatabaseofimagesthat notinconceivable and expertise of oftheknowledge, couldtakeadvantage images, who workwithimagesand do itin an easy-to-use professionals and low- or no-cost way.Sinceusersin thisstudyhave expetheir own digital to findand archive difficulties rienced trying them to an added incentive for is there upload their images, both that could an online site to provide organizational images willhave individuals Whilesomecreative and archival support. their when sharing about intellectual concerns rights property accesstotheir canbe developedtolimit methods images images, availmisuse.Giventhecurrently in order to protect thesefrom such services ofphoto-sharing thepopularity able technologies, broaduse ofthe and theparticipants' and Flickr, as Panoramio itwould be possibleto assisttheseusersin managing Internet, have Onlinesystems their imagesin an onlinesetting. personal usersto applyterms theadded advantageof allowingcontent informatheuser-supplied Whether and descriptions to images. userwho has or onlyto theindividual tionis availableto others levelof is in thesupplemental uploadedtheimage,itsstrength Sinceaccesstoimages tothevisualinformation. accessprovided inthestudy, most for was notedas beinga challenge participants in for the online retrieval efforts toward setting improving image be welcomed. would users image presumably professional oflimited use ofonlinedigital The finding imagedatabases additionalresearch by the image users in the studyprompts that theseinformation intothecause(s).Severaluserssuggested of content did not yetcontainthedepthand breadth systems additional be indicative of could also This situation needed. they financial limited as the users' such abilities, issues, technological dataavailable about lack of and their /or barriers, knowledge of theavailableimagedatabasesalso may bases. The usability limited contribute to their maynotbe welladoptionsincethey As many usersexpressed skills. suited totheusers'technological it is a factor thattheir skillswerelimited, a belief technological Financial barriers werealso associfuture research. that warrants use of imagedatabasesby severalusers, ated withthelimited about well-informed and potential userswere notparticularly the range of image databases available to them.From these need to show it is clearthatimagedatabaseproviders findings a consistently a level of service users through professional image inforexpertly applied descriptive highlevel of imagequality, that meetsusers'needs. and content mation, depthand breadth thatcaterto features Furthermore, theymustprovidesystem users and do a better skilllevel of their the technological job ofthedatabases.Ifdigital ofeducating usersaboutthecontent achievethesegoals,it is likelythey imagedatabaseproviders use amongprofessional willsee increased imageusers. theuse of print were foundto prefer The factthatartists that shouldalsobe examined resources is an intriguing discovery ofthepresent Fromthefindings moreclosely. studyit appears is better materials sincethisformat thattheartists prefer print inthe were artists there suited totheir workprocesses. However, with find and work to used who images,and study computers

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"TheInformation Needs ofArchitectural 8. Joyce Chidlow, Art Libraries no. 3 Practices," 16, Journal (1991):18-24. Makriand ClaireWarwick, "Information for 9. Stephann and Architects' Information Inspiration: Understanding Seeking the American Use Behaviors toInform Acknowledgments Journal of Society Design," Science & Technology 61,no. 9 (September 2010): Information Thisstudy wouldnothavebeenpossible without thesupport for 1745-70. we would liketo thank ofseveralgroupsand individuals. First, 10.Ibid.,1752-53, 1765. 1755-56, allowed thetwenty professional imageuserswho so generously 11.Ibid.,1763. their behaviors to be examined. Without their willingness image 12.HindaF.Sklar, Online: "WhyMakeImagesAvailable in thisstudy, our understanding of their to participate image in Access ed. RLG User Project, Perspectives," Digital Image must resources would be muchdiminished. Acknowledgment Patricia CA: Research Libraries View, (Mountain McClung Services also be givento theInstitute of Museumand Library 13. 1995), at Drexel Group, and theSchoolofInformation Scienceand Technology Ibid. 13. forsupporting thedoctoral workofthefirst author. University 14.Valerie A User SlideCollections: J.Bradfield, Requirements we would liketo thank thereviewers whosethoughtful Finally, Research & Development 5309 British Survey, Report Library this article. comments helpedstrengthen 46. UK: Leicester (Leicester, 1976), Polytechnic, 15.Ibid. Notes 16.William S. Hemmig, "TheInformation-Seeking 1. The first author review for this begantheliterature A Literature ofVisualArtists: Behavior Review," Journal of 1995onward. theliterature from study byexamining published Documentation 64,no. 3 (2008):343-62. itwas discovered that theliterature the However, addressing "An Empirical 17.William ofthe Hemmig, Study in thisstudy was limited. As a imageusersunderinvestigation VisualArtists," Behavior ofPracticing Information-Seeking and result ofthissituation thetime was lifted, periodrestriction 65,no. 4 (2009):682-703. Journal ofDocumentation all items behaviors information about the information offering 44. Slide 18.Bradfield, Collections, ofthestudy's usergroupswereconsidered. "TheInformation-Seeking Behaviors 19.SusieCobbledick, 2. IstoHuvila,"Analytic Information HorizonMaps," The ofArtists: 66,no. Interviews," Library Quarterly Exploratory Research andInformation Science 31,no. 1 (January 2009): Library 4 (October 360. 1996):357-59, Information Condition: 18-28;IstoHuvila,"TheInformation of Behavior 20.Jacquelyn Challener, "Information-Seeking in Labour, and Action," Use byArchaeologists Work Information Professors and StudioArt"(master's Kent ofArtHistory thesis, Research //informations 13,no. 4 (December 2008), http: 33-35. StateUniversity, 1999), Huvila's2008paper, although net/ir/13-4/paper369.html. 21.Ibid.,35. with itpresents from interviews someofthedata collected 22.Hemmig, "An Empirical oftheInformationStudy an of Nordic is not analysis the twenty-five archaeologists, 687-89. Behavior of Visual Artists," Seeking Practicing behaviors. Insteadthepaper information archaeologist's and 23.Richard Hendrickson, Visick, Judy Carolyn ofvita which showshow HannahArendt's activa, - A Pilot theory the Creative Process Bowman, Seeking Information During and action, intolabor, could divideshumanactivity work, 31,2009, Artists, 2006, 21-22, 26,34,accessedAugust Study of Thepaper research. be appliedto information-behavior (site http://staff.washington.edu/jath/portfolio/570final.pdf how thistripartite modelcouldbe used to analyzethe discusses discontinued). butitdoes notaddressthecontent ofthe interview transcripts, 24.Ibid. interviews. The 25.ToriGregory, "Under-Served orUnder-Surveyed: 26. Information HorizonMaps,"21-23, 3. Huvila,"Analytic in theSouthwestern Information Needs ofStudioArtFaculty 4. Jeffrey T. Clark, Brian M. Slator, William Perrizo, James ArtDocumentation United States," 26,no. 2 (Fall2007):57-66. E. Landrum, Aaron III, Richard Bergstrom, Sanjay Frovarp, 26.Ibid.,63. and William Archive Network Jockheck, Ramaswamy, "Digital 27.Ibid. for 2,no. 4 (2002), Journal ofDigital Information Anthropology," 44. 28.Bradfield, Slide Collections, view/50/53. //journals.tdl.org/jodi/article/ http: Behavior ofProfessors 29.Challener, "Information-Seeking A 5. GaryMarchionini, "Evaluating DigitalLibraries: and StudioArt," 63. ofArtHistory 33-35, Trends and Multifaceted View," 49,no. 2 Library Longitudinal E. Graham, 30.Christopher "Compare Baileyand Margaret 304-33. (Fall2000): on the of and Contrast: Impact DigitalImaging Measuring and SheilaI. Spiro, H. Bearman 6. Gregory "Archaeological theDiscipline Thirtieth International ofArtHistory," Congress TheBiblical ofAdvancedImaging Techniques," Applications Art the Millennium: 3-8 Art: Time, for History of History ofthe 59,no. 1 (March1996):56-66. Archaeologist 2000, London, http:// www.unites.uqam.ca/AHWA/ September the 7. Theheavyuse ofimagecollections to support Meetings^OOO.CIHA/Bailey.html. and research is confirmed ofacademicarchaeologists teaching E. Graham and Christopher 31.Margaret Bailey, "Digital in image firsthand author's - Compare working experience bythefirst and Contrast Revisited," ImagesandArtHistorians formal studiesofarchaeologists' collections. However, Art Libraries 31,no. 3 (2006):21-24. Journal are visualmaterial information behaviors surrounding 32.Ibid.,23. limited. frustratingly theseusersvariedin their overall for preference imagesin print. At a minimum, an investigation the ofthistopicwould identify mostuseful format for these users. ofinformation delivery

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as herfavorite 3 notedherownphotographs 50.Artist on theInformation33.Trish Rose,"Technology's Impact at the 2 that the oflooking Architect noted 2 resource. Documentation no. Art Art Behavior of 21, Historians/' experience Seeking resource. her was her world around 37. preferred (Fall2002): for Network 51.Clarketal, "DigitalArchive 34.Ibid.,38-39. 35.Ibid.,39. Marchionini, DigitalLibraries"; "Evaluating Anthropology"; ofAdvanced and Spiro, Bearman E-resources orAvoidance: 36.Barbara Elam,"Readiness Applications "Archaeological Collection and theArtHistorian," 26,no. 1 (2007):4-6. Techniques." Imaging Building HorizonMaps,"20-22. Information 52.Huvila,"Analytic theauthors focused on usersin thearts, 37.In thisstudy "Information for 53.Makriand Warwick, withthegoal of and environmental sciences humanities, Inspiration"; and Image for Ame a for Elliott, Support Sketching "Computational establishing guidelines appropriate multi-disciplinary Architectural the Phase of and Ann Michael resource. Pelikan, John Design" Browsing During Early Attig, Copeland, ofCalifornia, a ofMetadata for and Meaning: TheChallenges "Context 2002), (PhD diss.,University http:// Berkeley, & Research people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~ame/dissertation/PDFs/ within theUniversity," College DigitalImageLibrary Libraries Online"; downloads.html; Sklar, 65,no. 3 (2004):251-61. "WhyMake ImagesAvailable "TheInformation Needs ofArchitectural 38.Ibid.,253. Practices"; Chidlow, SlideCollections. A andMethodology: 39.W.Paul Vogt, Bradfield, Dictionary ofStatistics and for 54.Elliott, the Social Sciences Nontechnical Guide Oaks,CA: (Thousand Sketching Support "Computational for Architectural Phase of the and Research Michael 268; QuinnPatton, Qualitative During Early ImageBrowsing Sage,1999), Evaluation Methods Oaks,CA: Sage Publications, (Thousand Design,"174-77. "Information for 55.Makriand Warwick, 237-38. 2002), Inspiration." 1763. 56.Ibid.,1752-53, "Nvivo9,"http: 40.QSR International, //www. and Contrast." 57. Baileyand Graham, "Compare qsrinternational.com/products_nvivo.aspx. 58.Ibid. and Social Sciences 41. Ole R. Holsti, Content Analysis forthe on theInformation-Seeking 59. Rose,"Technology's MA: AddisonWesley, Humanities 1969). Impact (Reading, 38-39. Behavior ofArtHistorians," 42.Archaeologist 6,ArtHistorian 4, and Artist 3,Architect 5. orAvoidance," 60.Elam,"Readiness check. who tookpartin themember 6 weretheparticipants of 61. The resources mean 43.In thecontext ofthisstudy, imagetechnology appearsto adoption digital analog in a several forces confluence of have been media slides, books, by precipitated photographic tangible (photographs, this in to mid 2000s. a of time the short and and magazines) oractualworks(paintings, During early period buildings, KodakCompany stoppedmanufacturing periodtheEastman sculptures). 35mm slidefilm to 44.Theparticipants in thestudy areidentified (thefirst typewas discontinued professional according thecostofcomputer in 2001)and slideprojectors theorder and bya number their (2004), indicating groupmembership became ARTstor and memory 1 was the inwhich werestudied. Thus, beganto fall(2001), processors Archaeologist they and available in the from the first to (2004), GoogleImageswas subscription through archaeologist study participant partake introduced from the Architect 3 wouldbe thethird usergroup, (2001). participant web sitesas most 62.One artist and so on. architect usergroup, 1),who ranked (Artist resources for most chose books as the next as ofparticipants torankthisresource 45.The number important important, as he works his needs. This is understandable in had it fact be to their could primarily image image seeking higher important websites. The news-related withimagesprovided in thelistofoptions thesurvey beenincluded for through question. to used a computer artist to rankonline resources other in thissurvey the favorite 46.Theterm highly question implied in with her work the mostuseful and frequently used resource hourly paid position. images by participants. Behaviors of 63.Cobbledick, "TheInformation-Seeking In somecasestheparticipant several"favorites." identified 361-62. in Dual answers werebased on whattheimagewas used for Artists," 63. orUnder-Surveyed," 64.Gregory, "Under-Served ornot thecase oftheresponse ofArchaeologist 4, orwhether the Creative 65.Visick etal.,Seeking whatwas neededin a particular theparticipant was able to find During Information 25. commercial 3 and Architect Process, 6). imagedatabase(Architect and Meaning," "Context 66.Attig, 47.One ofthearchitects search notedhe used thegeneral Copeland,and Pelikan, 253. a search withGoogle thanperforming engine Googlerather and for 67.Elliott, Support Sketching "Computational Imagessincehe would discover imagesand additional Phase of Architectural the ofthedesign. information useful tothedevelopment During Early ImageBrowsing itshould 48. Sinceuse ofresources is tiedtoavailability, Design,"179-81. Behavior ofProfessors 68.Challener, all oftheacademic usershad institutional be notedherethat "Information-Seeking and StudioArt," 33. ofArtHistory accesstoARTstor. orAvoidance," 5. 69.Elam,"Readiness 49. Formoreinformation abouttheimagedatabases Behaviors of "TheInformation-Seeking 70.Cobbledick, see:ARTstor, discussed http://www.artstor. bytheparticipants Artists." index, shtml; Dreamstime, org/ http://www.dreamstime. the Creative 71.Visick etal.,Seeking and MDID, /www.archivision.com/; com/;Archivision, Information During http:/ "An the Informationof . //sites.jmu.edu/mdidhelp/ Process, 23;Hemmig, Empirical Study http: VisualArtists," Behavior ofPracticing 697,700. Seeking
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74.See therecent study byMcCannand Ravas concerning in theimpact had on user online imagequality journals Steve McCann and of Ravas, experiences. Tammy "Impact in OnlineArtHistory A UserStudy," Journals: ImageQuality ArtDocumentation 29,no. 1 (Spring 2010):41^8.

73. Visick et al., Seeking Information During theCreative 20. Process,

72.Hemmig, "An Empirical oftheInformationStudy Behavior ofPracticing VisualArtists/7 689. Seeking

9. Onceyouhavefound theimagesthat interest you, whatdo youtypically do withthem? 10. How do youincorporate imagesintoyourwork? 11. Which toolsand technologies do youuse toworkwith yourimages?

APPENDIX B: DataCollection Instrument -Interview Guide

- Do this offtape. Give date and timeat startof Greetings recording.

E. Beaudoin, Joan Assistant Professor, - Several discussions about the Ethnographicexplanations SchoolofLibrary and Information Science, An have taken place priorto the interview meeting. StateUniversity, project Wayne and detailed account does notneedtobe given. in-depth Detroit, Michigan, joane.beaudoin@gmail.com EvansBrady, Jessica Visual& Performing ArtsLibrarian, Florida StateUniversity, Florida, Tallahassee, jevansbrady@fsu.edu

APPENDIX A:DataCollection Instrument -Survey

1. With whichgroupdo you identify mostclosely? (Chooseone.) Archaeologistarchitect arthistorian artist 2. How manyyearshaveyoubeenassociated withthis groupyouidentify? withimages? 3. Whatworktasksdo youcomplete 4. Whattypes ofimagesdo youusuallyfind yourself cornices, (Forexample, imagesofpottery, needing? etc.) Degas's pasteldrawings, how often do youfind 5. Approximately yourself (Choose one.) needing images? Daily Weekly Monthly Other (pleasespecify) as your 6. Ifyouhad tonameone specific imageresource whatwould itbe? favorite, 7. Whattypes ofresources do youuse to find images? rank in order of (Please importance, using1 as most used to5, leastfrequently used.) frequently Books - slides, Imagelibraries (analogcollections photographs, etc.) Imagedatabase(s) Personal collection Website(s) Other(s) (pleasespecify) 8. Please describe how yougo aboutlooking for briefly resource. imageswhenyouareusingyourfavorite

Thefollowing needtobe re-stated: - The project focuseson the particiProjectexplanations and how pant'simageexperiences imagesarefound. when Do this Questionexplanations alongside questions warranted. Stateat outsettheparticipant should feelfree thatparallelsthe generaltopicof the to discussanything project. - Mention thatthestudyis confiexplanations Recording and that willbe protected. dential participant's identity Interview Questions TRANSITION: I willbeginby askingyou some general questions aboutyour workandyour ThenI willaskyou background. a seriesofquestions aboutwhyyou need imagesand how you about them. Thestudy is trying togaina better underfinding go of usersof images,so you shouldfeelfree to discuss standing that tothequestions asked. comestomindin response anything 1. Can you tellme a little aboutyoureducational background? 2. Could you please tell me what type of work you and whatyourspecific arein thefield interests perform in? work you bitaboutwhyyouneedand use 3. Can youtellme a little in work? images your TRANSITION: Think backtothelasttime youneededan image orimages. 4. Could youpleasedescribe for mewhatyouwere when needed theimageorimages? on working you PROBE (ifnotdiscussed):Can youtalkaboutthetask on?Whydid youneedan imageor youwereworking instance? imagesin this thelast 5. Whatimageorimageswereyoulooking for time something you youneededtolocatean imagefor on?Abouthow longago was this? wereworking whatyouwerelooking 6. How did yougo aboutfinding for did yousearch for theimageusing words, (inother a specific theimage wordorname,did youlookfor . . undera general or heading, .)?

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7. Whatresources did youuse tofind theimageor and orlibrary materials images(did youuse personal inbooks,databases, weretheimagesfound photoor ...)? collections, graphic whatyouwerelooking 8. Were for? youable tofind availPROMPT:Whataboutifthere werea system and ablewhere could search on like color you things think use this Do sort of youmight system shape? you tofind images? 9. Ifyouthink backto other times youhaveneeded how typical was thisimageneed?PROBE (if images, itwasn'thighly Can yougiveme examples of typical): moretypical situations? TRANSITION: Now I willaskyousomemoregeneral questions abouthowyougo aboutfinding images. 10. Where do youtypically yourimagesand go tofind In other whendoes thisoccur? where do you words, and lookfor do do this as the images yougenerally needarises, on a setschedule, orso on? 11. How do youfind an imageofa workyouknowabout? In other ifyouwerelooking a workyou for words, knewofand youknewthetitle, date,nameofthe ofthese, how creator, media,orsomecombination wouldyougenerally to find the try image? 12. How wouldyoufind an imageofa workthat was if unknown toyou?In other were words, you looking for a workyouhad seenorhad beentoldexisted, can find that describe how you youmight image? 13. Now I wouldlikeyoutothink backto thelasttime an image, orwereunable youhad difficulty finding an image.Can youtakeme through tofind thesteps in trying What tofind theimage? youwentthrough barriers theimage?Were prevented youfrom finding successful? youultimately Whyorwhynot? 14. Can youwalkme through how youtypically select theimagesyouuse from theimagesyouareable to find? PROMPT: Forinstance, do youlookfor images in coloroverblackand white, aesthetic orhistorical views?

and formats 15. Can youlistthetechnologies you wordsdo use for currently yourimageneeds?In other still slides,digital youuse 35mm images, photography and so on,and whatsystems arein place to support PROMPT: Arethere these? others? Are you savingyourimage filesto CDs, flashdrives,or external drives an extra Do youback-up for your image back-up? Ifyoudo,how? files? ornotyoumight knowof as towhether Also,I was curious archive on oruse an electronic /repository campus(orelsewhere) foryour images?Do you see the images you have amassed as havingenoughvalue (howeveryou want to define that)to in warrant an archive placement /repository? 16. Do themethods to find youemploy imagesin these Ifthey different one another? variousformats from do, how and why? 17. Can youwalkme though how you typically use the classroom the /in studio)? images(in differ 18. Does youruse ofimagesfor yourown research from thewaysyoumight the use them classroom/ (in in thestudio)? Ifyes,how do youuse imagesfor that? 19. In yourexperience, arethecurrently availabletools and In your for adequate finding usingimages? whatwould improve towork opinion, yourability withimages? I shouldknowabout 20. Is there elseyouthink anything for oryour yourimageneeds,how you search images, use ofimagefor Is there else you yourwork? anything would liketo discusssurrounding images? Thankingand takingleave - Thanksubjectforparticipating and stopthetape.

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