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Vern J. Ostdiek Donald J. Bord

Chapter 3 Energy and Conservation Laws

Conservation laws
The most fundamental ideas we have in

physics are conservation laws.

Statements telling us that some quantity does not change

Conservation of mass states: The total mass of an isolated system is constant. t t To apply these, we must define a system.

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Conservation laws, contd

A system is just a collection of objects we

decide to treat at one time time.

The tanker and fighter can represent a system. The fuel leaving the tanker goes g into the fighter: mass is conserved

Linear momentum
Linear momentum is defined as the product

of an objects object s mass and its velocity velocity.

linear momentum mass velocity p mv

We typically just say momentum.

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Linear momentum, contd

Momentum is a measure of an objects state

of motion motion.

Consider an object whose momentum is 1 kgm/s

This could be a 0.005 kg bullet traveling at 200 m/s. This could be a 0.06 kg tennis ball traveling at 16.7 m/s.

Linear momentum, contd

Newtons 2nd law is closely related to

momentum. momentum

The net external force acting on an object equals the rate of change of linear momentum:
force F change in momentum change in time p t

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Linear momentum, contd

How is this related to F = ma?

p mv v m ma t t t

So, F = ma holds only if the objects mass

remains constant.

Not a rocket Not really a car but its close enough

Example
Example 3.1
Lets estimate the average force on a tennis ball as it is served. The balls mass is 0.06 kg and it leaves the racquet with a speed of 40 m/s. High-speed photography indicates that the contact time is about 5 milliseconds.

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Example
Example 3.1
ANSWER: The problem gives us: The force is:

m 0.06 kg vi 0 m/s v f 40 m/s t 0.005 s

mv

t 0.005 s 480 N 108 lb

0.06 kg 40 m/s

Linear momentum, contd

This tells why we must exert a force to stop

an object or get it to move move.

To stop a moving object, we have to bring its momentum to zero. To start moving an object, we have to impart some momentum to it.

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Linear momentum, contd

It also tells us that we can change the

momentum using various forces and time intervals:

p F t

Use a large force for a short time, or U a small Use ll f force f for a l long ti time.

Conservation of linear momentum

The Law of Conservation of Linear

Momentum states: The total linear momentum of an isolated system is constant. Isolated implies no external force:

F 0

p t

p 0

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Conservation of linear momentum, contd

This law helps us deal with collisions. If the th systems t momentum t can not t change, h

the momentum before the collision must equal that after the collision.

Conservation of linear momentum, contd

We can write this as:

pbefore pafter
To study a collision: Add the momenta of the objects before the collision. Add the momenta after the collision. The two sums must be equal.

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Example
Example 3.2
A 1,000 kg car (car 1) runs into the rear of a stopped car (car 2) that has a mass of 1,500 kg. Immediately after the collision, the cars are hooked together and have a speed of 4 m/s. What was the speed of car 1 just before the collision?

Example
Example 3.2
ANSWER: The problem gives us: The momentum before: pbefore m1v1 1,000 kg v1
m1 1,000 1 000 kg k m2 1,500 kg v f 4 m/s

The momentum after:

pafter m1 m2 v2 2,500 kg 4 m/s

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Example
Example 3.2
ANSWER: Conserving momentum

1,000 kg v 2,500 kg 4 m/s 2,500 kg v /s 4 m/s 1,000 kg

1 1

10 m/s

Example
Example 3.2
DISCUSSION: Both cars together have more mass than just car 1. Since both move away at 4 m/s, the lighter car 1 must have a greater speed before the collision. collision

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Conservation of linear momentum, contd

How do rockets work?

The exhaust Th h t exits it th the rocket k t at high speed.

We need high speed because the gas has little mass.

The rocket moves in the pp direction. opposite

Not as fast as the gas b/c more mass

Work
Imagine using a lever to lift a heavy object. The Th lever l allows ll us t to exert tl less f force th than

the object actually weighs. This sounds like free money.

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Work, contd
Theres a catch:

We have W h to t apply l our f force through th h a greater t distance than the rock moves.

So there must be

some connection between force and distance distance.

Work, contd
The force multiplied by the distance moved is

the same for both:

F 3d 3F d

input output

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Work, contd
We have the same situation for placing a

barrels on a loading dock:

2 F d 2 Fd F 2d 2 Fd

Work, contd
Work is defined as the product of force and

the distance through which the force moves an object in the direction of the force.

work w Fd

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Work, contd
The units of work:

Metric

SI: joule (J = Nm), erg (= 10-7 J), calorie (cal = 4.186 J), kilowatt-hour ( (kWh = 0.278 J). ) foot-pound (ftlb), British thermal unit (Btu).

English:

Work, contd
From the definition of work:

1 joule (1 newton) (1 meter) 1 J 1 N m

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Example
Example 3.3
Because of friction, a constant force of 100 newtons is needed to slide a box across a room. If the box moves 3 meters, how much work must be done?

Example
Example 3.3
ANSWER: The problem gives us: The required work is:

F 100 N d 3m

W Fd 100 N 3 m 300 J

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Work, contd
Recall that force is a vector.

I Involves l magnitude it d and d di direction. ti

Work is just that part of the force in the

direction of the displacement.

Work is not a vector its a scalar.

But the sign of the work does depend on the

relative l ti di directions. ti

Work, contd
If the force and distance are in the same

direction, the force does positive work. direction If the force and distance are in the opposite direction, the force does negative work.

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Work, contd
If the force is not in the direction of the

distance, the force does no work.

The strings tension is toward the center of the circle. The ball moves along the circles circumference. So, the tension does no work.

Work, contd
You do positive work (in the physics-sense physics sense) when

you lift the crate. You do NO work (in the physics-sense) when you carry the crate. You do negative work when you set the crate down.

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Work, contd
When you throw or catch a ball ball, you do work

on the ball.

Your hand exerts a force on the ball. You exert that force through the throwing or catching distance.

If you youre re strong, you dont need the same distance because of the larger force.

Example
Example 3.4
Lets say that the barrel has a mass of 30 kg and that the height of the dock is 1.2 meters. How much work would you do when lifting the barrel?

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Example
Example 3.4
ANSWER: The problem gives us: The required work is:

m 30 kg d 1.2 m

W Fd mgd

30 kg 9.8 m/s 2 1.2 m 353 J

Example
Example 3.4
DISCUSSION: You would do the same amount of work rolling the barrel up the ramp. You would only have to exert a force of 150 N instead of the entire 300 N. B t you have But h to t exert t that th t smaller ll force f over a distance of 2.4 m.

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Example
Example 3.5
In Example 2.2 we used Newtons 2nd law to compute the force needed to accelerate a 1,000-kg 1,000 kg car from 0 to 27 m/s in 10 seconds. The answer was 2,700 N. How much work is done?

Example
Example 3.5
ANSWER: The problem gives us:

v 27 m/s m 1,000 kg t 10 s F 2,700 N

To find work we use:

W Fd
But, we need the distance the car moved.

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Example
Example 3.5
ANSWER: Recall that
v 2 t t

d1 at 2 2
1 2

1 2

27 m/s 10 s 10 s

135 m.
2

The work is

W Fd 2,700 N 135 m 364,500 J

Example
Example 3.5
DISCUSSION: In reality, this is smaller than the energy the engine must generate. The engine must overcome its internal friction a loss of energy. M t cars are about Most b t 30% efficient. ffi i t
So you need (364 kJ)/(0.3) = 1.2 MJ to actually accelerate this car.

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Energy
Energy is defined as the measure of a

systems system s ability to do work. work

We use the symbol E to represent energy. Energy has the same units as work:

Joule for SI, ftlb for English

Energy, contd
There are various types of energy.

Kinetic Ki ti energy is i th the energy associated i t d with ith an objects motion.

We use the symbol KE.

Potential energy is energy associated with the system systems s position or orientation orientation.

We use the symbol PE.

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Kinetic energy
The formula for kinetic energy is:
2 KE 1 mv 2

m is the objects mass. v is the objects speed.

Example
Example 3.6
In Example 3.5 we computed the work that is done on a 1,000-kg 1,000 kg car as it accelerates from 0 to 27 m/s. Find the cars kinetic energy when it is traveling at 27 m/s.

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Example
Example 3.6
ANSWER: The problem gives us: The kinetic energy is:
2 KE 1 mv 2

v 27 m/s m 1,000 kg

1 2

1000 kg 27 m/s

364,500 J

Example
Example 3.5
DISCUSSION: This equals the (ideal) work required to get the car up to speed. We could determine how much work is required by finding the kinetic energy of the car. car This is the idea of energy conservation.

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Gravitational potential energy

Gravitational potential energy equals the

work done by the gravity gravity.

If you lift an object, you must apply a force at least equal to the objects weight: Lifting it through a distance d, the work is

F mg
PE W Fd mgd

Gravitational potential energy,

contd

Note that we only deal with the distance

through which the object moves moves.

The brick has 14.7 J of PE relative to the table top. It has 44.1 J of PE relative to the floor.

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Gravitational potential energy,

contd

Where you say an object has zero PE is

arbitrary. arbitrary

We only care about the change.

Lets say the ground is at zero PE. In the hole, the ball has negative PE.

It is below the reference level.

Example
Example 3.7
A 3-kg brick is lifted to a height of 0.5 meters above a table that is 1.0-m 1.0 m tall. Find the gravitational potential energy relative to the table and the floor.

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Example
Example 3.7
ANSWER: The problem gives us: The PE relative to the table is:

m 3 kg habove table 0.5 m habove floor 1.5 m

PErel to table mgd mghabove table

3 kg 9.8 m/s 2 0.5 m 14.7 J

Example
Example 3.7
ANSWER: The PE relative to the table is:

PErel to floor mgd mghabove floor

3 kg g 9.8 m/s /s 2 1.5 .5 m 44.1 J

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Example
Example 3.7
DISCUSSION: The PE is meaningless without specifying the reference level. If we drop the brick:
It has a lower speed upon impact with the table than it does with the floor. The brick has more energy to convert to KE relative to the floor.

Internal energy
Internal energy is that energy associated

with the internal structure of the object object.

A hot rock has more internal energy than a cold rock. Lifting either increases the external PE but not the internal energy.

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Internal energy, contd

Internal energy can be used to do work.

If you turn t on an electric l t i stove, t the th internal i t l energy of the filament increases. This energy can be used to boil water.

You increase the internal energy of the water.

The produced steam can be used to power a turbine/generator. turbine/generator

Conservation of energy
The Law of Conservation of Energy:

energy cannot be created or destroyed destroyed.

The total energy of an isolated system is constant.

The energy of the Universe is constant.

Energy can only be transformed from one

form to another. another

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Conservation of energy, contd

Here are examples of transforming energy:

Conservation of energy, contd

If the energy of an isolated system is

constant, the energy before an event must be constant the same as the energy after an event.

total energy before total energy after

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Conservation of energy, contd

To deal with energy conservation, we need

the total energy:

total energy: E KE PE constant

Conservation of energy, contd

We can use this to solve problems.

Th i The initial iti l energy of f th the b ball ll i is all ll PE PE:

Einitial KE PE 0 PE mgd

The final energy is KE:

Efinal KE PE
2 1 mv 2

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Conservation of energy, contd

Conserving energy:

Einitial Efinal
2 mgd 1 mv 2

Solving for the speed:

v 2 2 gd 2 1 2 v 2 gd

Example
Example 3.8
In 2003, a man went over Horseshoe Falls, part of Niagara Falls, and survived. The height of the falls is about 50 meters. Estimate the speed of the man when he hit the water at the bottom of the falls.

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Example
Example 3.8
ANSWER: The problem gives us:

h 50 m

The initial energy of the man is:

Ei KEi PEi mgh

The final energy of the man is:

2 E f KE f PE f 1 mv 2

Example
Example 3.8
ANSWER: Conserve energy:

Ei E f mgh 1 mv 2 2
2 gh 1 v 2

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Example
Example 3.8
ANSWER: Solving for the speed gives:

v 2 gh 2 9.8 m/s 2 50 m 980 m 2 /s 2 31.3 m/s.

Example
Example 3.8
DISCUSSION: The speed does not depend on the mans mass. If you tried this, youd hit the bottom with the same speed. Thi i This is obviously b i l id ideal: l
We do not consider air resistance. That would convert some of his KE into heat and sound. The real speed would be slower.

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Conservation of energy, contd

Conserving energy:

Einitial Efinal
2 mgd 1 mv 2

Or solve for the distance:

v2 gd 1 2 g g v2 d 2g

Example
I toss a 0.06-kg tennis ball straight up. When it leaves my hand, it has a speed of 20 m/s. Find how high the ball rises.

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Example
ANSWER: The problem gives us:

m 0.06 kg v 20 m/s

The initial energy of the ball is:

Ei KEi PEi 1 mv 2 2

The final energy of the ball is: E f KE f PE f mgh

Example
ANSWER: Conserve energy:

Ei E f
2 mgh 1 mv 2 2 gh 1 v 2

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Example
ANSWER: Solving for the height gives:

20 m/s v2 h 2 g 2 9.8 9 8 m/s 2

20.4 m.

Example
DISCUSSION: Again, since we neglect air resistance the height would be the same if I tossed a tennis ball, bowling ball or brick.

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Conservation of energy, contd

We can understand a roller-coaster as an

example of energy conservation. conservation

Collisions
A collision is when two objects interact to:

exchange h energy, and/or d/ exchange momentum

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Collisions, contd
An elastic collision is one in which the total

kinetic energy remains constant constant. An inelastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy does not remain constant.

Collisions, contd
The first case shows an elastic collision. The Th second d

case shows a perfectly inelastic collision.

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Collisions, contd
In general,

the collision does not have to involve physical contact.

Example
Example 3.9
Recall the automobile collision analyzed in Example 3.2. Compare the amounts of kinetic energy in the system before and after the collision.

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Example
Example 3.9
ANSWER: The problem gives us:

m1 1,000 kg g v1 10 m/s m2 2,500 kg v2 4 m/s

The initial KE is:

KEi
1 2

1000 kg 10 m/s 50 kJ
2

The final KE is:

KE f
1 2

2500 kg 4 m/s 20 kJ
2

Example
Example 3.8
DISCUSSION: 30 kJ of energy was lost during the collision.
Converted to heat and sound, used to deform the cars, etc.

Since KE was lost, the collision was inelastic.

It is p perfectly y inelastic because they y stuck together. g

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Power
Energy tells you about the position and

speed speed. But it contains no information about time. Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or transformed.

The rate of doing work

Power, contd
Mathematically,

Power: P

work k E time t

In SI units, we use the watt:

1 W = 1 J/s. 1 hp = 746 W.

In English units, we use horsepower:

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Example
Example 3.10
In Examples 2.2 and 3.5, we computed the acceleration, force and work for a 1,000-kg 1,000 kg car that goes from 0 to 27 m/s in 10 s. We can now determine the required power output of the engine. What is its value?

Example
Example 3.10
ANSWER: The problem gives us:

m 1,000 , kg g vi 0 m/s v f 27 m/s t 10 s

The power is:

E 364,500 J 36,450 W 10 s t

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Example
Example 3.10
DISCUSSION: This is the ideal value. For a 30% efficient car to reach 27 m/s, to overcome the losses due to friction the engine must generate a power of

36,450 W 122,000 W 0.30

Rotation and angular momentum

We defined linear momentum as Consider an

object moving in a circle.

p mv

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Rotation and angular momentum, contd

If we shorten the string, the objects speed

increases. increases

There must be some relation between the speed and radius.

Rotation and angular momentum, contd

Angular momentum is the momentum of an

object moving in a circle circle. For a point particle, e.g., a ball, the angular momentum is

mvr

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Rotation and angular momentum, contd

Conservation of Angular Momentum states

that the total angular momentum of an isolated system is constant.

For our ball on a string:

initial: mvi ri

final: mv f r f

Rotation and angular momentum, contd

By conservation of momentum:

mvi ri mv f r f vi ri v f r f

The right hand side must equal the left hand side. So as rf gets smaller, vf must get larger.

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Rotation and angular momentum, contd

This also holds for orbits.

As the A th satellite t llit gets to B, it must move faster than at A.

Example
You spin a ball attached to the end of a 1.0meter string with a speed of 10 m/s. Find the balls speed as you shorten the string to 10 centimeters.

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Example
ANSWER: The problem gives us:

vi 10 m/s / ri 1 m r f 0.10 m

From angular momentum conservation:

vi ri v f r f

ri v f vi rf

Example
ANSWER: Inserting the numbers:

ri 1.0 m v f vi 1 m/s rf 0.10 0 10 m 10 m/s.

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Example
DISCUSSION: Just as figure skater pulls in her arms, the balls speed increases as the strings length shortens.

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