MIG Thesis

Master Thesis Electrical Engineering Thesis no: MEE-2008:25 July 2008
Analysis of MIG Welding with Aim on Quality
Irina Gertsovich Niklas Svanberg
Department of Signal Processing Blekinge Institute of Technology Box 520 SE - 372 25 Ronneby Sweden
Areva Uddcomb Engineering Port Chapman 371 21 Karlskrona
This thesis is submitted to the School of Engineering at Blekinge Institute of Technology in partial fulllment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Electrical Engineering. The thesis is equivalent to 2 x 20 weeks of full time studies.
Contact Information: Authors: Irina Gertsovich Address: Mandelblomsvgen 13B, 372 52 Kallinge, Sweden E-mail: irinajoh@gmail.com Niklas Svanberg Address: landsgatan 8, 371 33 Karlskrona, Sweden E-mail: Svanberg.Niklas@gmail.com External advisor : Nils Bjersten Uddcomb Engineering AB
University advisor and examiner : Mikael Nilsson Department of Signal Processing, BTH University advisors : Josef Strm Bartunek Department of Signal Processing, BTH Department of Signal Processing Blekinge Institute of Technology Box 520 SE - 372 25 Ronneby Sweden
Internet : www.bth.se/tek Phone : +46 457 38 50 00 Fax : +46 457 271 25
ABSTRACT
Since 1987 Uddcomb Engineering has repaired pulps by their own developed overlay welding method even called Uddcomb method. Currently each welding machine is operated by two persons. To increase Uddcomb Engineering competitiveness the reduced number of operators is desired. An installation of a monitoring system which can aid humans in the welding quality control also helps to improve companys position. A future goal would be to make this monitoring system automatic without a human operator in the loop. In this thesis, arc voltage, weld current and audio signals were collected and analyzed with aim on nding algorithms to monitor the quality of the welding process. The use of statistics tools is the basis for detecting variations in the voltage and current data, associated with welding process. It has been shown that voltage signal can be used as a part of the welding quality control. The audio signal from welding at low frequencies varies with the speed of the process. The signal can also be incorporated in the monitoring of the process. The use of lters, growing sums and statistics are key elements in the algorithms presented in this report. Keywords: MIG welding, Arc Voltage, Weld Current, Audio, Signal Processing.
Contents
Contents List of Figures List of Tables 1 Introduction 1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Welding 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Equipment in MIG/MAG Welding 2.2.1 Power Source . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Welding Gun . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Bobbin and wire Feeder . . 2.3 Extra material for welding . . . . . 2.4 The Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 UE Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 7 13 1 1 1 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 9 9 10 10 11 11 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 17 18
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3 Theory of Tools 3.1 Statistic Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Periodograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Experimental Setup 4.1 The Welding Equipment . . . 4.2 Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Microphone . . . . . . 4.2.2 Current . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Voltage . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Video . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Other Hardware . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Computers and DAQ . 4.3.2 Workpiece . . . . . . . 4.4 Experimental Procedure . . . 4.5 Visual Welding Results . . . .
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6 5 Analysis of Voltage and Current 5.1 Stationarity & Normality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Method 1: Spectrograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Method 2: Recursive Sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Method: Recursive Sum Combined with Filter Method 5.5.1 Decimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Analysis of Sound 6.1 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Method 1: Recursive Sum . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Dependency between Speed and Quality 6.3.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 M14: Sampling Frequency . . . . . . . . 6.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS 21 22 23 25 27 29 29 39 50 50 58 58 65 66 67 69 69 71 76 76 85 86 87 89 89 90 91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 . 93 . 94 . 96 . 102 . 108
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7 Conclusions and future work 7.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography A Figures from Chapter 5 A.1 Section 5.1: Voltage . A.2 Section 5.1: Current . A.3 Section 5.3: Voltage . A.4 Section 5.3: Current . A.5 Section 5.4 . . . . . .
B Figures from Chapter 6 115 B.1 Method 1: Recursive Sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
List of Figures
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Overview of MIG/MAG welding equipment. 1) power source, 2) welding gun, 3) electrode bobbin, 4) wire feeder, 5) controller, 6) water supply, 7) gas supply, and 8) workpiece. . . Characteristics of the power source; a) dropping b) straight c) lightly dropping. . . . . . The welding gun. 1) the gas hose, 2) the contact tube, and 3) the electrode wire. . . . . The end tip of the welding gun [1, p40]. 1) electrode wire, 2) contact piece, 3) gas(es), 4) drops of electrode wire, 5) area of gases, and 6) the arc area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic of the voltage drop in the arc [1]. Le denotes the electrode stick-out from the contact tube, La denotes the arc length, Ua , Uco and Uc denote the anode, column and cathode voltage drop respectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic of the welding systems movements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 4 5 5
2.6 4.1
7 8 11 12 13 13 14 14 15 16 17 19 19 20 21 22 23 23 24 24
Schematic overview of the experimental setup for measuring weld voltage, current, sound and video. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Pulses generated by the welding power source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Schematic of sound measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Schematic of current measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Schematic of the voltage splitter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Schematic of video monitoring and recording. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Picture of the ngercamera. The units on the ruler are centimeters. . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 (a) Overview of the workpiece (b) Description of which surfaces the workpiece are divided into and also how long they are. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Graphical User Interface (GUI) used during the data collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10 Visual welding results from measurements 4-9. The upper numbers indicate with electrode wire type used and the lower numbers are the wire speed [m/min]. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11 Visual welding results from measurements 1-3 and 10-12. The upper numbers indicate with electrode wire type used and the lower numbers are the wire speed [m/min]. . . . . . 4.12 Visual welding results from measurements 13-14. Measurement setup: electrode wire 29.9 with speed 9 m/min. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6
M1 in time domain, where (b) is only a part of the total signal in (a). . . . . . . . . . . M11 in time domain, where (b) is only a part of the total signal in (a). . . . . . . . . . M1 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface 1 and dashed line is surface 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M5 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface 3, dashed line is surface 4 and dashdotted line is surface 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Block statistics test for stationarity with 4410 samples/block on surface 1(60 seconds) in M1; (a) Mean (b) Variance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Histogram of (a) M1 (b) M11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 5.37 5.38
LIST OF FIGURES
M1 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface 1 and dashed line is surface 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M5 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface 3, dashed line is surface 4 and dashdotted line is surface 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Block statistics test for stationarity with 4410 samples/block on surface 1(60 seconds) in M1; (a) Mean (b) Variance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Histogram of (a) M1 (b) M11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M1; (a) shows the current data with the rapidly changing characteristic when switching row in welding process; (b) shows the voltage and its transients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . M1; (a) shows the current data with the rapidly changing characteristic when switching row in welding process; (b) shows the voltage and its transients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . M1; (a) shows the current data with the rapidly changing characteristic when switching row in welding process; (b) shows the voltage and its transients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M10. Notice the change of surfaces at 1500 and 2500 blocks. . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Designed highpass lter for voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M1 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M2 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M3 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M10 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M11 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M12 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M1 over whole spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M10. Notice the change of surfaces at 600 and 1000 blocks. . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Designed lowpass lter for current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M1 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M2 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M3 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M10 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25 25 26 26 27 28 28 29 30 30 31 31 32 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 40 41 41 42 42 43 44 45 46 47
LIST OF FIGURES 5.39 M11 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.40 M12 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.41 Recursive sum method for voltage in M1 using block length 2048; (a) Variance (b) Skewness 5.42 Recursive sum method for voltage in M11 using block length 2048; (a) Variance (b) Skewness 5.43 Recursive sum method for voltage in M5 using block length 2048; (a) Variance (b) Skewness 5.44 Recursive sum method for voltage in M8 using block length 2048; (a) Variance (b) Skewness 5.45 Recursive sum method for current in M1 using block length 2048; (a) Variance (b) Skewness 5.46 Recursive sum method for current in M11 using block length 2048; (a) Variance (b) Skewness 5.47 Recursive sum method for current in M5 using block length 2048; (a) Variance (b) Skewness 5.48 Recursive sum method for current in M8 using block length 2048; (a) Variance (b) Skewness 5.49 Recursive sum method with forgetting factor = 0.99, voltage in M1 using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.50 Recursive sum method with forgetting factor = 0.99, voltage in M5 using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.51 Recursive sum method with forgetting factor = 0.99, voltage in M4 using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.52 M1 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.53 M2 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.54 M3 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.55 M10 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.56 M11 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.57 M12 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.58 M1 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.59 M1 voltage signal, decimated by 2, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.60 M1 voltage signal, decimated by 3, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6
Sampled audio signal; (a) Clipped signal from PC-1 soundcard from M1 (b) Not clipped signal using DAQ in M14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of M3. At 1500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface. . Spectrogram of M12. At 1500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface. Designed highpass lter for sound. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Highpass ltered sound signal in time domain; (a) M1 (b) M11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Highpass ltered M1 sound signal, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. At 1500 blocks the welding proceeds on the rusty surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Highpass ltered M2 sound signal, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. At 1500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48 49 50 51 51 52 52 53 53 54 55 56 57 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 66 69 70 71 71 72
72
6.7
73
10 6.8
LIST OF FIGURES
Highpass ltered M3 sound signal, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. At 1500 and 2500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Highpass ltered M10 sound signal, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. At 1500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Highpass ltered M11 sound signal, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. At 1500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Highpass ltered M12 sound signal, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. At 1500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Highpass ltered M13 sound signal, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. At 1500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lowpass lter with pass band 1 Hz and transition band 90 Hz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of the audio record for rst surface in M12. Zoomed at frequency range 0 500 Hz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of second surface in M2. The power of the signal is around -60 dB for the most of the blocks. Few blocks have power over -40 dB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of second surface in M1. The signal has higher number of blocks with power above -40 dB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of second surface in M3. The signal consists of blocks with power above -40 dB mostly. Only few blocks have power below -40dB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of third surface in M7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of third surface in M8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrogram of third surface in M9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statistical data example for M2, surface 2 only, calculated from signal power; (a) Mean (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statistical data example for M2, surface 2 only, smoothed signal power; (a) Mean (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean of sound power for each speed group; (a) Original (b) Zoomed. . . . . . . . . . . Mean value of averaged variance for each speed group; (a) Original (b) Zoomed. . . . . . Power Spectral Density (PSD) using Welch periodogram method on M1. . . . . . . . . . Power Spectral Density (PSD) using Welch periodogram method on M14. . . . . . . . .
73
6.9
74
6.10
74
6.11
75
6.12
6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26
75 77 77 78 78 79 79 80 80 82 83 84 85 86 87 93 94 94 95 96 97
A.1 M8 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface 1 and dashed line is surface 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2 M11 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface 3, dashed line is surface 4 and dashdotted line is surface 5. . . . . . . . . . . . A.3 M8 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface 1 and dashed line is surface 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.4 M11 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface 3, dashed line is surface 4 and dashdotted line is surface 5. . . . . . . . . . . . A.5 M4 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.6 M5 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES A.7 M6 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.8 M7 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.9 M8 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.10 M4 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.11 M4 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.12 M5 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.13 M6 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.14 M7 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.15 M8 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.16 M9 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.17 M4 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.18 M5 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.19 M6 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.20 M7 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.21 M8 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.22 M9 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1 M4 sound signal, highpass ltered, using length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. . B.2 M5 sound signal, highpass ltered, using length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. . B.3 M6 sound signal, highpass ltered, using length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. . B.4 M7 sound signal, highpass ltered, using length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. . B.5 M8 sound signal, highpass ltered, using length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. . B.6 M9 sound signal, highpass ltered, using length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. .
recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block
11
98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
List of Tables
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 5.1 6.1
The chemical composite in percent of wire 19.82. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The chemical composite in percent of wire 29.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specications of the used computers for collecting and storing sensor information. . . . Specications of used number of channels and sampling frequency when collection data from current and voltage sensors (UA) and from two microphone sensors (UB). . . . . Summary of the measurements setup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Upper row is the true size and lower row is the number seen in Figs. 5.3-5.4 and 5.7-5.8. Summary of observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12 12 15 15 18 22 81
13
Chapter 1
Introduction
This thesis has been preformed at Department of Signal Processing (ASB) at Blekinge Institute of Technology (BTH/BIT) in cooperation with Uddcomb Engineering AB (UE). The thesis is on D-level and extends of 30 credit points.
1.1
Background
The most pressure vessels in Swedish pulp industry was built during the 50th and 60th. These pulp vessels were constructed with black iron according to the methods, rules and regulations of that time which fullled the corrosion analytical value of about 0.5 mm/year. As the time passed, new demands arose within the pulp industry on faster and more environmental-friendly methods. These new demands increased the yearly corrosion signicant, which lead to the minimum allowed thickness of pulp vessels was reached many years earlier than expected [2]. Uddcomb Engineering AB has since 1987 repaired pulp vessels by welding a new layer of rustless iron on the vessels inside by primarily using semi-automated MIG welding machines. Each machine is controlled by two operators, the rst one controlling it and monitoring the welding process, while the other one is monitoring the resulting quality of the weld. Normally a couple of these machines operate inside the pulp vessel at the same time, which with all its sound, lightning ashes, smoke, heat etc, creates together a general poor working environment.
1.2
Purpose
Collect relevant information that is current, voltage, audio and video to perform the analysis of the welding process remotely. The collection of information should be preformed in cooperation with a human expert in the area to create a transcribed database. Further, develop and evaluate algorithms with the aim to imitate the human expert for welding quality control.
Chapter 2
Welding
2.1 Introduction
What is welding? The process where two or more metal materials are attached to each other. It is the basic of welding. There exist dierent variants of attachment methods. Welding has been used by mankind for centuries. One method that has been used is named forge welding. The metal is heated to its melting point and then is stricken by a hammer to be transformed to the desired shape. In the end of 18th century some new methods of welding were discovered, such as resistance and arc welding. The resistance welding method is based on Michael Faraday discovery. The discovery was if two steel objects are pressed together under the current ow inuence, then the resistance between these objects creates a heat. The heat intensity is high enough to melt the objects at their point of contact on the current path. This is method very well used in the car industry and white goods industry [3, p8]. Arc welding on the other hand is performed by connecting the workpiece to one pole of the power source and a coalpiece to the other. An electric arc pass between coalpiece (electrode piece) and the workpiece which created high enough energy to melt the two pieces together. The coal piece was later replaced by a metal piece, which is known as metal arc welding. In the early mid 19th century, experiments were made to nd better methods which were not time consuming, due to change of electrode pieces. The solution is known as Metal Inert Gas (MIG) or half automatic welding. The method uses a machine that automatically pushes an electrode wire forward to the electric arc and is protected from oxidation with help of an inert gas, such as argon (Ar). Since the inert gases are expensive to produce, another method called Metal Active Gas (MAG) was invented, where a chemical gas, such as carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is used instead. In this thesis a mix of these two methods has been used, which is described further in this chapter. Welding methods are generally placed in one of two main groups denoted spot welding and autogenous welding [3, p17]. In autogenous welding the workpiece is heated to its melting point, where it is melted together with extra material. In spot welding the two pieces are pressed together with or without any heating. The method used in this thesis belongs to autogenous welding and is part of Gas Metal Arc (GMA) welding. 3
CHAPTER 2. WELDING
2.2
Equipment in MIG/MAG Welding
In this section the dierent equipment parts of MIG/MAG welding will be explained. Specic details about the equipments used in this thesis will be presented further in chapter 4. The equipment consists of power source, welding gun, electrode bobbin, rod feeder, and some extra equipment. See Fig. 2.1 for an overview of the welding equipment.
4 6 2 5 7 + 1 8
Figure 2.1: Overview of MIG/MAG welding equipment. 1) power source, 2) welding gun, 3) electrode
bobbin, 4) wire feeder, 5) controller, 6) water supply, 7) gas supply, and 8) workpiece.
The electrode wire on the bobbin is continuously fed forward by the wire feeder to the electric arc at a constant speed. Normally the feeding speed is between 2 and 20 m/min [3, p85]. The power source, water and gas supply are fed trough the controller and thereafter are linked together in a hose, which leads to the welding gun.
2.2.1
Power Source
The power source used in MIG/MAG welding is mostly direct current (DC) with its positive pole connected to the electronic rod while the negative pole connected to the workpiece. The power source characteristics are very important for welding stability, ignition of the arc and transfer of melted electrode wire to the workpiece. Characteristics of a power source can either be dropping, straight or lightly dropping, where the two latter one are used in MIG/MAG. Fig. 2.2 shows the characteristics of a power source between current and voltage.
a Voltage b c
Current
Figure 2.2: Characteristics of the power source; a) dropping b) straight c) lightly dropping.
2.2. EQUIPMENT IN MIG/MAG WELDING
Straight and lightly dropping characteristics of the power source helps maintain control of the arc. The voltage determines the length of the arc while the current (Ampere) automatically regulates itself during welding. The necessary level for melting the electrode wire depends on the speed welding wire feeding and the content of the wire.
2.2.2
Welding Gun
Figure 2.3: The welding gun. 1) the gas hose, 2) the contact tube, and 3) the electrode wire. Fig. 2.3 shows a general overview of a welding gun. The welding gun is an important part of the welding process. Through it, the electrode wire, gases and the current ow to the electric arc. In case of high level current it is recommended to add cooling water to the ow. The gun must be light, smooth in use and should be tolerant to the high temperature.
1
+
2 3
4 5
Figure 2.4: The end tip of the welding gun [1, p40]. 1) electrode wire, 2) contact piece, 3) gas(es), 4)
drops of electrode wire, 5) area of gases, and 6) the arc area.
2.2.3
Bobbin and wire Feeder
The wire feeder has an important purpose. It is supplying the welding gun with electrode wire. Depending on where the rod feeder is placed, compared to where the bobbin and welding gun is, the wire is either pushed or pulled. Pushed is most regularly used, and can handle wire length up to 5m [1, p43]. Pulled on the other hand is not very common, but a use of both pulled and pushed rod feeders can be found in the same system, one at the bobbin and one at the welding gun. This is called push-pull feeding and can handle wire lengths up to 15m [1, p43].
CHAPTER 2. WELDING
The electrode wire is placed on a bobbin which is placed on a hub brake. This brake controls the friction and stops the rotation when needed. Friction on the electrode wire can cause that particles detach and jam either of the rod feeders. Therefore wire is mostly covered with a thin layer of copper to make the feeding of electrode wire easier with less friction.
2.3
Extra material for welding
The electrode wire is one extra material which normally has a diameter of 0.6 to 2.4 mm [3, p90]. For massive electrodes diameters of 0.8, 1.0 or 1.2 mm are usually used, and for tube electrodes the wire is a bit wider. Two important factors when selecting the wire are the composition and the wire purity. The electrode should also be selected with respect to surface of the workpiece. Gases are extra material too. The MIG consists mainly of either argon or helium, while MAG consists of carbon dioxide. The purpose of the gas is to protect the welding electrode wire from particles in the air surrounding the workpiece. The gas also aects the welding properties, the penetration depth into and the penetration width on the workpiece. Argon is an inert gas which has good properties such as not reacting on other substances, low ionization potential and gives a stable gas ow due to its high density value. Helium is another inert gas which has high ionization potential, the ability to lead heat which increases the heat of the arc and a slightly wider penetration. However it has a low density. Since Helium and Argon are inert gases, they are expensive to use. Carbon dioxide is ordinary inexpensive gas which has good penetration and good ability to withstand any contaminations on the surfaces. However it dissolves in the arc and creates two substances, carbon monoxide and oxygen. The carbon monoxide is a lethal gas [4, p5]. The oxygen might oxidize the electrode wire. The workpiece can be unalloyed steel, low alloyed steel, high alloyed steel, aluminium alloyed, magnesium alloyed, titan alloyed, copper alloyed and nickel alloyed surfaces [1, p91]. The two rst are most suitable for MAG welding with a mixture of argon and carbon dioxide, while the rest can be welded with MIG. When working with very high temperatures, the welding gun needs to be cooled down, this is done by supplying it with water.
2.4
The Arc
The arc purpose when using an electrode wire is to heat and melt the receiving area on the workpiece. The arc also melt the electrode wire and transfers it to the receiving area. An arc consists of plasma, which is a strongly radiating mixture of free electrons, ions and molecules. The arc is an electric discharge between two electrodes inside a plasma consisting of gas [1]. The two electrodes are seen as two points, i.e anode and cathode. As in most welding applications and in this thesis, the cathode is the workpiece (negative) and the anode is the electrode wire (positive). The electrons move from the cathode area towards the anode area and when they are moving they collides with atoms from the shielding gas. In the collisions other electrons detached from the atoms and a chain reaction is started, which helps maintaining the electrical conductivity. The arc is divided into three areas, cathode area, anode area and the arc column, which are seen in Fig. 2.5.
2.5. UE METHOD
Contact tube
Le
Anode
La Cathode Ua Uco Uc
Figure 2.5: Schematic of the voltage drop in the arc [1]. Le denotes the electrode stick-out from the contact tube, La denotes the arc length, Ua , Uco and Uc denote the anode, column and cathode voltage drop respectively. The voltage drop is larger at the anode and cathode than over the column area. At the anode the voltage drop occurs because of the collisions. The drop at the cathode occurs when detaching the electrons. The column drop depends on the arc length and what type of shielding gas is used. The transfer of the melted wire to the surface is a complicated connection between various parameters. These parameters are current, voltage settings, shielding gas, thickness of electrode wire(surface tension), polarity, electrode stick-out, arc wideness, arc length and the structure of the welding gun.
2.5
UE Method
In this thesis the technique denoted UE method was used. Its usage is primarily for repairing process structures, e.g pulp and petrochemical industries, where the thickness of the structure has decreased mainly from erosion but also from heat and oxidization. By use of overlay welding method, a new layer of stainless steel material is added to the aected (or damaged) surfaces. The outcome of the process is increased thickness, a better protection against further erosion and may not need another extensive renovation. The welding machine adds a row of material that is 55 mm long, 2 mm wide and takes about two seconds to complete. Each row is also slightly overlapped with previous row to avoid any gaps in the layer. It is truly a slow process, however, the outcome is worth it. In Fig. 2.6 the movement of the machine is visualized.
CHAPTER 2. WELDING
2s 55mm 2mm 14s Change of row
Figure 2.6: Schematic of the welding systems movements.
Chapter 3
Theory of Tools
The tools or functions used in this thesis are presented in this theory chapter. The mathematical denitions in this chapter are described in [5, 6].
3.1
Statistic Measures
Statistical tools are used to analyze time series to describe the signal properties in dierent ways. During the analysis of the current and voltage signal following statistical tools were used, mean, variance, skewness, kurtosis and interquartile range (IQR). The mean x is dened as x = E [x] =
2 as and the variance x 2 x = E [(x x )2 ] =
1 N
N 1
x(n)
n=0
n = 0, 1, ..., N 1
(3.1)
1 N 1 (x(n) x )2 . N 1 n=0
(3.2)
Skewness is used to decide to what degree a signal is symmetric around its mean. Skewness Sx is dened as E [(x x )3 ] Sx = . (3.3) ( E [(x x )2 ])3 If a signal is symmetric around its mean, the skewness should be close to zero, e.g. a normal distributed signal. Kurtosis is as variance a measure of the spread in a signal. However, its values are raised to power of four instead of two as in variance. Kurtosis Kx is dened as Kx = E [(x x )4 ] . ( E [(x x )2 ])4 (3.4)
A normal distributed signal has the kurtosis value equal to three. A signal with kurtosis value larger or smaller than three has more or less tail respectively. Interquartile range (IQR) is another measure of the spread in a signal, but it is less sensitive to transients then variance for instance. IQR is dened as 1. Order n values ascending. 2. Split the n values into two equal segments, upper segment is denoted Q3 and lower segment is denoted Q1 . 3. IQR = median of Q3 minus median of Q1 . 9
10
CHAPTER 3. THEORY OF TOOLS
3.2
Periodograms
Periodogram methods are used for describing the frequency content of a signal. The use of discrete fourier transform (DFT) on a discrete signal denoted x(n), transforms the x(n) signal into frequency domain where it is denoted X(k). The DFT is dened as
N 1
X (f ) =
n=0
x(n)ej 2f n
0 k N 1
(3.5)
where N is the block length and f = k/N is the frequency. With the use of DFT the standard periodogram estimate is dened as xx (f ) = P 2 |X (f )|2 Fs N (3.6)
where Fs is the sampling frequency. To minimize leakage among the frequencies a window other than the rectangular window should be applied to the discrete signal prior to computing the DTF. The DFT with a window w(n) is dened as
N 1
X (f ) =
n=0
(w(n)x(n))ej 2f n
0 k N 1
(3.7)
The modied periodogram is dened as xx (f ) = P 2 |X (f )|2 Fs N B

N 1 n=0
(3.8)
where B is window compensation factor. The factor B is dened as B= 1 N |w(n)|2 . (3.9)
To reduce the variance in the periodograms, several periodograms should be averaged. One method that uses this is modied Welch periodogram, which normally also uses overlap between blocks to decrease the variance even further, e.g. 50 % or 75%. To average periodograms the size N is divided into K blocks, each with a length M = N/K . For each block a length M periodogram is calculated and then the K periodograms are averaged. The modied Welch periodogram is dened as
W xx P (f ) =
2 M LB
L1 M 1
(w(n)x(n + iD))e
i=0 n=0
j 2f n
0 k M 1
(3.10)
where the length of D controls the overlap percentage and B is the window normalization factor. B = 1 M
M 1 n=0
|w(n)|2 .
(3.11)
3.3
Other
U = RI (3.12)
Ohms law is a relationship between three variables used the electrical world, and is dened as
where U denotes voltage in unit [V]-volt, R denotes resistance in unit []-Ohm and I denotes current in unit [A]-Ampere.
Chapter 4
The Experimental Setup

This chapter will explain the setup of equipment and sensors used for collecting data during the welding process. An overview of the four sensors is shown in Fig. 4.1, while an overview of the welding equipment is shown in Fig. 2.1.
PC DAQ Microphone Sensor
Weld Source
... Current Voltage Video Sensor Measurement Sensor
Figure 4.1: Schematic overview of the experimental setup for measuring weld voltage, current, sound
and video.
4.1
The Welding Equipment
The whole welding system is called generation 3 in UE terms. Normally two welding guns are working at the same time, however, in these experiments only one was used. The system also has the capability to automatically adapt the distance between the workpiece and the welding gun i.e. the length of the arc, that the optimum welding conditions are achieved. This capability was turned o during the experiments. The MK2000A is model of power source used in direct current (DC) mode, transmitting 5 ms long pulses [7] (See Fig. 4.2). Each pulse corresponds to one drop of the melted electrode wire. The amplitude of the pulses is around 30 V. At the arc the voltage level is lower due to the resistance of the hoses used for shielding the signal. The power source voltage is weakly falling with approximately 4 V decrease per 100 A increase as seen in Fig. 2.2. The ROBO WH 650 [8] welding gun supplies the current, cooling water, gas and electrode wire in the welding process. The cooling water ows at a constant speed. The ow of pure argon gas is 20 liters/minute. The 1.2 mm thick electrode wire feeding speed is 7, 9 or 11 meters/minute. 11
12
CHAPTER 4. THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
5ms 3ms Voltage
...
...
Time
Figure 4.2: Pulses generated by the welding power source. Two dierent electrode wires were used during the experiments, ESAB OK Autrod 19.82 [9] and Sandvik 29.9 [10]. The chemical composition of the two wires is shown in table 4.1 and 4.2. As seen in tables one is based on nickel while the other is based on iron. 19.82 Wire Coal <0.1 Silicon <0.5 Manganese <0.5 Chromium <21.5 Nickel >60 Molybdenum 9.0 Iron <2.0 Others <1.5
Table 4.1: The chemical composite in percent of wire 19.82.
29.9 Wire Coal 0.1
Silicon 0.4
Manganese 1.8
Chromium 30.5
Nickel 9
Molybdenum -
Iron <58
Others -
Table 4.2: The chemical composite in percent of wire 29.9.
The electrode wires were mounted in 15 kg bobbins and were fed forward by the rod feeder which used the pull technique mentioned in Sec. 2.2.3.
4.2. SENSORS
13
4.2
Sensors
In this section sensors used for data collection are presented.
4.2.1
Microphone
The microphones were installed above the welding gun. The approximately distances between the microphone, welding gun and the arc are shown in the setup Fig. 4.3. The audio signal is sampled by the PC builtin soundcard AC97, using its maximum sampling frequency of 44.1 kHz with 16 bits resolution over the 1 V range.
30cm
10cm DAQ
PC
Figure 4.3: Schematic of sound measurement. During one measurement the Data Acquisition (DAQ) device has been used for recording the signal, due to higher sampling frequency possibility. In this measurement two microphones setup has been used with a sampling frequency of 90 kHz in the limited range of 10 V.
4.2.2
Current
The current signal was gathered directly after the welding power source by the use of a shunt. In Fig. 4.4 a schematic of the setup is shown.
OUTPUT
Workpiece Weld Source + - ... + Weld
Figure 4.4: Schematic of current measurement. A shunt is used since the DAQ measures only voltage. The shunt works as a resistor and its resistance is only 0.2 m. As the current passes over the shunt, the voltage drop is measured with an error accuracy of 0.5 %. An isolation amplier [11] was used to amplify the signal 100 times from 0 - 100 mV to the range of 0 - 10 V. The amplied signal was sampled by the DAQ device at 44.1 kHz. The amplier has a maximum delay of 25 ms, which is about 1100 samples. The measured signal had wrong amplitude levels and was principally wrong type of signal i.e. voltage instead of current. However, the signal was reconstructed by dividing of a factor 100 and using Ohms law i.e. dividing the signal with the resistance of the shunt. The summarized factor is either division by 0.02 or multiplication by 50.
14
4.2.3
Voltage
The voltage signal was measured between the contact tube (see Fig. 2.4) and the workpiece. The voltage level at this point is 20-30 V, therefore a voltage splitter was applied to decrease the level to 0 - 10 V. The schematic of the voltage splitter is shown in Fig. 4.5, where the input is as mentioned above and output signal goes to the DAQ. The voltage signal was sampled at 44.1 kHz.
1k 1k 1k
Contact Tube
1k 1k
... 12V OUTPUT ... DAQ
INPUT
10
Workpiece
Figure 4.5: Schematic of the voltage splitter. Due to the voltage splitter, wrong voltage level was measured. The measured voltage signal was reconstructed by multiplication of a factor 5, which was decided from simulations performed in PSPICE.
4.2.4
Video
The video data from the welding process were recorded. In Fig. 4.6 a schematic of the setup is shown.
Live Video PC Dazzle Video Creator
Multiplexor
ICP Box Video Sensor
Figure 4.6: Schematic of video monitoring and recording. The multiplexor [12] was used by UE for monitoring and recording welding processes. In this thesis it was mainly used for monitoring the welding process live. The video recorded by the multiplexor was compressed by MLJPEG format, which results in rather poor quality video and restriction to a program Clip Player. To improve the video quality, Dazzle Video Creator Platinum [13] recorded the analogue signal. The acquired video signal was processed
4.3. OTHER HARDWARE
15
in Pinnacle Studio version 10. A separate PC was dedicated for recording the video signal in MPEG-4 format. The camera used is shown in Fig. 4.7, no further information about it can be given due to no reference given from UE.
Figure 4.7: Picture of the ngercamera. The units on the ruler are centimeters.
4.3
Other Hardware
Other hardware used during the experiments is explained in this section.
4.3.1
Computers and DAQ
Two computers were employed for gathering and storing the signals from the sensors. Details about the computers are listed in table 4.3. CPU Memory HDD Sound PC-1 Intel Pentium 1.8GHz 1024MB IDE 120GB 7200RPM AC97 PC-2 Intel Centrino 1.6GHz 768MB DDR2 533MHz IDE 40GB 4200RPM AC97
Table 4.3: Specications of the used computers for collecting and storing sensor information. NI-9215A [14] DAQ model type was employed to convert the analogous signals to digital form and temporarily store them. For permanent storage the data were transferred via USB-2.0 interface to the PC-1. The DAQ device has 4 analog input channels, 16 bits of resolution, maximum sampling frequency of 100 kHz and the analog input range of 10 V. The experiments setup employs the range between 0 - 10 V. Specications of used number of channels and sampling frequency during collection data from current and voltage sensors (UA) and from two microphone sensors (UB) are specied in table 4.4. Channels Sampling Frequency [kHz] UA 2 44.1 UB 2 90
Table 4.4: Specications of used number of channels and sampling frequency when collection data from
current and voltage sensors (UA) and from two microphone sensors (UB).
16
4.3.2
Workpiece
The workpiece is 2-3 cm thick and consist mainly of steel. In Fig. 4.8(a) the workpiece is shown and Fig. 4.8(b) describes which surfaces the workpiece is divided into and also how long each surface is.
Pure Iron 15cm
Rusty
10cm
Pure Iron
9cm
Rustless
10cm
Pure Iron
14cm
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.8: (a) Overview of the workpiece (b) Description of which surfaces the workpiece are divided
into and also how long they are.
4.4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
17
4.4
Experimental Procedure
A graphical user interface (GUI) was developed to handle the start and stop of the data gathering. Through the GUI the operator species the exact time when the welding process changes surface. The GUI uses Data Acquisition Toolbox to communicate with the external DAQ and the internal sound system. The visual part of the GUI is shown in Fig. 4.9.
Figure 4.9: Graphical User Interface (GUI) used during the data collection. The weld quality rating seen in Fig. 4.9 was not used during the measurements since it was hard to see any results when the welding system was running. The weld quality was rated oine, after all measurements were completed. Before start of measurements the wire feeding speed was set. The correct electrode wire was mounted. The welding machine with the gun was moved into the start position and 18 mm from the workpiece.
18
4.5
Visual Welding Results
Totally 14 measurements were performed, with variated wire speed and dierent types of electrode wires, across ve surfaces. Details of each measurement are shown in the table 4.5 and the results are shown in Figs. 4.10-4.12. M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11 M12 M13 M14 Surfaces [1-5] 1,2 1,2 1,2 3,4,5 3,4,5 3,4,5 3,4,5 3,4,5 3,4,5 1,2 1,2 1,2 1,2,3,4,5 1,2,3,4,5 Wire Speed [m/min] 9 7 11 11 9 7 7 9 11 11 9 7 9 9 Wire Type 29.9 29.9 29.9 29.9 29.9 29.9 19.82 19.82 19.82 19.82 19.82 19.82 29.9 29.9 Fs [kHz] 44.1 44.1 44.1 44.1 44.1 44.1 44.1 44.1 44.1 44.1 44.1 44.1 44.1 90
Table 4.5: Summary of the measurements setup.
4.5. VISUAL WELDING RESULTS
19
11
29.9 9
19.82 9
11
Figure 4.10: Visual welding results from measurements 4-9. The upper numbers indicate with electrode
wire type used and the lower numbers are the wire speed [m/min].
29.9 9 7 11 11
19.82 9 7
Figure 4.11: Visual welding results from measurements 1-3 and 10-12. The upper numbers indicate with
electrode wire type used and the lower numbers are the wire speed [m/min].
20
Figure 4.12: Visual welding results from measurements 13-14. Measurement setup: electrode wire 29.9
with speed 9 m/min.
Chapter 5
Analysis of Voltage and Current

In this chapter the measured current and voltage signals are investigated. Sec. 5.1 and 5.2 are seen as introduction to the signals properties and Sec. 5.3 to 5.5 present dierent methods for employing the weld data to monitoring welding process. The dierent measurements presented in Sec. 4.1, are from now on referenced as e.g. M1 for measurement 1. The M1 corresponds to the rst two welded surfaces with wire feeding speed of 9 m/min using electrode wire 29.9, see table 4.5. Another denition used for now on is, good and bad surface. Good corresponds to pure iron surface and bad corresponds to either a rusty or rustless surfaces. In Figs. 5.1-5.2 preview of the data from M1 and M11 are shown, where (b) is only a part of the total signal in (a). Notice the dierence in number of transients visual in current and voltage signals when comparing Figs. 5.1(a)-5.2(a). The decrease of transients in Fig. 5.2(a) is due to the chemically composition in 19.82 wire type.
300 250 Current [A] Current [A] 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200 200 150 100 50 0 160 150 140 130 120 110 20
20.01
20.02
20.03
20.04
20.05 20.06 Time [s]
20.07
20.08
20.09
20.1
60 50 Voltage [V] Voltage [V] 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200 40 30 20 10 0
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 20 20.01 20.02 20.03 20.04 20.05 20.06 Time [s] 20.07 20.08 20.09 20.1
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.1: M1 in time domain, where (b) is only a part of the total signal in (a).
21
22
300 250 Current [A]
CHAPTER 5. ANALYSIS OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

160 150 Current [A] 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200 140 130 120 110 20.52
200 150 100 50 0
20.54
20.56
20.58 Time [s]
20.6
20.62
20.64
60 50 Voltage [V] Voltage [V] 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200 40 30 20 10 0
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 20.52 20.54 20.56 20.58 Time [s] 20.6 20.62 20.64
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.2: M11 in time domain, where (b) is only a part of the total signal in (a).
5.1
Stationarity & Normality
This section is divided into two subsections, voltage 5.1.1 and current 5.1.2. Each subsection is divided into three paragraphs to overview the results. The theory of these paragraphs is presented below.
1. Investigation of signals stationarity is performed with suitable block size. It will be performed by calculating mean and variance over the ve surfaces. The expected outcome of this method should either have lowpass or highpass lter characteristics. These tests are performed on M1, M5, M8 and M11 with the block sizes given in table 5.1, where upper row is the true size and lower row is the number seen in Fig 5.3-5.4 and 5.7-5.8. 16 0 32 1 64 2 128 3 256 4 512 5 768 6 1024 7 1500 8 2048 9 3000 10 3500 11 4096 12
Table 5.1: Upper row is the true size and lower row is the number seen in Figs. 5.3-5.4 and 5.7-5.8.
2. With the chosen block size frame statistics and reversed arrangement tests will be applied. 3. Determine if the signals are normal(Gaussian) distributed or not.
5.1. STATIONARITY & NORMALITY
23
5.1.1
Voltage
This subsection presents the results of three theoretical steps for voltage signal. 1.
24.1
10
24.05
24 Surface 1 Surface 2 23.95

Variance
6 Surface 1 Surface 2
Mean
23.9
23.85
6 Block Size #
10
12
6 Block Size #
10
12
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.3: M1 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface 1 and dashed line is surface 2.
24.95
24.9
24.85
6
24.8
5
24.7
Surface 3 Surface 4 Surface 5
Variance
24.75 Mean
24.65
2
24.6
24.55
24.5
6 Block Size #
10
12
6 Block Size #
10
12
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.4: M5 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface
3, dashed line is surface 4 and dashdotted line is surface 5.
Results from M8 and M11 are seen in App. A.1. From the observations of mean and variance followed the block size should be minimum of 1024 samples. 2. A block size of 4410 samples was chosen in the rst block statistics test. In Fig. 5.5 block statistics test for M1 was performed with 4410 samples/block on surface 1(60 seconds).
24
25.5

45
40
25
35
24.5
30
24 Mean
Variance
25
23.5
20
15
23
10
22.5
22
100
200
300 Block #
400
500
100
200
300 Block #
400
500
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.5: Block statistics test for stationarity with 4410 samples/block on surface 1(60 seconds) in
M1; (a) Mean (b) Variance.
The mean and variance in Fig. 5.5 vary between 22.5-25.3 and 3.5-44.4 respectively. It is clearly seen that the signal is non-stationary. This is most likely due to the random narrow spikes (transients) in the data. To verify the result, the reversed arrangement test was used with same data and block size using signicant value = 0.05. Both mean and variance were found to be non-stationary. 3. The histograms from M1 and M11 are shown in Figs. 5.6(a)-5.6(b). The skewness are -2.8 and -2.4 for M1 and M11 respectively, which states that they are clearly not normally distributed. This is veried by kurtosis measure. M1 and M11 produces 15.1 and 10.6 which is above normal kurtosis value.
12 x 10
4
14
x 10
10
12
10 8 8
# of events
# of events 0 10 20 30 data 40 50 60
4 4
10
20
30 data
40
50
60
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.6: Histogram of (a) M1 (b) M11.
5.1. STATIONARITY & NORMALITY
25
5.1.2
Current
This subsection presents the results of three theoretical steps for current signal. 1.
140
100
139.5
90
139
80
70
138.5
60
Surface 1 Surface 2 137.5
Variance
138 Mean
50
Surface 1 Surface 2
40
137
30
136.5
20
136
10
135.5
6 Block Size #
10
12
6 Block Size #
10
12
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.7: M1 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface 1 and dashed line is surface 2.
133
90
132
80
131
70
130
60
128
Variance
129 Mean
50
40
127
30
126
20
125
10
124
6 Block Size #
10
12
6 Block Size #
10
12
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.8: M5 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface
Results from M8 and M11 are seen in App. A.2. From the observations of mean and variance followed the block size should be minimum of 256 samples. 2. A block size of 4410 samples was chosen in the rst block statistics test. In Fig. 5.9 block statistics test for M1 was performed with 4410 samples/block on surface 1(60 seconds).
26
160

900
155
800
150
700
145
600
135
Variance 0 100 200 300 Block # 400 500
140 Mean
500
400
130
300
125
200
120
100
115
100
200
300 Block #
400
500
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.9: Block statistics test for stationarity with 4410 samples/block on surface 1(60 seconds) in
M1; (a) Mean (b) Variance.
The mean and variance in Fig. 5.9 vary between 116-160 and 7-860 respectively. It is seen that the signal is not stationary. This is most likely due to the random narrow spikes (transients) in the data. To verify the result, the reversed arrangement test was used with same data and block size using signicant value = 0.05. The mean was found as non-stationary, but variance as stationary. 3. The histograms from M1 and M11 are shown in Figs. 5.10(a)-5.10(b). The skewness are -3.6 and -2.9 for M1 and M11 respectively, which states that they are clearly not normally distributed. This is veried by kurtosis measure. M1 and M11 produces 19.7 and 12.2 which is above normal kurtosis value.
7 x 10
4
x 10
8 6 7 5 6 4
# of events
# of events 0 50 100 data 150 200 250
3 2 2 1 1
0 20
40
60
80
100
120 data
140
160
180
200
220
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.10: Histogram of (a) M1 (b) M11.
5.2. OBSERVATIONS
27
5.2
Observations
The 29.9 and 19.82 wires are considered as good and bad respectively. Wire feeding speed at 9 m/min is considered as normal speed, therefore are 7 m/min and 11 m/min considered as low and high respectively. In Figs. 4.10-4.12 the visual results of the welding measurements are shown. In M1 and M5 (normal wire speed) the welding results are the best and obtain the highest grade even if there are a few small holes. High wire speed provides better results than low speed, in comparison M3, M4, M9 and M10 with M2, M6, M7 and M12. In M2 and M6 the surfaces are colored red, due to the chemical composite in the 29.9 wire running at a low speed. Outcome from both wires has dierent shades, which has to do with the chemical composites. How do the above mentioned results behave in the gathered data series, when entering a bad surface? In general the mean and skewness increases while variance and kurtosis decreases for voltage. For the current signal these conclusions are the opposite. When running at higher wire speed the current level is increased. It is because of the strong relationship between the wire speed and current. At higher speed, the current ows through the wire for a less time than at a lower speed and therefore the heat in the wire is lower. It leads to lowered resistance in the wire. Hence, voltage in the arc increases and the welding current increases. By examining the current data, the welding row change can easily be detected, since that occurs repeatedly about every other second. The characteristic in the current changes very rapidly for wire speeds of 9 and 11 m/min, which are shown in Figs. 5.11-5.13(a) that are for M1, M2 and M3. This behavior might also be detected in the voltage data, but not as easy as with the current.
200 60 190 50 180
170 40 160 Current [A] Voltage [V] 26 27 28 29 30 Time[s] 31 32 33 34 35
150
30
140 20 130
120 10 110
100 25
0 25
26
27
28
29
30 Time[s]
31
32
33
34
35
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.11: M1; (a) shows the current data with the rapidly changing characteristic when switching
row in welding process; (b) shows the voltage and its transients.
28
160

60
150 50 140
130 40 120 Current [A] Voltage [V] 26 27 28 29 30 Time[s] 31 32 33 34 35
110
30
100 20 90
80 10 70
60 25
0 25
26
27
28
29
30 Time[s]
31
32
33
34
35
(a)
(b)
250
60
50
200
40
Current [A]
Voltage [V] 150 100 25 26 27 28 29 30 Time[s] 31 32 33 34 35
30
20
10
0 25
26
27
28
29
30 Time[s]
31
32
33
34
35
(a)
(b)
The number of high level spikes (transients) seen mainly in the voltage data, increases with increased wire speed. Generally the amount of transients decreases on a bad surface with inconsistencies at the low wire speed. In Figs. 5.11-5.13(b) this behavior is shown. The lower number of transients in data from the bad surfaces can indicate as limited penetration in the workpiece.
5.3. METHOD 1: SPECTROGRAMS
29
5.3
Method 1: Spectrograms
This method is based on how the signals behave in the frequency domain. Spectrograms are used to show how the frequency content changes over time, i.e. as the welding process continues. The estimation of the power spectrum (PS) is based on the modied periodograms method [5]. The data series are divided into block length 4096 samples, using 4096 FFT points for the calculating the PS estimate. Prior to computing the periodogram a hanning window is applied to lower the spectral leakage in each block. The method is divided into three parts. 1. Make and investigate spectrograms. 2. Identify area of interest and build lters. 3. Run a program that lters the signal and calculate statistical data to monitor the welding process. Each of these steps is presented for voltage and current in subsections 5.3.1 and 5.3.2 respectively.
5.3.1
Voltage
1. In Figs. 5.14-5.19 spectrograms for M1, M2, M3, M10, M11 and M12 are shown using a block length of 4096 samples and 4096 FFT points.
Figure 5.14: Spectrogram of M1.
30
31
Figure 5.17: Spectrogram of M10. Notice the change of surfaces at 1500 and 2500 blocks.
32
Figure 5.19: Spectrogram of M12. 2. In Figs. 5.14-5.16 (M1, M2, M3) no signicant dierence is observed between the two surfaces. However, in Figs. 5.17-5.19 (M10, M11, M12) some dierence is observed. Notice that M10 enters a third surface as well (Fig. 5.17). The main dierences occur above 400 Hz which is second harmonic and up to 22050 Hz (Fs/2). There are numerous harmonics below 3-4 kHz. Therefore the area of interest is dened between 3-4 kHz and Fs/2. A highpass lter with elliptic characteristics was designed, see Fig. 5.20.
0
Magnitude [dB]
50
100
150
0.5
1 Frequency [Hz]
1.5
2 x 10
4
150 Phase [Degrees] 100 50 0 50 100 150 0 0.5 1 Frequency [Hz] 1.5 2 x 10
4
Figure 5.20: Designed highpass lter for voltage.
33
3. The data is ltered with the designed highpass lter and divided into blocks of a predened length. Iqr, mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis statistics are calculated. The following results were obtained by smoothing 7 blocks with 2048 samples each. The outcomes for M1, M2, M3, M10, M11 and M12 are shown in Figs. 5.21-5.26. For more results see App. A.3.
0.45
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.35
0.5
0.3
0.25 IQR
0.2
VARIANCE
0.4
0.3
0.15
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.05
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(a)
2 250
(b)
1 200
0 150 SKEWNESS KURTOSIS 100 2 50 3 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Block # 3000 3500 4000 4500 0 0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(c)
(d)
Figure 5.21: M1 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance
(c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis.
34
0.7

0.45
0.4
0.6
0.35
0.5
0.3
VARIANCE
0.4 IQR
0.25
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.05
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(a)
1.2
(b)
80
70
0.8
60
0.6
50
SKEWNESS 0.4
KURTOSIS
40
0.2
30
0
20
0.2
0.4
10
0.6
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(c)
(d)

0.5
35
1
0.45
0.9
0.4
0.8
0.35
0.7
0.3
0.6 VARIANCE
IQR
0.25
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.15
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.05
0.1
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
500
1000
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2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(a)
1.5
(b)
140
120
0.5
100
0 SKEWNESS
0.5
KURTOSIS
80
60
40
1.5
20
2.5
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
500
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2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(c)
(d)
36
0.45

0.8
0.4
0.7
0.35
0.6
0.3
0.5
0.25 IQR
VARIANCE
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.15
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.1
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
(a)
2 300
(b)
250
0 SKEWNESS
200
KURTOSIS 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000
150
100
50
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
(c)
(d)

0.25
37
0.7
0.6
0.2
0.5
0.15
VARIANCE
0.1 0.05 0
0.4
IQR
0.3
0.2
0.1
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 3000 Block #
3500
4000
4500
5000
500
1000
1500
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2500 3000 Block #
3500
4000
4500
5000
(a)
3 180
(b)
160 2 140 1 120 SKEWNESS 0
KURTOSIS 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Block # 3500 4000 4500 5000
100
80
60 2 40 3 20
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 3000 Block #
3500
4000
4500
5000
(c)
(d)
38
0.25

0.2
0.18
0.2
0.16
0.14
0.15 VARIANCE 0.1 0.05 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Block # 3500 4000 4500 5000 IQR
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 3000 Block #
3500
4000
4500
5000
(a)
2 180
(b)
160 1 140
0 SKEWNESS
120
KURTOSIS 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Block # 3500 4000 4500 5000
100
80
60
40 3 20
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 3000 Block #
3500
4000
4500
5000
(c)
(d)
39
5.3.2
Current
1. The current data are concentrated in low frequency band which is shown in Fig. 5.27. In Figs. 5.28-5.33 spectrograms for M1, M2, M3, M10, M11 and M12 are shown using a block length of 2048 samples and 4096 FFT points. each of these measurements is downsampled with a factor ve from a sampling frequency of 44.1 kHz to 8820 Hz, however, is limited between 0 - 2 kHz in the gures. It is downsampled to increase the actual FFT points in that frequency range which increases the visibility. In Fig. 5.27 there is one FFT point per 11 Hz and in Figs. 5.28-5.33 one FFT point per 2 Hz.
Figure 5.27: Spectrogram of M1 over whole spectrum.
40
41
Figure 5.31: Spectrogram of M10. Notice the change of surfaces at 600 and 1000 blocks.
42
43
2. In Figs. 5.28-5.30 (M1, M2, M3) no signicant dierence is observed between the surfaces. However, in Figs. 5.31-5.33 (M10, M11, M12) some dierence is noticed. Notice that M10 enters a third surface aswell. Since the main dierences occur between 100 - 1000 Hz, the area of interest is dened in this frequency band. A lowpass lter with butterworth characteristics was designed, see Fig. 5.34.
0
Magnitude [dB]
50
100
150
500
1000
1500
2000 Frequency [Hz]
2500
3000
3500
4000
150 Phase [Degrees] 100 50 0 50 100 150 0 500 1000 1500 2000 Frequency [Hz] 2500 3000 3500 4000
Figure 5.34: Designed lowpass lter for current. 3. The data is downsampled by a factor 5, ltered with the designed lowpass lter and divided into blocks of predened length. Iqr, mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis statistics are calculated. The following results were obtained by smoothing 9 blocks with 512 samples each. The outcomes for M1, M2, M3, M10, M11 and M12 are shown in Figs. 5.35-5.40. For more results see App. A.4.
44
80

500
70
450
400 60 350 50 VARIANCE 0 500 1000 1500 2000 Block # 2500 3000 3500
300
IQR
40
250
30
200
150 20 100 10
50
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Figure 5.35: M1 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance

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6 VARIANCE 0 500 1000 1500 2000 Block # 2500 3000 3500 4000 IQR
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0 SKEWNESS
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5.3.3
Summary
The modied spectrogram can detect when the welding changes from a clean good surface, i.e. stainless steel surface to a bad surface containing a rusty layer. The voltage signal shows the clearest dierence. Variance and iqr are two strong tools in detection of surface change. In some cases even mean, skewness and kurtosis are also good tools to use. The method has some disadvantages Small dierences are hard to observe. For example in the end of M1, there are several small holes which are hard to detect. The probability of false alarms might be high due to presence of spikes. If the welding quality is low from the beginning, it would probably not be detected until the quality of the weld changes.
5.4
Method 2: Recursive Sum
The idea of this method is simple, i.e. add previous statistical value of a block samples with the present one. During the normal welding ow this method produces a constantly increasing line as the result. Decrease of welding quality from acceptable to low leads to the uctuations in lines behavior. The basic of this algorithm is y (k ) = y (k 1) + x(k ), (5.1)
where x(k) is either iqr, mean, variance, skewness or kurtosis of a block. For voltage signal, variance, skewness and kurtosis presents the best results. For current signal, iqr, variance and skewness presents the best results. The outcome of this method for M1, M5, M8 and M11 for voltage are shown in Figs. 5.41-5.44 and for current in Figs. 5.45-5.48. In M1 and M11 the weld enters a new surface after 2700 blocks, M5 and M8 after 1700 and 4300 blocks. Notice the steep raise at 1700 block in M5, where the weld stalled for a second.
x 10 4
4
3.5
1000
3 2000 2.5 VARIANCE
SKEWNESS 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Block # 3000 3500 4000 4500
3000
1.5
4000
1 5000 0.5 6000 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Block # 3000 3500 4000 4500
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.41: Recursive sum method for voltage in M1 using block length 2048; (a) Variance (b) Skewness
5.4. METHOD 2: RECURSIVE SUM

x 10 4 500 3.5 1000 3
4
51
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2.5 VARIANCE
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52
x 10 5
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Figure 5.45: Recursive sum method for current in M1 using block length 2048; (a) Variance (b) Skewness

x 10
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54
x 10
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Figure 5.48: Recursive sum method for current in M8 using block length 2048; (a) Variance (b) Skewness The method dened in Eq. (5.1) can generally monitor the welding process. Welding under normal conditions should produce a straight growing line. If one or several of the conditions change the angle of the growing line also change. In our case the surface factor changes between a good and bad surface. The idea is good for a general overview, however, it cannot detect small errors in the weld, expressed by the holes in the new layer. After introducing a forgetting term to Eq. (5.1) the outcome of algorithm becomes completely dierent. y (k ) = y (k 1) + x(k ) 0 <1 (5.2) With the given equation and normal wire speed, i.e. 9 m/min, the detection of small holes or errors is simplied. If the wire speed is 7 or 11 m/min the results are harder to interpret. 7 m/min produces bad weld on even good surfaces. 11 m/min because of high number of transients produces inaccuracy in this algorithm. The results of applying this algorithm with block length 2048 and = 0.99 on the voltage signal for M1 and M5 are shown in Figs. 5.49-5.50. Results for M4 are shown in Fig. 5.51 to support that high wire speed are harder to interpret. Notice that the x-axis shows row numbers instead of block numbers and arrows are added in the areas of interest for easier comparison with Figs. 4.10-4.11.
55
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335 INTER QUARTILE RANGE 1200 330 VARIANCE 0 20 40 60 Row # 80 100
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(c)
(d)
Figure 5.49: Recursive sum method with forgetting factor = 0.99, voltage in M1 using block length
2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis.
56
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Figure 5.50: Recursive sum method with forgetting factor = 0.99, voltage in M5 using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis.
57
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Figure 5.51: Recursive sum method with forgetting factor = 0.99, voltage in M4 using block length
2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis.
58
5.4.1
Summary
Two methods were presented in this section. The rst one was more general overview of the welding process while the second one aimed on the details of the weld. The rst method with overview capability might be seen as monitoring the stability of the process and can perhaps easily detect changes in the process. It cannot in any way detect small errors, such as holes created by the bad weld. The second method with aim on details of the data for locating holes, errors or unevenness on the surfaces seems to work satisfactory. With some further testing on more data series with the normal wire type (29.9), its capabilities might be fully explored and understood. In current state the method shows a few false alarm, i.e. peaks in the results of the algorithm that cannot be found by looking at the surface.
5.5
Method: Recursive Sum Combined with Filter Method
This section presents a combined method of the spectrograms and the recursive sum. The application of these two methods together has a signicant impact on the outcome of the algorithm. The results for voltage signal for M1, M2, M3, M10, M11 and M10 are shown in Figs. 5.52-5.57, for further results see App. A.5. Block length was set to 2048, no smoothing and the forgetting factor was 0.99.
5.5. METHOD: RECURSIVE SUM COMBINED WITH FILTER METHOD

25 35
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(c)
(d)
Figure 5.52: M1 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis.
60
30

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64
14

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65
5.5.1
Decimation
Until now all calculations for voltage signal were using the original sampling frequency (Fs ) of 44.1 kHz. Precision is lost by decimating the number of samples per second. In this section the precision of the algorithm used in Sec. 5.5 is aected due to the decimation. It is shown in Fig. 5.59 (Fs = 22050 Hz) and 5.60 (Fs = 14700 Hz). Notice Fig. 5.58(Fs = 44100 Hz) is not decimated by any factor.
25 35
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15 VARIANCE 10 5 5 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Block # 3000 3500 4000 4500 20 IQR
15
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(a)
(b)
Figure 5.58: M1 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance.
66
14

18
16 12 14 10 12 8 IQR
VARIANCE 0 500 1000 Block # 1500 2000
10
6 4 4 2 2
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.59: M1 voltage signal, decimated by 2, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with
= 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance.
10
6
8
VARIANCE
IQR
1
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800 Block #
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1200
1400
1600
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400
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800 Block #
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Figure 5.60: M1 voltage signal, decimated by 3, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with
= 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance.
The eect of lowering the sampling frequency is insignicant. The sampling frequency could probably be reduced to 22 kHz without any greater loss of precision.
5.5.2
Summary
The combined method of the lter method and the recursive sum provides better results than their separate application. The good and bad surfaces are still clearly separated to see a dierence in the results, where variance and iqr are the strongest tools. The details for small errors, i.e. indication of holes on the welded surface, are not lost in variance and iqr results. However, the interpretation of the skewness and kurtosis results is more dicult. If the weld starts on a bad surface and produces poor quality weld, the algorithm can perhaps only detect the problem when the process gets better. It is therefore essential to make the assumption that the weld starts on a good surface and produces normal quality weld.
5.6. SUMMARY
67
In subsection 5.5.1 the eect of lowering the sampling frequency was shown. It was demonstrated that the sampling frequency could be halved without making any radical changes in the results.
5.6
Summary
From the results shown in this chapter we now know that separation of the good and bad surfaces is possible. However, detection of small areas of bad weld on any surfaces is and shall be hard to make robust in any future detection algorithm. During welding on a bad surface the probability of producing bad weld is higher than on a good surface. This means when the welding passes a bad surface, the algorithm will show a big dip and the operator notes that area as possible bad weld. From [6, 15] many good ideas for solving the detection problem originated. A few of them are presented in this chapter. The algorithm based on Sequential Probability Ratio Test (SPRT) presented in [15] and further developed in [16] have been extensively tested. It did not produce any results worth presenting in this thesis. However, both references state that this specic SPRT algorithm was only built for short-arc welding. In the rst two sections properties and observations were stated. Both current and voltage signal were non-stationary processes, most likely because of the transients observed in the data. The mean and skewness increase while variance, iqr and kurtosis decrease when entering a bad surface. In general when holes occur in the weld the statistics properties mentioned above become the opposite, e.g. skewness suddenly decreases. Note that when using wire speeds at 7 or 11 m/min these properties might be shifted. In the third section the data were presented in frequency domain vs time domain in spectrograms. The investigations of the frequency content reveal that the band between 3-4 kHz and Fs /2 shows the most noticeable change of the voltage signal. The current signal changes signicantly in the frequency band between 0 Hz and 1 kHz. The statistical properties were obtained from ltered signals. The result from this section was not very promising, however, as stated before, variance and iqr show the biggest dierence between the surfaces. In the fourth section two alternative versions of the recursive sum method were presented. Without any forgetting factor, the method was suitable for monitoring the stability of the welding system. While the curve is a straight line the process is normal. When the curve changes angle something has changed, e.g. bad surface as in this thesis. In real world system it could be used to robustly detect changes in the gas and wire ow. With forgetting factor the method improved the visual perception of dierences between surfaces. It is possible to identify the positions of the bad welding occurrence due to sudden jump in the methods outcome. Results from this method was shown for M1, M3 and M5, since the wire speed of 9 m/min (normal) is of main interest. In the fth section, the combined method between lter method and the recursive sum method was presented. The combination of these methods resulted into a better visual dierence between surfaces. The details that show the occurrence of bad weld within the dierent surfaces remained as in the lter method and the recursive sum method. A test of lowering the sampling frequency on the voltage was also performed. The test
68
indicated the sampling frequency can be decreased down to 20 kHz. In Sec. 5.3 it was also demonstrated that the sampling frequency for current signal can be reduced below 10 kHz without signicant loss of information. The combined method was the nal method presented in this chapter.
Chapter 6
Analysis of Sound
In this chapter the sound of the welding process is investigated. Sec. 6.1 presents observations of the signal used as base for further investigations. The following Secs. 6.2-6.4 present dierent methods of identifying specic components in the signal. The collected audio data of the welding process include also surrounding sounds such as people conversations, sounds from working transport and other welding processes.
6.1
Observations
The measurements 1-13 (See table 4.5 for details) collected through the PC-1 soundcard are all clipped between 1 V, i.e. the amplitude levels are incorrect. This error occurred since the sensor range of the microphones used in the experiment was not specied. By observing M14 which is collected through the DAQ device the sensor range is probably between 6 V. This is shown in Fig. 6.1, where (a) is the clipped signal through the PC-1 soundcard from M1 and (b) not clipped signal using DAQ in M14.
6
6
Amplitude
Amplitude
6 20
20.05
20.1
20.15
20.2
20.25 Time [s]
20.3
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20.1
20.2
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20.5 Time [s]
20.6
20.7
20.8
20.9
21
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.1: Sampled audio signal; (a) Clipped signal from PC-1 soundcard from M1 (b) Not clipped
signal using DAQ in M14.
The analysis of the audio from M1-13 has therefore been with clipped signals and the results can be rejected. 69
70
CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF SOUND
The true observations of the signal can be obtained with proper choice of tools. By analyzing the whole signal between 0 - 22050 Hz, the sound can generally be divided into two groups, high and low frequencies. The low frequency group is between 0 - 4 kHz, where a clear sound is heard. The sound lasts two seconds followed by a short break and is continuously repeated in this matter. The interval of the sound is of the same length as the sound produced by the machine movement. However, it can also be produced from the arc. This frequency band also includes the human voices and numerous of repeated sounds which might be produced by screeching from the bobbin device and the welding machine itself. The high frequency group is above 4 kHz where most of the spatter sounds from the weld are present and probably a large number sounds produced by the arc. The wire speed has strong inuence on sounds amplitude. At low wire speed (7m/min) more of the low frequency group is heard, at high wire speed (11m/min) less of the low frequency group is heard. The normal wire speed (9m/min) is somewhere in between the two groups. This can directly be compared with the data collected from the voltage signal. It has low number of transients (high frequency) with low wire speed and high number of transients with high wire speed. There are no clear audibly dierences with use of 29.9 wire type. Perhaps a small audible dierence when using the 19.82 wire type. With the use of spectrograms, a visual dierence between a pure iron and rusty surface can be shown, mainly during use of wire type 19.82. In Figs. 6.2-6.3 spectrograms of M3 and M12 are shown respectively, using block size of 4096 samples and 4096 FFT points.
Figure 6.2: Spectrogram of M3. At 1500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface.
71
Figure 6.3: Spectrogram of M12. At 1500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface.
6.2
From the spectrograms shown in Figs. 6.2-6.3 a main dierence is shown above 3-4 kHz. The frequency bandwidth of interest is therefore chosen from 3-4 kHz upto 22.05 kHz. A 7th order IIR highpass lter with elliptic characteristics was designed. In MATLAB ellipord and ellip functions was used. The designed lter is shown in Fig. 6.4.
0
Magnitude [dB]
50
100
150
0.5
1 Frequency [Hz]
1.5
2 x 10
4
150 Phase [Degrees] 100 50 0 50 100 150 0 0.5 1 Frequency [Hz] 1.5 2 x 10
4
Figure 6.4: Designed highpass lter for sound.
72
The ltered audio signals from M1 and M11 are seen in Fig. 6.5. Notice the signicant dierence in Fig. 6.5(b) in amplitude after ltered the signal compared to Fig. 6.5(a). At 130 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface.
2.5 2.5
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(a)
(b)
Figure 6.5: Highpass ltered sound signal in time domain; (a) M1 (b) M11 The denition of the recursive sum method using a forgetting factor is shown in Eq. (5.2), where is chosen to 0.99. In the previous experiments statistical tools measuring the spread in the signal have proven to produce the best results. Therefore in this experiment only variance and kurtosis are applied. The block size is 4096. The results of applying this method on M1, M2, M3, M10, M11, M12 and M13 are shown in Figs. 6.6-6.12. For more information see App. B.1.
25
500
450
20
400
350
15 VARIANCE
300 KURTOSIS
250
10
200
150
100
50
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.6: Highpass ltered M1 sound signal, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. At 1500 blocks the welding proceeds on the rusty surface.

35
73
400
30
350
300
25
250
VARIANCE
KURTOSIS
20
200
15
150
10
100
50
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.7: Highpass ltered M2 sound signal, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. At 1500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface.
25
600
500
20
400
15 VARIANCE
KURTOSIS
10 5 0
300
200
100
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.8: Highpass ltered M3 sound signal, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block
length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. At 1500 and 2500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface.
74
25

700
600
20
500
15 VARIANCE
KURTOSIS
10 5 0
400
300
200
100
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
(a)
(b)
length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis. At 1500 blocks the welding process proceeds on the rusty surface.
30
500
450
25
400
350
20
300
VARIANCE
KURTOSIS
15
250
200
10
150
100
5
50
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
2500
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
2500
(a)
(b)

30
75
500
450
25
400
350
20
300
VARIANCE
KURTOSIS
15
250
200
10
150
100
5
50
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
2500
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
2500
(a)
(b)
25
500
450
20
400
350
15 VARIANCE
300 KURTOSIS
250
10
200
150
100
50
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
(a)
(b)
76
6.2.1
Summary
While using the 19.82 wire type the results shows when the welding process proceeds on to another surface. The use of the 29.9 wire type does not when the welding process proceeds on to another surface. Most likely there is a characteristic change, due changing surfaces, however, it requires that the results are more visually presented. The results in M13 which also uses the 29.9 wire type, look a bit dierent from M1 measurement, since it clearly shows dierence between the ve surfaces used in thesis. Remaining problems: Impossibility of surface type identication as good or poor one, leading to good and bad weld respectively in most cases. The method only indicates if the surfaces are getting better or worse, i.e. good and bad quality weld. However, assuming that the operator always start the welding process on a good surface, then, the problem is solved. The requirement is that the welding machine works, as it should. The detection of small holes in the welded surfaces is not solved by this method. However, it produces indications where it could have occurred, since the probability of error in weld must be higher on a bad surface than on good one.
6.3
Dependency between Speed and Quality
The audio records from the experiments contain clearly heard sound, denoted as "popcorn" sound in this thesis. The total frequency band of the recorded sound is between 0 - 22.05 kHz. In order to identify what frequency range the "popcorn" sound belongs to, dierent lters were applied. Several lowpass lters of equiripple type were designed. Initially this lter has passband 0-10 kHz with -80 dB attenuation. After ltering the audio signal the "popcorn" sound is still present. Next passband was 0-5 kHz. The nal equiripple FIR lowpass lter has passband limit between 0 - 1 Hz and the transition band between 1 - 90 Hz. The length of the lter is 1127 taps. Filter sampling frequency is 44100Hz. The further decrease of the transition band causes the signicant increase of the lter length. An increase of lters transition band will decrease lter length, but the quality of the analysis will be degraded. The lter passband equal to 1 Hz is found suitable for the statistical analysis of connection between welding wire feed speed and sound level of the welding. It is also important to have large attenuation in the lters stopband for the statistical analysis of "popcorn" sound. The lter was designed using Filter Design Toolbox (fdatool) in MATLAB. In Fig. 6.13 the designed lowpass lter is shown. The lter has all band suppression characteristic with -68 dB attenuation in the stop band.
6.3. DEPENDENCY BETWEEN SPEED AND QUALITY

0 20 Magnitude (dB) 40 60 80 100 120
77
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25 Frequency (kHz)
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
1 0 1 Phase (radians) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 Frequency (kHz) 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Figure 6.13: Lowpass lter with pass band 1 Hz and transition band 90 Hz. After ltering the audio signal with LP lter with passband 1 Hz the "popcorn" sound can still be heard though almost inaudibly. The conclusion was made that power of "popcorn" sound is larger than the power of other signals in the record. The spectrogram of the ltered audio record for M12 surface one was calculated to investigate the distribution of the information. The frequency range of the spectrogram is between 0 - 22000 Hz. The block size is 1024 samples.
Figure 6.14: Spectrogram of the audio record for rst surface in M12. Zoomed at frequency range 0 500 Hz.
The information of interest is concentrated in the frequency band 0 - 100 Hz. Spectrograms in Figs. 6.15-6.20 show the dierence in sound power for the same surface and dierent speeds at the frequency band 0 - 150 Hz.
78
Figure 6.15: Spectrogram of second surface in M2. The power of the signal is around -60 dB for the
most of the blocks. Few blocks have power over -40 dB.
Figure 6.16: Spectrogram of second surface in M1. The signal has higher number of blocks with power
above -40 dB.
79
Figure 6.17: Spectrogram of second surface in M3. The signal consists of blocks with power above -40
dB mostly. Only few blocks have power below -40dB.
Figure 6.18: Spectrogram of third surface in M7.
80
6.3. DEPENDENCY BETWEEN SPEED AND QUALITY Wire Type, Speed 29.9, 7 m/min 29.9, 9 m/min 29.9, 11 m/min 19.82, 7 m/min 19.82, 9 m/min 19.82, 11 m/min Observations The power of the signal is around -60 dB for the most of the blocks. Few blocks have power over -40 dB. The signal has even number of blocks with power above and below -40 dB. The signal consists of blocks with power above -40 dB mostly. Only few blocks have power below -40 dB. The power of the signal is around -60 dB for the most of the blocks. Few blocks have power over -40 dB. The signal has even number of blocks with power above and below -40 dB. The signal consists of blocks with power above -40 dB mostly. Only few blocks have power below -40 dB. Table 6.1: Summary of observations. Fig. 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20
81
The spectrograms of all welding speed, wire type and surface type combinations were statistically analyzed by mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis. For example, for spectrogram in Fig. 6.15 mean through the entire frequency band 0 - 100 Hz was calculated. The variance, skewness and kurtosis were calculated too. See Fig. 6.21.
82
35 40 45 50 800 55 60 65 70 400 75 80 85 90 0 Variance 1000 1200
Mean
600
200
500
1000
1500
2000 2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
500
1000
1500
2000 2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(a)
1
2.5
(b)
0.5
0 Skewness
Kurtosis
0.5
1.5
1.5
500
1000
1500
2000 2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
500
1000
1500
2000 2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(c)
(d)
Figure 6.21: Statistical data example for M2, surface 2 only, calculated from signal power; (a) Mean (b)
Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis.
83
The data for power mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis were smoothed by 50 consequent blocks. See Fig. 6.22.
35 40 45 50 800 55 60 65 70 400 75 80 85 90 0 Variance 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Block # 3000 3500 4000 4500 1000 1200
Mean
600
200
500
1000
1500
2000 2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(a)
1
2.5
(b)
0.5
0 Skewness
Kurtosis
0.5
1.5
1.5
500
1000
1500
2000 2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
500
1000
1500
2000 2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(c)
(d)
Figure 6.22: Statistical data example for M2, surface 2 only, smoothed signal power; (a) Mean (b)
Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis.
84
Each of the four statistical criteria of spectrograms were grouped according the wire feed speed. For example, all the smoothed means of signal power for the speed 7 m/min were combined in one group. Signal power mean for this group was calculated. Totally it is 3 groups that are present on Fig. 6.23.
0 7 m/min 9 m/min 11 m/min 10
20
30 Mean 40 50 60 70 0
500
1000 Block #
1500
2000
(a)
46
48
50 7 m/min 9 m/min 11 m/min
52
54 Mean 56 58 60 62 64 1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1050 Block #
1060
1070
1080
1090
1100
(b)
Figure 6.23: Mean of sound power for each speed group; (a) Original (b) Zoomed. From the Fig. 6.23(a) it can be seen that for the welding gun speed 7 m/min the sound power is below -60 dB. For the speed 9 m/min the sound power is in between -60 and -50 dB. For the speed 11 m/min the sound power is above -50 dB. The averaged variance, skewness, and kurtosis were also combined in separate groups according to the speed criteria. The mean value
6.3. DEPENDENCY BETWEEN SPEED AND QUALITY for averaged variances is shown in the Fig. 6.24.
300
85
250
200
Variance
150
100
50 7 m/min 9 m/min 11 m/min 0 0 500 1000 Block # 1500 2000
(a)
290
280
270
Variance
260
250
7 m/min 9 m/min 11 m/min
240
230 1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1050 Block #
1060
1070
1080
1090
1100
(b)
Figure 6.24: Mean value of averaged variance for each speed group; (a) Original (b) Zoomed.
6.3.1
Summary
The statistical analysis of the audio signal reveals the connection between sound magnitude and speed of the welding process. This connection exists for any of two wire types and on any of ve welding surfaces. The higher welding wire feed speed causes the higher welding sound level. This dependence is shown in Fig. 6.23.
86
According to Figs. 4.10-4.12 from the experiments the high and normal wire speeds on the good surfaces does not aect the quality of the welding. On the bad surfaces the right combination of welding gun speed and wire type can lead to the accepted welding quality. An algorithm for monitoring the welding quality could include the speed criteria.
6.4
M14: Sampling Frequency
The main reason of measurement 14 (M14) was to investigate the possibility of information content above 22.05 kHz. Through the DAQ the frequency band was increased to 45 kHz. In Figs. 6.25 and 6.26 M1 and M14 are shown respectively. The plots are produced with Welch periodogram using the block length 217 , 50 % overlap, hanning window and 219 FFT points.
40
60
PSD [dB rel Pa2/Hz]
80
100
120
140
160
0.5
1 Frequency [Hz]
1.5
2 x 10
4
Figure 6.25: Power Spectral Density (PSD) using Welch periodogram method on M1.
6.5. SUMMARY
87
40
60
PSD [dB rel Pa /Hz]
80
100
120
140
160
0.5
1.5
2 2.5 Frequency [Hz]
3.5
4.5 x 10
4
Figure 6.26: Power Spectral Density (PSD) using Welch periodogram method on M14. The magnitude in Fig. 6.26 keeps falling after 20 kHz, as one can suspect in Fig. 6.25. Therefore there is no reason for using sampling frequency higher than 40-50 kHz since no vital information exists above that limit.
6.5
Summary
In the rst section some properties and observations were stated. The low frequency band below 4 kHz includes some signals that were considered being interesting to investigate in this thesis. One of the them was so called "popcorn" sound, which could be heard in the whole spectrum (0-22.05kHz). The data were presented in frequency domain versus time domain in spectrograms. The area between 3-4 kHz to Fs/2 shows the noticeable change in magnitude of the audio signal. This change in magnitude was best noticeable using the 19.82 electrode wire. In the second section a combination of highpass ltering and method of recursive sum with forgetting factor were applied to the audio data. Some changes in the welding process as surface change could be revealed. In the third section the statistical analysis of the audio signal showed the connection between sound magnitude and speed of the welding process. Increasing of the welding speed leads to increase in the welding sound level at the frequency band 0 - 100 Hz. This fact is general for all tested ve surface types and two welding wire types. Since on the bad surfaces the right combination of welding gun speed and wire type can lead to the accepted welding quality, an algorithm can include the speed criteria for control of the welding quality.
88
In fourth section a test with increasing sampling frequency has been done. It has shown absence of the vital information in the welding audio records at the frequencies above 20 kHz. Thus the sampling frequency for audio signal should not exceed 40 kHz.
Chapter 7
Conclusions and future work

7.1 Conclusions
The goal of this thesis was to analyze voltage, current and audio signals measured from the welding process to determine if it is possible to monitor the quality of the process on distance. The analysis of voltage and current signals is well suited for monitoring the process, the voltage as the better choice. The voltage signal is visually more representative, easier to measure and does not introduce any known time delays as the current signal. When the welding process changes from a clean surface as pure iron, to a bad one as rusty surface, the number of transients are decreasing in both positive and negative directions. It leads to higher mean and less spread in the data series. Generally speaking there are two methods presented for these signals. The rst method could monitor the stability in the whole welding process using a growing sum. Results of this method show a change in the stability line, when entering a bad surface, but detection of small holes (errors) in the welded surface is currently not possible unless the sudden change is bigger than the change of surface. However, further manipulation with this method using a growing sum might result in a proper real-time monitoring algorithm. The second method applies the discovered amplitude dierence in the voltage signal between surfaces above 4 kHz. It also applies the growing sum from rst method using a forgetting factor to stabilize the growing to certain level. Results of this method show a signicant change of surfaces. The change is not only visible as a change in amplitude, but also as a change of the curve characteristic. A rapid change within the dierent surfaces occurs due to some change in welding quality, e.g. a hole in the weld. The amplitude of the measured audio signal was clipped between 1 V during digitalization. The sensor range is about 6 V, which produces an uncertainty in the collected data. The same decrease in amplitude over the higher frequencies as in voltage signal is discovered in the sound, but mainly when using the 19.82 electrode wire. The second method discussed above is reused for the audio signal. Results show a clear change of surfaces using the 19.82 wire and little or no change when using the 29.9 wire. This dierent outcome could be because of the incorrect amplitude levels. No independent frequencies in the sound are discovered to decide whether the current weld is of good or bad quality. 89
90
CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
7.2
Future work
This thesis is only a rst stop on the road before reaching the end station, i.e. a monitoring system that classies an ongoing welding process as good or bad weld. Other stops before reaching it could be: Further experiments with voltage and/or current, using the correct wire speed that UE uses, the adaptive change of arc length capability turned on and using dierent surfaces as in this thesis. New experiments with sound, where the amplitude levels are correct and maybe then some true components are discovered. The use of several microphones is maybe an idea. Experiments to investigate whether video/image processing could be used as a monitoring system or part of one. Implementation of devices to monitor the ow of gas and electrode wire. If UE can accept being dependent on support from other companies, then commercial applications as Weldcheck, Arc Data Monitor and Arc Guard could be bought, implemented and evaluated.
Bibliography
[1] B. Lundqvist, Sandvikens Handbok Svetsning. Gteborg: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1991. [2] Thesis specication, Uddcomb Engineering AB, 2007. [3] K. Weman, Svetshandbok. Gteborg: Liber AB, 1997. [4] C. on Carbon, Managing Carbon Monoxide Pollution in Meteorological and Topographical Problem Areas. Washington, D.C: The National Academies Press, 2003. [5] A. Brandt, Noise & vibration analysis 3, Axiom EduTech AB & BTH/ITS, 2000. [6] S. Adolfsson, Quality Monitoring in Pulsed GMA Welding using Signal Processing Methods. Lulea University of Technology, May 1995. [7] MK 2000A Power Supply - Manual, MK Products, 2001. [Online]. Available: http://www.mkprod.com/support/Manuals%20Older/091-0226A%20MK2000A.zip [8] Robo wh 650 - data sheet, Abicor-Binzel. [Online]. Available: http://www.binzel.com.au/ [9] Electrone wire 19.82, ESAB, 2006. [Online]. Available: Templates/T041.asp?id=13475 http://products.esab.com/
[10] Electrone wire 29.9, Sandvik AB, 2004. [Online]. Available: http://www2.sandvik.com/ sandvik/ [11] 2284 isolation amplier - data sheet, PR Electronics, 2006. [Online]. Available: http://www.prelectronics.com/ler/2284uk.pdf [12] Dxr16n/250cd - data sheet, Eneo, 2000. [Online]. Available: http://www.videortechnical. com/documents/editorialInfo/pdf/eneo_catalogue/recorder.pdf [13] Dazzle video creator platinum - data sheet, Pinnacle, 2007. [Online]. Available: http://www.pinnaclesys.com/PublicSite/uk/Products [14] Daq 9215a - data sheet, National Instruments, 2005. [Online]. Available: //www.ni.com/pdf/products/us/niusb9215a.pdf http:
[15] S. Adolfsson, Automatic Quality Monitoring in Pulsed GMA Welding using Signal Processing Methods. Lund University, Oct. 1998. [16] D. Grunditz, Implementaion av cumsum/sprt-algorithm for kvalitetsovervakning i realtid av robotsvestsning, BSc. Swe. Thesis, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Ronneby, Sweden, Aug. 2005.
91
Appendix A
Figures from Chapter 5

This appendix consists of additional results from Sec. 5.1-4.
A.1
25.48
Section 5.1: Voltage

9
25.46
25.44
25.42
6
25.4 Surface 3 Surface 4 Surface 5

Variance 5 Surface 3 Surface 4 Surface 5
Mean
25.38
25.36
3
25.34
2
25.32
25.3
25.28
6 Block Size #
10
12
6 Block Size #
10
12
(a)
(b)
Figure A.1: M8 statistics measures of dierent block sizes; (a) Mean (b) Variance; Solid line is surface
1 and dashed line is surface 2.
93
94
25.25
APPENDIX A. FIGURES FROM CHAPTER 5

10
25.24
25.23
25.22
6
Variance
25.21 Mean
Surface 1 Surface 2
25.19
3
25.18
25.17
25.16
6 Block Size #
10
12
6 Block Size #
10
12
(a)
(b)
A.2
25.48
Section 5.1: Current

9
25.46
25.44
25.42
6
25.4 Surface 3 Surface 4 Surface 5

Variance 5 Surface 3 Surface 4 Surface 5
Mean
25.38
25.36
3
25.34
2
25.32
25.3
25.28
6 Block Size #
10
12
6 Block Size #
10
12
(a)
(b)
1 and dashed line is surface 2.
A.2. SECTION 5.1: CURRENT

25.25
10
95
25.24
25.23
25.22
6
Variance
25.21 Mean
Surface 1 Surface 2
25.19
3
25.18
25.17
25.16
6 Block Size #
10
12
6 Block Size #
10
12
(a)
(b)
96
A.3
0.7
Section 5.3: Voltage

0.8
0.6
0.7
0.6 0.5 0.5 VARIANCE 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000 0.4 IQR
0.4
0.3
0.3 0.2 0.2
0.1
0.1
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
(a)
2
(b)
140
1.5
120
1
100
0.5 SKEWNESS
0.5
KURTOSIS
80
60
40
1.5
20
2
2.5
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
1000
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4000
5000
(c)
(d)
Figure A.5: M4 statistics results of ltered voltage signal using block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance
A.3. SECTION 5.3: VOLTAGE

0.7 0.7
97
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.3
VARIANCE 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000
0.4 IQR
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
(a)
2 350
(b)
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0 250 1 SKEWNESS KURTOSIS 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000 200
150
3 100 4
50
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4000
5000
(c)
(d)
98
0.8

0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6 0.5 0.5 VARIANCE 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000 6000 0.4
IQR
0.4
0.3
0.3 0.2 0.2
0.1
0.1
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
(a)
1.6
(b)
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0.8 SKEWNESS
0.6
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KURTOSIS 50 0 0
0.2
0.2
0.4
1000
2000
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6000
(c)
(d)

0.2 0.2
99
0.18
0.18
0.16
0.16
0.14
0.14
0.12 VARIANCE 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000 IQR
0.12
0.1
0.1
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0 SKEWNESS KURTOSIS
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(c)
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0.25

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0.15 VARIANCE 0.1 0.05 0 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000 6000 IQR
0.3
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(c)
(d)

0.4
101
0.8
0.35
0.7
0.3
0.6
0.25
0.5 VARIANCE
IQR
0.2
0.4
0.15
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.05
0.1
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
1000
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(a)
2 250
(b)
1 200
0 150 SKEWNESS KURTOSIS 100 2 50 3 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000 6000 0 0
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
(c)
(d)
102
A.4
50
Section 5.3: Current

1000
45
900
40
800
35
700
30
VARIANCE
600
IQR
25
500
20
400
15
300
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3000
3500
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(a)
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(b)
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3
0.5
2.8
SKEWNESS
KURTOSIS
0 0.5
2.6
2.4
2.2
1.8
500
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3500
4000
4500
1.6
500
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1500
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2500 Block #
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4500
(c)
(d)
Figure A.11: M4 statistics results of ltered current signal using block length 512; (a) IQR (b) Variance

40
1000
103
35
900
800
30
700
25
VARIANCE
600
IQR
20
500
15
400
300
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(a)
1.4
9
(b)
1.2
1
7
0.8
6 KURTOSIS
0.6 SKEWNESS
0.4
0.2
0
3
0.2
2
0.4
0.6
500
1000
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2500 Block #
3000
3500
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4500
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(c)
(d)
104
20

1000
18
900
16
800
14
700
12
VARIANCE
600
IQR
10
500
400
300
200
100
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(a)
1.2
(b)
3.8
3.6
0.8
3.4
3.2
0.6
3
SKEWNESS 0.4
KURTOSIS
2.8
0.2
2.6
0
2.4
0.2
2.2
0.4
0.6
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
1.8
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(c)
(d)

12
1000
105
900
10
800
700
8
600 VARIANCE
IQR
500
400
4
300
200
2
100
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(a)
0.4
(b)
4.5
0.2
4
0
3.5
SKEWNESS
0.4
KURTOSIS 3 2.5 2 0
0.2
0.6
0.8
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
(c)
(d)
106
35

1000
900
30
800
25
700
600 VARIANCE
20 IQR
500
15
400
10
300
200
5
100
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
(a)
1.2
4
(b)
3.8
3.6
0.8
3.4
0.6 SKEWNESS
KURTOSIS
3.2
0.4
0.2
2.8
2.6
0
2.4
0.2
2.2
0.4
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
(c)
(d)

45
107
1000
40
900
35
800
700
30
600
25 IQR
VARIANCE
500
20
400
15
300
10
200
100
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
(a)
1.2
3.2
(b)
2.8
0.8
2.6
SKEWNESS
KURTOSIS
0.6
2.4
0.4
2.2
0.2
2
1.8
0.2
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
1.6
500
1000
1500
2000
2500 Block #
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
(c)
(d)
108
A.5
30
Section 5.4
60
25
50
20
40
15
VARIANCE 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000
IQR
30
10
20
10
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
(a)
30
(b)
8000
20
7000
10
6000
0
5000
SKEWNESS 10
KURTOSIS
4000
20
3000
30
2000
40
50
1000
60
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
(c)
(d)
Figure A.17: M4 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block
length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis.
A.5. SECTION 5.4

20 20
109
18
18
16
16
14
14
12 VARIANCE 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000 IQR
12
10
10
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
(a)
40
(b)
10000
9000
20
8000
7000
0
6000
SKEWNESS
KURTOSIS
20
5000
4000
40
3000
2000
60
1000
80
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
(c)
(d)
110
30

14
25
12
10 20 8
15
VARIANCE 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000 6000
IQR
10 4
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
(a)
25
(b)
3500
20
3000
15
2500
10 SKEWNESS
KURTOSIS
2000
1500
1000
5
10
500
15
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
(c)
(d)
Figure A.19: M6 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis.
A.5. SECTION 5.4

10
111
3.5
3
8
2.5
VARIANCE
IQR
1.5
0.5
1
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
(a)
40
(b)
10000
9000
20
8000
0
7000
6000
SKEWNESS
KURTOSIS
20
5000
40
4000
60
3000
2000
80
1000
100
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
(c)
(d)
112
15

14
12
10 10 8
VARIANCE 5 0 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000 6000
IQR
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
(a)
60
(b)
7000
40
6000
20
5000
SKEWNESS
KURTOSIS
4000
20
3000
40
2000
60
1000
80
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
(c)
(d)
Figure A.21: M8 voltage signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 2048; (a) IQR (b) Variance (c) Skewness (d) Kurtosis.
A.5. SECTION 5.4

25 50
113
45
20
40
35
15 VARIANCE 10 5 0 0 1000 2000 3000 Block # 4000 5000 6000 IQR
30
25
20
15
10
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
(a)
20
(b)
10000
9000
0
8000
7000
20
6000
SKEWNESS
KURTOSIS
40
5000
4000
60
3000
2000
80
1000
100
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
1000
2000
3000 Block #
4000
5000
6000
(c)
(d)
Appendix B
Figures from Chapter 6

This appendix consists of additional results from Sec. 6.1.
B.1
25

600
500
20
400
15 VARIANCE
KURTOSIS
10 5 0
300
200
100
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
(a)
(b)
Figure B.1: M4 sound signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis.
115
116
30
APPENDIX B. FIGURES FROM CHAPTER 6

600
25
500
20
400
VARIANCE
KURTOSIS
15
300
10
200
100
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
(a)
(b)
35
400
30
350
300
25
250
VARIANCE
KURTOSIS
20
200
15
150
10
100
50
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
3000
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
3000
(a)
(b)
Figure B.3: M6 sound signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block
length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis.
B.1. METHOD 1: RECURSIVE SUM

20
117
450
18
400
16
350
14
300
12 VARIANCE
KURTOSIS
250
10
200
150
6
100
50
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
(a)
(b)
25
500
450
20
400
350
15 VARIANCE
300 KURTOSIS
250
10
200
150
100
50
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
3000
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
3000
(a)
(b)
Figure B.5: M8 sound signal, highpass ltered, using recursive sum method with = 0.99 and block
length 4096; (a) Variance (b) Kurtosis.
118
25
APPENDIX B. FIGURES FROM CHAPTER 6

700
600
20
500
15 VARIANCE
KURTOSIS
10 5 0
400
300
200
100
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
3000
500
1000
1500 Block #
2000
2500
3000
(a)
(b)

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Master Thesis Electrical Engineering Thesis no: MEE-2008:25 July 2008

Analysis of MIG Welding with Aim on Quality

Irina Gertsovich Niklas Svanberg

Areva Uddcomb Engineering Port Chapman 371 21 Karlskrona

B Figures from Chapter 6 115 B.1 Method 1: Recursive Sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

Equipment in MIG/MAG Welding

2.2. EQUIPMENT IN MIG/MAG WELDING

Bobbin and wire Feeder

Extra material for welding

2s 55mm 2mm 14s Change of row

Figure 2.6: Schematic of the welding systems movements.

CHAPTER 3. THEORY OF TOOLS

The modied periodogram is dened as xx (f ) = P 2 |X (f )|2 Fs N B

where B is window compensation factor. The factor B is dened as B= 1 N |w(n)|2 . (3.9)

The Experimental Setup

... Current Voltage Video Sensor Measurement Sensor

The Welding Equipment

CHAPTER 4. THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

5ms 3ms Voltage

Table 4.1: The chemical composite in percent of wire 19.82.

29.9 Wire Coal 0.1

Table 4.2: The chemical composite in percent of wire 29.9.

In this section sensors used for data collection are presented.

Workpiece Weld Source + - ... + Weld

CHAPTER 4. THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

... 12V OUTPUT ... DAQ

ICP Box Video Sensor

4.3. OTHER HARDWARE

Other hardware used during the experiments is explained in this section.

Computers and DAQ

CHAPTER 4. THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

4.4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

CHAPTER 4. THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Visual Welding Results

Table 4.5: Summary of the measurements setup.

4.5. VISUAL WELDING RESULTS

CHAPTER 4. THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Analysis of Voltage and Current

20.05 20.06 Time [s]

60 50 Voltage [V] Voltage [V] 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200 40 30 20 10 0

CHAPTER 5. ANALYSIS OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

200 150 100 50 0

20.58 Time [s]

60 50 Voltage [V] Voltage [V] 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200 40 30 20 10 0

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 20.52 20.54 20.56 20.58 Time [s] 20.6 20.62 20.64

Stationarity & Normality

5.1. STATIONARITY & NORMALITY

24 Surface 1 Surface 2 23.95

Surface 3 Surface 4 Surface 5

Surface 3 Surface 4 Surface 5

CHAPTER 5. ANALYSIS OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Figure 5.6: Histogram of (a) M1 (b) M11.

5.1. STATIONARITY & NORMALITY

Surface 1 Surface 2 137.5

Surface 3 Surface 4 Surface 5

Surface 3 Surface 4 Surface 5

CHAPTER 5. ANALYSIS OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Variance 0 100 200 300 Block # 400 500

# of events 0 50 100 data 150 200 250

Figure 5.10: Histogram of (a) M1 (b) M11.

170 40 160 Current [A] Voltage [V] 26 27 28 29 30 Time[s] 31 32 33 34 35

CHAPTER 5. ANALYSIS OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

130 40 120 Current [A] Voltage [V] 26 27 28 29 30 Time[s] 31 32 33 34 35