University of Nottingham Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering ENERGY MANAGEMENT 1 Handout 4A - Fundamental Concepts - Heat Transfer

4.1 Heat Transfer Thermodynamics is the study of energy interactions (work & heat). The laws of thermodynamics govern the quantities and directions of the interactions (eg. how much heat can be converted into work). Thermodynamics cannot predict how big a heat exchanger has to be or the rate of heat loss through some insulation. Heat Transfer is the study of the rate of flow of heat and can predict how fast heat energy transfer takes place. It can be used to design the size of heat transfer devices. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Heat energy can be transferred by three mechanisms: Conduction Conduction takes place by interaction of molecules in a substance. Hotter molecules have a higher kinetic energy and they transfer this to colder molecules with which they are in contact. In substances with free electrons (eg. metals) heat energy can also be carried by electron flow, and this is a more effective form of heat transfer. Metals generally have much higher thermal conductivities. Convection Convection takes place in fluids. At the boundary of a solid with a fluid, heat is conducted into the fluid. The fluid may then move away and convecting heat with it. Convection is thus dominated by fluid mechanics as well as thermodynamics. Radiation Radiation heat transfer is energy transfer in the form of electromagnetic radiation. It is unusual in that it does not require the presence of any intervening matter for transfer to take place. Radiation is the only form of heat transfer that can take place in a vacuum. 4.1.1 Conduction Heat Transfer The rate of heat flow by conduction is described by Fourier's Law:

x q

kA

T x

The heat flow in any direction is proportional to the temperature gradient. The negative sign indicates that heat flows from a hotter to a colder region. A k cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow. is a constant known as thermal conductivity. Typical values of

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thermal conductivity are given in the Table 1. The heat flow is often expressed as a heat flux q" per unit area of cross-section.

x q

T x

Conduction through a Plane Wall Steady conduction through a plane wall can be determined by integration of Fourier's Law to give:

kA T1 T2 x

The term x/kA is known as Thermal Resistance (Rth). Hence:

T1 T2 Rth

this is analogous to Ohm's Law for electrical conduction:

V R

So thermal conduction can be analysed as a network of resistances. A composite wall can be analysed as a number of thermal resistances in series:

= T1 T2 q Rth
Rth =
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1 A

x1 x2 x3 + + k1 k2 k3
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Conduction through Cylinders

Heat flow through a cylinder (eg a pipe) can be analysed by integrating Fourier's Law for an elemental cylindrical strip from the inside to the outside of the pipe. Hence:

2 k L T1 T2 r log e o ri

This may be expressed as a thermal resistance:

log e Rth

r0

ri

2 kL

When there are multiple layers (eg of insulation) the overall thermal resistance can be determined by adding the thermal resistances of each layer.
For more complex conduction heat transfer problems, a general differential equation for conduction in 3dimensions including transient effects can be obtained and solved numerically. See Heat Transfer by A Bejan

4.1.2 Convection Heat Transfer

The heat flow by convection from a solid surface into a fluid is described by Newton's Law of Cooling:

q
A Ts

h A Ts

Tf

= area of surface = surface temperature

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Tf = fluid temperature (away from surface) h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K) Convection heat transfer from a surface may be expressed in terms of a thermal resistance by:

(Ts T f ) Rth

Rth

1 hA

The heat transfer coefficient h is dependent mainly on the fluid flow conditions over the surface and the properties of the fluid. Typical values for convective heat transfer coefficients that may be encountered in a number of different heat transfer situations are shown in Figure 1. Boundary layers When a fluid moves over a solid surface, the fluid at the surface is assumed to be stationary and therefore a layer of slower moving fluid builds up on the surface. This is known as the boundary layer. The edge of the boundary layer is the position where the fluid is moving at the same velocity (or nearly the same) as it is far away from the surface.

Thermal boundary layer When heat transfer occurs, a thermal boundary layer builds up over a surface as heat is transferred from (or to) the surface. It is a region where the temperature gradually changes from the surface temperature to the main stream temperature. As the fluid at the solid surface is stationary, heat can only be transferred by conduction into the fluid at the surface. The rate of convection is thus proportional to the temperature gradient at the surface. The thinner the thermal boundary layer and steeper the temperature gradient, the higher the heat transfer coefficient. The boundary layer acts as a thermal barrier to heat transfer and should be kept as thin as possible.

Temperature profiles in the boundary layer.

Types of Flow

At the edge of the boundary layer: T - Tw = Ts - Tw = qs

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At low velocities the flow is laminar. The streamlines in laminar flow are parallel and heat can only pass across the streamlines (ie into the flow) by conduction. Laminar flow heat transfer coefficients are generally low unless the flow is broken up regularly to keep the boundary layers thin. At higher velocities the flow becomes turbulent and turbulent eddies move fluid (and heat) across the streamlines. In turbulent boundary layers heat transfer coefficients tend to be much higher.

Types of Convection When the fluid is forced over a surface driven by an external source (eg pump or fan), it is knows as forced convection. The heat transfer coefficient is largely independent of the temperature difference between the fluid and the surface. When the fluid movement is induced by buoyancy forces caused by density changes as heat transfer occurs and temperature changes locally in the fluid, it is known as free or natural convection. Heat transfer coefficients for free convection depend, to a certain extent, upon the magnitude of the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid. The heat transfer coefficients vary with orientation as the buoyancy forces are driven by gravity. Heat Transfer Coefficients As a result of the complexity of the fluid flow equations and the difficulty of solving them, it is not possible to calculate heat transfer coefficients except for the most simple cases (eg. for laminar flow over a flat or in a circular pipe.) Convective heat transfer coefficients are therefore usually derived from experimental data and are expressed as a correlations between various dimensionless numbers as a means of generalising them. Appendices 1 & 2 (non-examinable) give details of how correlations may be used to determine heat transfer coefficients. 4.1.3 Radiation Heat Transfer Stefan-Boltzmann Law All substances emit energy as electromagnetic radiation and the maximum radiation that can be emitted by a perfect "black" surface is given by the StefanBoltzmann Law.

q
Where:

A T4

A is surface area (m2) is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4) T is the absolute temperature of the surface (K)

(q"b is referred to as the black body emission and sometimes given the symbol Eb)
The emission of radiation varies with wavelength and the peak emission occurs at shorter wavelengths as temperature increases. At temperatures below 500C the wavelengths of emitted radiation are in the infrared but above 500C an increasing proportion is emitted in the visible spectrum. Hence, hot objects glow visibly. As radiation emission varies with T4 it is a highly non-linear phenomenon

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and becomes much more important at higher temperatures. Emissivity & Grey Surfaces Most surfaces are not "black" and emit less than the maximum amount of radiation. The proportion of the "black" body radiation emitted by a surface is known as the emissivity. So the emission from a real surface is

A T4

e is the emissivity varying from 0 1. A surface with an emissivity less than 1 (and one on which is assumed not to vary with wavelength) is known as a grey surface. Typical values of emissivity are shown in Table 2 Radiation Heat Transfer between surfaces The radiation exchange between two grey surfaces is given by the equation:

12 q

A1

1 2

T14 T24

where 1-2 is the grey body exchange factor and is a function of the geometric disposition of the surfaces and the emissivities ( 1 and 2)

1- 2

1 1
1

-1 +

+ A1 F 1- 2 A2

1
2

-1

F1-2 is known as the View Factor and is defined as the proportion of the radiation leaving surface 1 that lands on surface 2 it thus depends on the geometrical arrangement of the surfaces. (If the surfaces can see a lot of each other then F 1-2 is close to unity. If they cant then the view factor tends to zero.) View factors can be read from diagrams (see Figure 2). For a small object enclosed by a much larger one, then F1-2 = 1 and A1 << A2. Therefore: 1-2 = 1 Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient Radiation calculations are complex on account of the non-linearity of the radiation heat flux with temperature. For example:

rad = A1 q

1-2

(T14 - T24)

by expressing (T14 - T24) as (T1 - T2)(T1 + T2)(T12 + T22) an effective radiation heat transfer coefficient can be determined which may be used in a linearised equation:

rad = hradA1(T1 - T2) q

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where:

hrad =

1-2

(T1 + T2)(T12 + T22)

Clearly, hrad is also a function of temperature and an iterative solution is often needed. But when T1 and T2 are fairly close in temperature (eg in heat exchange calculations for buildings) then T1 T2 = T, so hrad = 1-2 4T3 A thermal resistance for radiation can be written in the same way as for convection:

Rth

1 hrad A

Typical values for hrad If 1-2 = 1 then hrad = 4 T3 and typical values are: Temp C 20 100 250 500 1000 1500 hrad [W/m2K] 5.7 11.8 32.4 105 468 1264

Typical convection coefficients for air are: Natural convection Forced convection 2 - 20 W/m2K 10 - 200 W/m2K

Thus radiation is important at temperatures <100C when there is natural convection. With forced convection radiation is of importance only above about 100C. Above 500C radiation heat transfer often dominates.

4.1.4 Combined Conduction, Radiation & Convection Situations with combined conduction, convection and radiation can easily be solved by using thermal resistances, eg: Composite wall with convection and radiation on either side.

Equivalent thermal resistances

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Total thermal resistance

RTOT =

1 1 R Ri + 1 RCi

+ R1 + R 2 + R 3 +

1 1 R Ro + 1 RCo

Heat flow:

= T1 T0 q RTOT
R1 , R 2 and R3 = x kA 1 RCo and RCi = hc A

hc = convection heat transfer coefficient

R Ro and R Ri =
where hrad = if T1 and T2 are close together then hrad
1-2

1 hrad A
4T3

(T1 + T2)(T12 + T22)

1-2

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient In situations where heat is transferred from one fluid through a wall to another fluid (eg. in a heat exchanger or across the walls of a building) it is convenient to use an overall heat transfer coefficient:

= UA(Temp difference between fluids) q

where:U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (sometimes known as U-value) Thus: RTOT =

1 UA

The U-value thus contains terms for the convective and radiative heat loss as well as heat conduction through the wall. Example Calculate overall heat transfer coefficient for the wall of a house using the following data: Convective heat transfer coefficient on the outside = 20 W/m2K Convective heat transfer coefficient on the inside = 3 W/m2K Emissivity on the outside and inside walls is 0.93 Wall comprises three layers: Inner layer of brick 100mm thick k = 0.5 W/mK Cavity 50mm wide filled with insulation k = 0.04 W/mK Outer layer of brick 100mm thick k = 0.6 W/mK Assume that, for the purposes of calculating a radiation heat transfer coefficient, the wall inner and outer surface temperatures are the same as the inside and

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outside air temperatures of 20C and 2C respectively. Also assume that the grey body exchange factor for the inner and outer walls can be approximated to the emissivity. (ie = ).

For the purposes of calculating U, assume the area of the wall is 1 m2. hrad outer = hrad inner = 4(Touter)3 4(Tinner)3 = = 4.38 W/m2K 5.30 W/m2K RCo = 0.05 Km2/W RCi = 0.33 Km2/W RRo = 0.228 Km2/W RRo = 0.189 Km2/W

hconv outer = 20 W/m2K hconv inner = 3 W/m2K

RTOT =

1 1 R Ri + 1 RCi

+ R1 + R 2 + R 3 +

1 1 R Ro + 1 RCo

RTOT RTOT

= =

0.12 + 0.2 + 1.25 + 0.167 + 0.041 1.778 K/W

K/W

UA = 1/RTOT

so U = 0.56 W/m2K

(as area = 1 m2)

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Figure 1

Typical values for Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient showing effect of fluid type and flow regime

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Figure 2

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Typical Values of Thermal Conductivity

Substance Polyurethane foam Glass fibre mat Cork board Ceramic fibre insulation k [W/mK] at 20oC 0.026 0.033 0.043 0.05 (20oC) 0.2 (1000oC) 0.1 0.7 0.8 14 to 0.3 to 0.9 to 1.7 to 17 35 50 110 120 220 390 420

Table 1

Wood Glass Concrete Stainless steels Lead Mild steel Zinc Brass (60% Cu, 40% Zn) Aluminium Copper Silver

Table 2 Emissivities of Various Surfaces

Surface Aluminium (commercial sheet) Aluminium (heavily oxidised) Brass (rolled plate) Chromium (polished) Copper (polished) Steel (polished) Cast Iron (newly turned) Sheet steel (shiny oxide layer) Steel plate (rough) Stainless steel (polished) Lead (grey oxidised) Nichrome wire (bright) Platinum filament Silver (polished pure) Tungsten filament Zinc (galvanised sheet iron) Brick (red rough) Fireclay Candle soot Enamel (white, fused on iron) Glass (smooth) Oak (planed) Black or white lacquer Aluminium paints (various) Water Porcelain (glazed) Temperature oC 100 93-505 22 100 100 100 22 24 38-372 100 24 49-1000 27-1230 227-627 3320 28 21 1000 97-272 19 22 21 38-93 100 0-100 22 Emissivity 0.09 0.2-0.31 0.06 0.075 0.052 0.066 0.44 0.82 0.94-0.97 0.074 0.28 0.65-0.79 0.036-0.192 0.02-0.032 0.39 0.23 0.93 0.75 0.952 0.90 0.94 0.90 0.80-0.95 0.27-0.67 0.95-0.963 0.92

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APPENDIX 1 - Convective Heat Transfer Correlations (non-examinable) Heat Transfer Correlations Convective heat transfer coefficients are usually derived from experimental data and are expressed as a correlations between various dimensionless numbers as a means of generalising them. The most commonly used dimensionless numbers are: Nusselt number (Ratio of convection heat transfer to conduction in a fluid)

Nud

hd (based on diameter ) k
ud
or

or

Nu L

hL based on length k
uL

Reynolds number (Ratio of dynamic to viscous forces in a fluid)

Re d

Re L

Prandtl number (Ratio of momentum diffusivity (viscosity) to thermal diffusivity)

Pr

cp k

Grashof number (Ratio of buoyancy to viscous forces in a fluid)

Gr

g L3
2

(Note: = 1/T for perfect gases) Typical correlations for free and forced convection are given in Appendix 2. Use of Correlations In using correlations for heat transfer coefficients there are several important points to remember: Only use correlation for application it was intended for. Only use correlation for range of dimensionless numbers it is applicable for. Evaluate fluid properties at mean fluid temperature for internal flows and at mean film temperature (Tfreestream + Twall)/2 for external flows. Be aware of whether correlation is for a local heat transfer coefficient (at a particular point on a surface) or for an average heat transfer coefficient (over a particular region of surface). Forced Convection i) Flow in Pipes (a) Laminar Flow Fully developed thermal and hydraulic boundary layers. Nud Nud Nud Nud = = = = 4.36 3.66 3.65 2.95 (constant (constant (constant (constant wall wall wall wall heat flux) temperature) heat flux) temperature) (circular tube) (circular tube) (square tube) (square tube)

For non-circular tube use an equivalent hydraulic diameter: hydraulic diameter = 4 cross section area/perimeter wetted by flow.

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Thermal boundary layer is fully developed if:

> 0.04 Re Pr DH x > 0.04 Re Hydraulic boundary layer is fully developed if: DH
(b) Turbulent Flow in Pipes For fully developed turbulent flow the correlation is the Colburn correlation.
0.33 N u d = 0.023 Re0.8 d Pr

most commonly used

Applicable for Re > 10000 and Pr near 1. Flow is fully developed >60 diameters downsteam of an inlet. Not applicable for temperature differences between wall and fluid greater than 5oC for liquids and 55oC for gases. For larger temperature differences a correlation to take into account variation in viscosity due to temperature variations between the wall and bulk fluid can be used:
0.14

N u d = 0.027 Re Pr

0.8 d

0.33 w

Where mw is viscosity of the fluid at the wall temperature and m is the fluid viscosity at the bulk fluid temperature. Correlations are also available for the region near a pipe entry, for rough pipes, curved pipes, rotating pipes, tubes with heating part way along......etc. ii) Flow over Flat Plates (a) Laminar Flow Nux = 0.332 Re0.5 Pr0.33 Nux = 0.417 Re0.5 Pr0.33 for constant wall temperature for constant wall heat flux

These formulae are applicable for 0.5 < Pr < 50 (b) Turbulent Flow Nux = 0.0295 Rex0.8 Prn n = 0.5 for 0.5 < Pr < 5.0 n = 1/3 for Pr > 5.0 (Nux = Local Nusselt number) This correlation applies only to the turbulent boundary layer region. Transition from laminar to turbulent flow often occurs at Re x = 5 x 105 in which case an average Nusselt number for a plate of length L is given by: NuL = Pr0.33 (0.037 ReL0.8 - 850) for ReL > 5 x 105

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An alternative correlation applicable to liquids where there may be a significant viscosity variation in the boundary layer is:
0.25

Nu L = Pr

0.43

(0.036 Re - 330)
w

0.8 L

iii)

Flow Across Cylinders

0.25

Nu d = (0.4 Re + 0.06 Re
This is applicable for:

0.5 d

0.66 d

) Pr

0.4 w

10 < Red < 105 0.67 < Pr < 300 0.25 < (m/mw) < 5.2

Nud is the average Nusselt number for the whole surface. In reality the heat transfer coefficient varies significantly around the circumference of the cylinder. All fluid properties in this equation should be evaluated at the wall temperature except for m Natural Convection iv) Vertical Plates & Vertical Cylinders of Large Diameter NuL = 0.59(GrLPr)0.25 NuL = 0.13(GrLPr)0.33 104 < GrLPr < 109 109 < GrLPr < 1012

Surfaces must be at constant temperature. Nusselt number based on height (L) of plate or cylinder. v) Horizontal Cylinders (at constant temperature) Nud = 0.525(GrdPr)0.25 104 < GrdPr < 109 0.33 Nud = 0.129(GrdPr) 10 < GrdPr < 1012 Nusselt number based on diameter of cylinder. vi) Horizontal Flat Surfaces (at constant temperature) For a hot surface facing up or cold surface facing down: NuL = 0.54(GrLPr)0.25 105 < GrLPr < 108 NuL = 0.14(GrLPr)0.33 GrLPr > 108 For a hot surface facing down or cold surface facing up: NuL = 0.25(GrLPr)0.25 GrLPr > 105 Nusselt number based on: side length L for a surface plate. perimeter/4 for a rectangular plate. 0.9 x diameter for circular plate.

In the case of natural convection in air at approximately room temperature, the correlations above may be simplified using: GrLPr = 6.4 x 107 L3 (Tw T)

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APPENDIX 2 Examples (non-examinable) Example 1 - Natural Convection from a Pipe

mm

Pipe diameter = 150

An unlagged steam pipe 150 mm diameter has a surface temperature of 170C. The ambient air is at 10C and there is no significant air movement. Determine the heat losses per metre length of pipe. For natural convection from a horizontal cylinder the correlation for Nusselt number depends on the Rayleigh (Gr Pr) number. For: 109 < Gr Pr < 1012 Nud = 0.129 (Grd Pr)0.333 4 9 10 < Gr Pr < 10 Nud = 0.525 (Grd Pr)0.25

Gr d =

g d3
2

Fluid properties should be evaluated at mean film temperature:

10 + 170 = 90 C 2 1 1 = = = 0.003534 T 363

d = 0.15 m

5 p 10 = = 0.9595 kg/ m3 RT 287.1 x 363 = 2.130 x 10-5 Pas

T = 160C Pr = 0.695

Gr d =

9.81 x (0.15 ) x (0.9595 )2 x 160 = 2.96 x 107 -5 2 363(2.13 x 10 )

Gr Pr = 20.6 106 106)0.25

Use:

Nud = 0.525(20.6

k = 0.031 W/mK

h=

k x 0.525 20.6 x 106 d

0.25

h = 7.3 W/m2K Heat loss = hA T Heat loss per metre length q _ ' = 7.3 0.15 160 = 551 Watts/m

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Example 2 - Forced Convection from a Pipe If the pipe is exposed to an average wind speed of 5 m/s, calculate heat loss. Use:
0.25 0.66 0.4 N u d = 0.4 Re0.5 Pr d + 0.06 Red w

Red =
w

ud

= at 170C = 2.457 x 10-5 Pas at 10C = 1.76 x 10-5 Pas = = 1.23 kg/m3 at 100C

hd 1.76 = 0.4 x 524000.5 + 0.06 x 524000.66 (0.71 )0.4 k 2.457

0.25

hd = 140 k

Red =
Therefore:

1.23 x 5 x 0.15 = 52400 1.76 x 10 -5

h = 25.1 W/m2K q _ ' = 1890 Watts/m

Heat loss per metre length of pipe

Example 3 - Radiation Heat Loss from Pipe Calculate heat transfer by radiation from pipe in previous example. emissivity of surface is 0.9 (oxidised steel). q _ rad = 1-2A1 (T14 - T24)

Assume

Assume pipe is in large surroundings which have an effective radiation temperature of 10C. 1-2 = e Therefore: q _ rad = A1 (T14 - T24) A1 = D per metre length of pipe = 0.9 0.15 5.67 10-8(4434 - 2934) T1 = 170C = 443 T2 = 10C = 293

q _ rad = 749 Watts/m Radiation emission depends upon the surface condition of a surface. If the pipe were painted with aluminium paint then = 0.5. Therefore:
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q _ rad = 416 Watts/m

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Example 4 - Heat Loss from Insulated Pipe

ri = 0.075 ro = 0.125 Steam pipe 150 mm in diameter has a surface temperature of 170C. The pipe is lagged with 50 mm of insulation with a thermal conductivity of 0.05 W/mK. The emissivity of the outside of the lagging is 0.3. The ambient air is at 10C and there is no bulk air movement. Calculate the losses per metre length of pipe. The resistance network is:

ro ri R1 = insulation resistance = 2 kL 1 1 = R2 = convection resistance = hc A hc 2 r o L 1 1 R3 = radiation resistance = = 2 2 hr A T s + T a T s + T a log e

r2

_1-2 2 r oL

hc can be determined from Nusselt number expression for free convection: Nud = 0.129(GrdPr)0.333 Method of solution is to guess a value for the surface temperature and iterate as both hrad and hc vary with surface temperature. Initial guess Tsurf = 40C hc = 4.64 W/m2K hrad = 1.81 W/m2K Therefore: R1 = 1.626 R2 = 0.274 R3 = 0.704

RTOT = R1 +

1 1 R2 + 1 R3
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RTOT = 1.823 mK/W

= Therefore heat loss q

T RTOT

= 87.8 W/m

Determine new surface temperature from: Therefore: So new So. hc hrad = 3.95 = 1.687

= q

Tsurf = 27C W/m2K

T pipe - T surf R1

R1 = 1.626 R2 = 0.323 R3 = 0.755 RTOT = 1.852 mK/W

Therefore: Surface temperature is:

= q

T RTOT

= 86.4 W/m

29.5C

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