Electronics for Radiation Detection Systems

Introduction Preamplifier Amplifier P l Height Pulse H i h A Analyzers l Display Mode Cathode Ray Tubes

Introduction

Preamplifier
To amplify the relatively small signal from the detectors To match the impedance levels between the detector and subsequent components To shape the signal pulse for optimal subsequent processing

A few points
The output from the preamplifier is V V=Vo Vo exp(-t/RC) where Vo =Q/C and RC is the time constant, typical 20200 sec for nuclear detectors. The amplification for scintillation detectors is small (5-20) because the signals from the detectors have already been amplified by photo photo-multiply multiply tubes (105-10 1010). Higher amplification is required for semiconductor detectors (103-104) due to small detector signals. Preamplifier is located as close as possible to the detector to maximise the signal to noise ratio (often in single unit).

Amplifiers
T To amplify lif the th still till small ll signals i l from f the th preamplifier (1-1000). To reshape the slow decaying pulse from preamplifier into a narrow one (for high count rate and increasing the S/N ratio etc,). Requirements q for shaping: p g p preserve the input signal information such as pulse height g and rise time.

RC Shaping
Differentiate circuit:
The output is a rapid rising pulse with decay constant d =RC which is smaller than that in preamplifier. The amplitude of output is proportional to the rising portion of the input and insensitive to the tails. tails It discriminates against low frequency noise.

Integration circuit:
output pulse rises with time constant. V=Vo(1-e-t/RC). It discriminates against g high g frequency q y noise.

RC Shaping (continued)
Differentiate plus Integration circuit: The output p amplitude p is determined by y the input Time constant is shortened (0.25-5 sec for scintillation and semiconductor detectors, in contrast to 50-500 sec in the preamplifier). Only one polarity (except for some small negative overshoot at the end)

RC Shaping (continued)
Double differentiation plus integration circuit Output p is bipolar p Shorter rising time and longer total duration than unipolar output Preferred for high counting rate

Baseline Shift and Pulse Pileup

Baseline Shift is caused by the negative component p of the output p ( (at the end of the pulse) Pulse Pileup is caused by high counting rates that they fall on top of each other.

A few Points
Baseline shift and pulse pileup are caused by high counting rates Both B h problems bl can be b reduced d d by b shortening h i time i constant but also reduce the energy resolution and S/N ratio. Double differentiate bipolar amplifier and short time constant (0.025-0.5 u sec) are commonly used for NaI(Tl) detectors Unipolar i l and d longer l time i constant (0.5-8 (0 8 u sec) ) for f semiconductor detectors (achieve high energy resolution).

Pulse-Height Analyzers
Basic Functions Single Channel Analyzers Time Methods M li h Multi-channel l Analyzers A l

Basic Function
The amplitude of output signal is proportional p p to the energy gy of the radiation event detected Selective counting of those pulses within certain amplitude resulted in counting of selective energy range A certain energy range or interval is called energy channel

Single Channel Analyzers

Counting only those within a single energy range p of three parts: p Lower Level Composed Discriminator (LLD), Upper Level Discriminator (ULD) and Anticoincidence Percentage window: a certain percentage of the windows central voltage. A single channel analyzer without ULD is a circuit called discriminator

Timing Method
Determine the timing of radiation event is important in Nuclear Medicine applications There are a number of timing methods available but two of those are often used sed in nuclear n clear medicine: leading-edge leading edge and zeroero crossing. Leading-edge uses the rising portion of the input pulse to trigger the lower level discriminator which depends on the pulse amplitude (suffer certain amount of inaccuracy--5 to 50 nsec for NaI(Tl)). Zero-crossing requires bipolar pulses and is more accurate (4 nsec for NaI(Tl)).

Multichannel Analyzers
Simultaneous recording of multiple energy radiations. The principle of the popular Multichannel Analyzer (MCA) is different from the single channel h l analyzer l The center of the Multichannel analyzer is the analog-to-digital l t di it l converter t (ADC) A memory is required for the sorting of energy channels h l (energy ( ranges, energy spectrum). t )

Analog-to-Digital Converter
Two types of ADC are used in nuclear medicine for MCA and the interface between scintillation cameras and computers: Wilkinson or Ramp converter and successive approximation q time for the conversion which could be a Both require bottle neck for the time resolution but is not a major problem for nuclear medicine application Both of the converters use binary number representation which means that the more bits the more accurate but requires more time and memory.

Ramp ADC
RC circuitry and clock oscillator Discharging time proportional to the amplitude of the input pulse (radiation energy) Clock oscillator produces pulse train that are counted in a counting circuit The number of the clock pulses counted are proportional to the discharging time which in proportional p the radiation energy). gy) turn p

Successive Approximation
The input pulse is compared with one-half of the full scale The comparison voltage is then either increased or decreased by one half of its initial level depending on whether the pulse amplitude did or did not exceed the initial level. The process is repeated for several steps steps.

Time to Amplitude Converter

Scalers and Timers

A device that only counts pulses is called a scaler An auxiliary device that controls the scaler counting time is called timer. timer

Analog Ratemeters
A analog ratemeter is used to determine the average number of events occurring per unit time. The average is determined continuously rather than over discrete counting time Linear vs logarithmic ratemeters: V0=knQRp vs

V0=klog(nQRp) - wider range of counting rate

Ratemeter responds to the rate change has a time constant which can be adjusted (change the capacitor) i )

Coincidence Unit

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

Electron Gun Deflection Plates Phosphor-coated Display Screens F Focus and dB Brightness i h C Controls l Colour Cathode Ray Tubes

Electron Gun
Cathode: Hot filament-Tungsten, thoriated tungsten, nickel coated with oxides of barium and strontium, etc Control C l grid: id a cape with i h a hole h l in i its i centre and d a negative i potential applied to control the passage of electrons. Accelerating anode: similar to control grid but reverse in shape. Positive potential applied to accelerate the electrons. Focusing anode: a second anode that further shapes the electron l beam. b A negative i potential i l is i applied li d to compress and focus the beam of electrons.

Deflection Plates
Deflection plates are used for the positioning the electron beams on the screen: electronstatic or electromagnetic types. Electrostatic type applies voltages to the two sets of f plates. l Used d for f small ll screen with i h fast f speed. d Electromagenetic type uses two sets of wire coil. U df Used for l large screen with ith a slower l speed. d

Phosphor coated Display Phosphor-coated Screen

Electrons strike the screen (glass coated with phosphorescent materials) and release phosphorescent light. Persistence time: the lifetime of the light emission f from the h phosphor. h h Persistence scope: long persistence time up to a f minutes. few i t Composed C d of f storage t mesh h and d flood fl d gun etc. Used as visual monitor for patient positioning with the gamma camera. camera

Focus and Brightness Control

Second anode in the CRT controls the focus. It is a p potentiometer that varies the potential applied to the anode. The control grid controls the brightness or electron intensity. Increasing the voltage (negative) decreases the intensity

Colour Cathode Ray Tube

Three electron guns produce different electron beams onto arrays y of individual phosphors which in turn, produce three colours, , red, , green g and blue. A total of 64 colours can be produced by mixing the three colours for human eyes. eyes

Oscilloscopes
Oscilloscope is composed of a CRT, a signal amplifier and a time-sweep generator. It is used for displaying signal amplitude or frequency as a function of time. time The signal amplifier is used to amplify the small signals to p y which is connected to the vertical deflection be displayed plates. The sweep signal is applied to horizontal deflection plates which sweeps the electron across the screen at a constant speed and is repeated. Often used in cardiac studies for nuclear medicine

Television or Computer Monitors

A CRT tube with the two deflection plates controlled by constant frequency time-sweep generators. Electron gun controls the intensity at each point. point Active or retrace sweeps: the electron gun is on or off. Most TV monitors use interlacing. The two sets of scan lines are called fields and the two interlaced fields is called frame. Each frame takes 1/30 or 1/25 sec depending on the frequency of the electricity. The resolution depends on the number of lines (65%) for the vertical direction and the changing rate of the brightness d i the during th horizontal h i t l sweep.