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 Instead of Editorial

* Chambers's Etymological dictionary of the English language.(1904)

**The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (1912)

 Fall 2009

Granted that the industrial revolution implemented the gap in the process
of which everyday necessities were produced; the bombilla issue #1
followed the reaction of the Luddites; the British Artisans who in the
early stage of the industrial revolution smashed textile machines and
burned down factories

the reaction of the state was murderous..

but as a contemporary poet said : You cant take out a revolution... you
cant kill an idea... are you stupid....? you kill that man he becomes
immortal ... you killed those men... they became immortal...

Contents:

instead of editorial....................................................

The Gothic Revival.................................................... 1-9

The Reformation of Design............................................10-22

John Ruskin Nature of Gothic........................................ 23-31

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.......................................... 24-41

Origins of the Art and Craft Movement: Pre-Raphaelitism, Aestheticism,

Morris, Marshall, Faulkner &Co.1861..................................42-47

Miscellaneous Authoritarian
Cratos and Via..........................................................48

LuminaireCraftmanship...................................................49

Art,Music,Picture,Books..............................................50-51

Cover:Benjamin Robert Haydon: Anatomical drawing of the hand.

 The Gothic Revival
The Gothic Revival
"From the first, the new taste for Gothic architecture was no more
than a symptom of a great change of ideas which we call the Romantic
Movement. No one can define this change; but any definition must
suggest that the Middle Ages took the place of classical times as an
ideal in art and letters."i

'The taste for Gothic' is an to recreate in poetry and

essential expression of literature and art the
Romanticism as Kenneth Clark 'aesthesis' and the 'idea' of the
wrote in his 1928 essay 'The Middle Ages. Trough the medium of
Gothic Revival.' The appearance 'belles lettres': literature and
of Romanticism during the later poetry, the Romantics heightened
18th and 19th century brought the imagination of the people,
along a revival of Medievalism. and chaneled the energy needed to
The Romantics turned with inspire an overall 'return' to
nostalgia their attention to the to innocence. The German
past, hoping to recapture its Nazarenes (1809) and the English
mystery and spirituality. Between Pre-Raphaelites (1848) defended
1500 and 1800 the idea of the through their canvas a turnback
Middle Ages had been mostly in technique and subject;
antipathetic and was attacked by expressing a time when art was
both the Reformation during the pure and heartfelt. On the other
16th and 17th century and and the hand Architecture would
Enlightenment during the 17th and ultimately made its mark through
18th century. Dubbed as the 'Dark the Gothic revival which as said
Ages' the Reformation criticized before was an essential
the corruption of the Vatican expression of Romanticism closely
Church and the Pope, where as the related to all other expressions
Enlightenment saw 'the age of of its force. The Gothic revival
reason' as opposed to 'the age of therefore was the translation of
religion'. the poetic 'visions' of the
Romantics into architectural
The French revolution, the forms opposed to the prevalent
Enlightenment and the emerging classic style. As early as the
industrialized new world would 1770's Neoclassic architects such
evoke the formation of the as Robert Adam (1728-1792) and
Romantic movement; a front James Wyatt (1746-1813) were
corresponding to a reaction already incorporating Gothic
against contemporary culture, elements in their buildings.ii
scientific obsession, the Furthermore complementing support
domination of reason over emotion would be found amongst the
and the effects that the antiquarians and connoisseurs who
industrial revolution had on created a vanguard appreciative
society and nature. Questioning of medieval art which had
the 'achievements' of progress initialy started by the
and calling for an utter re- observation of parish church
evaluation the Romantics examined architecture, tomb monuments,
the role and responsibility of stained glass and Gothic
the artist in society ;and sought illuminated manuscripts.
The 'Society of Antiquaries' consciousness of history, the fashion in
established in the early 18th classic landscape ideals turned into pre-
centur, was granted a Royal Romantic awe, wonder and respect for
Charter in 1751 for “the medieval ruins and buildings. In 1750,
encouragement, advancement and Horace Walpole(1917-1797) initiated a
furtherance of the study and series of alterations in Gothic style in
knowledge of antiquities and his country house, Strawberry Hill,near
history in this and other Twickenham contribution to the growth of
countries.” iii Thus a new the taste of Gothic in the full rococo
appreciation for ruins in the period. This also inspired him to write
countryside dubbed 'picturesque' 'The Castle of Otranto' (1765) and set a
would emerge as a new aesthetic new fashion for Gothic horror novels. As
value. a result of the new trend ,Robert
Adam,George Dance Junior Robert Smirke,
In this spirit the English John Nash and James Wyatt were
architect Thomas Rickman (1776 – commissioned by their patrons to design
1841)wrote in 1817 a study mansions and villas, and to remodel
attempting to describe the styles residences in the revived Gothic style,
of English architecture in although in reality,such stylistic
chronological succession : elements were more for the purpose of a
'Norman,' 'Early English,' scenic effect"
'Decorated English' and
'Perpendicular English' were the iii The Society of Antiquaries of
terms worked out in his book: Londonhttp://www.sal.org.uk/history/theso
“The Styles of English cietysearlyyears/
Architecture from the Conquest to
the Reformation.” Through careful
studies sketches, measured
drawings and tracery, Rickman
build up the foundations for
understanding English Gothic
Architecture at this time the
personality of the great A.W.N.
Pugin would step up designated
to restore and capture the
architectural and design world
with his allure.

Refrences:
i Christian Johann Heinrich Heins'
definition of the Romantic school ,'Die
romantische Schule,' (1836) derived from
the 'The Gothic Revival: an Essay on the
History of Taste' (1928) Kenneth Clark
pic 1.1 Scale From Pugin's 'Contrasts' (1836)
pg 66
measuring 'architectural weight'.

ii 'A history of architectural

conservation' (2002) Jukka Jokilehto pg
102 : “Gradually, through literature ,
the rococo caprices and a new
 Ecclessiology
The Cambridge Camden
Society
The 'Cambridge Camden Society' before the Reformation.
founded in 1839 by undergraduates
of Cambridge University: On the other hand influential
Alexander Hope(1820-1887), publications such as Pugin's
Benjamin Webb(1819-1885), and 'Contrasts' (1836) and Carlyle's
John Mason Neale(1816-1866). 'Past ans Present' (1843) would
Their aim was to develop the compare the 'ideal' medieval
science of 'ecclesiology' in world to the 'cruelty' of the
regards to its worship and contemporary modern world and
architectural features. The alltogether reject the
society would maintain a major 'dehumanization' of society.
influence on contemporary Church Moreover unlike the past during
architecture and would ultimately the 1830's and 1840's the Gothic
effect the architectural scene of Revival in architecture had
the mid-nineteenth century. The became serious, scholarly and
founding of the 'Cambridge Camden ideological providing yet one
Society' would bring the dogmatic more stimulus. In practical terms
theology of the 'Oxford movement' the restoration of Anglo-Catholic
and the dogmatic architectural church sprang a demand to build a
theory of Augustus Welby Pugin large number of new churches it
(1812-1852) together to the was therefore essentially in this
design of Anglican Churches.i spirit that the Cambridge Camden
Society would germinate. The
The society had emerged in 1839, 'Ecclesiological Society' as it
nurtured by the revival of Gothic was renamed after it moved to
architecture and the Pre- London in 1845 through the
Reformation movement within the publication of their influential
Anglican Church. The body of the journal 'The Ecclesiologist,'ii
Camden society - championed that would assume pressure and
only if the piety and beauty of generate heated debates and take
the Middle Ages was to return command over ecclesiastic
would the vice and inquity that architecture in the mid
had entered the church be nineteenth century; promoting the
redeemed, ultimately bringing churches construction in the
religion once again to its English Gothic fashion favoring
decerved height. Some years especially the 'decorated style.'
earlier during a time when the
Church of England was in a state The society had initially began
of near collapse there had as a small club of Cambridge
emerged alike another movement in undergraduates with a common
Oxford; lead by John Keble(1792- interest in Gothic Church design.
1866) and members of 'University Their activities would include
of Oxford' that oppossed to the regular visits to parish
increased secularization of the Churches in the English
church of England from the Roman countryside, during which they
Catholic Church and advocated a would record carefully made
revival of the Anglo-Catholic measurements, collect
ideology as well as a turn back construction details and make
to the rituals and worship of the observations with scientific
patristic and medieval eras preciseness. As a result a new
bank of knowledge was created altogether condemned for his
created; which formed the base conversion to Roman Catholicism
for their first publication :'A in 1935 and since then had not
Few Hints on the Practical Study been favored by the Society's
of Ecclesiological Antiquitie' exponents. However the Society's
(1843) in which amongst others seal which was design by Pugin
one could find the 'Church was adopted by the Camden Society
Scheme' a check list of the in 1844.
various elements and
characteristic arrangements Refrences:
which were found in parish iThe Victorian church: architecture and
churches. society (1995) Chris Brooks, Andrew
Saint pg 7
As a result the society came to iiThe publication was active between
be regarded as an authority on 1841 and was closed down in 1868, when
church architecture; during its the society was dissolved.
20 year span 'The Ecclesiologist'
would - define the standards of
taste and style for church
architecture, furnishing and
stained glass. The history of the
Cambrigfe Camden Society from
1839 to 1868 can be read in James
Whites' : 'The Cambridge
Movement: the Ecclesiologists and
the Gothic Revival, Cambridge,'
(1962).

Augustus Welby Pugin was among

the first to lay the foundations
of the novel 'serious' phase of
Victorian Gothic architecture.
Through his books the revival of
Gothic art ceased to be un-
scholarly and became a serious
pursuit. His work would pic 1.2 The Ecclesiological Society seal was
altogether influence the designed by Augustus Welby Pugin and was
achievements of George Gilbert adopted by the Cambridge Camden Society in
Scott(1811–1878), the thought of 1844 the scroll at the bottom was added later
John Ruskin (1819-1900) and the
writings of the 'Ecclesiological
Society' by introdusing 'that'
'peculiar' yet fully justified -
moral dimension of architecture
and design. Nevertheless even
though was been Pugin's moral
approach to Gothic Architecture
that had been a source of
inspiration for the Camden
Society’s quest to 'medievalise'
the English Church; he was
pic1.3 Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin
 Augustus Welby Pugin

Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin

“... arguably the greatest British architect, designer and writer of
the nineteenth century.” i

Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin of the English 'Houses of

(1812-1852)architect, draughtsman Parliament,'The clock tower at
designer and author was the son Westminster, 'The church of St
Augustus Charles Pugin(1769–1832) Giles', Cheadle, in
originally(de Pugin ) a French Staffordshire, and his own house,
émigré who had settled in his 'The Grange', in Ramsgate, Kent,
youth in London, during the along with the church of 'St
French revolution and in 1802 was Augustine'.
married to Catherine Welby
(1768–1833). Pugin's father was By looking at the past Pugin
an artist and publisher, and gained a perspective for the
initially worked as an future. iv His admiration of the
architectural draughtsman in the 'honesty' and gracefulness of the
office of John Nash(1752-1835). Gothic style would appointed him
Pugin the elder along with John advocate of the triumph of the
Britton(1771-1857) and John middle ages. In his personal
Carter (1748-1817), were destined manifesto 'Contrasts' (1936),
to convert the taste of Gothic Pugin would communicates his
Architecture from 'picturesque' thoughts on 'medieval' and
fashion to archaeological 'modern' architecture. Looking
passionii. Charles Pugin in his for the 'moral' aspects of
time had made a reputation for architecture he would admire the
accurate minute illustrations medieval structures, for their
views, elevations, and plans of 'ethos.' His belief that only a
various English structures 'healthy' society could produce
amongst others his most prominent 'honest' buildings lead him to
works were: 'Specimens of Gothic avow the 'organic' connection
Architecture' (1821-23) and between society and architecture.
“Specimens of the Architectural Realizing that Gothic
Antiquities of Normandy” (1827). architecture was the product of a
The young Pugin would help his purer society Pugin championed
father in these publications and that Gothic was the only 'true'
was thereby embodied with the form of Christian architecture
passion of 'medievalism'.During and would go on to sugget that if
his lifespan which was short and modern craftsmen were to recreate
most dramatic( he died insane at Gothic structures they should
the age of forty) Pugin completed also reproduce the methods of
a massive number of buildings medieval workmanship
along with countless beautiful anticipating therefore the
designs for tiles, metalwork, revival of craftsmanship as well.
furniture, wallpaper, stained In 'Contrasts' Pugin would
glass and ceramic iii changing the humorously depict a series of
visual and mental attitude of modern buildings compared to a
British architecture. His best series of buildings of similar
known works include the interiors function in the Middle ages,
Augustus Welby Pugin

plates would ultimately contain long and the young Pugin

the germs of Christian Socialism would move on from constructing
and Ruskin's St. George's Guild. v mere representations to real
buildings. At this time Pugin
In 1827 15-year-old Pugin was would also become intensely fond
employed to design furniture in a of the sea, first owner of a
medieval style for the Windsor small boat, he successively
castle during which he was commanded a smack, and afterwards
acquainted with an employee of a schooner, and this way he
the stage management of the engaged himself in buying
Covent Garden Theater .vi Pugin carvings and other antiquities
enchanted by his first visit to in the old stores of Holland and
the theater worked in various Flanders.x
positions backstage untill he got
his first big commission. In 1831 Pugin got married to his
"Historical operas were then most first wife Ann Garnett (1811-
popular, and they afforded a wide 1832), at this time owing to
scope for the introduction of economic difficulties he would
beautiful scenery and costume. also be imprisoned for dept.xi
The manager of the Italian Opera, After his imprisonment he started
hearing of Welby Pugin's known a shop in Hart Street Covent
skill in medieval art, sought his Garden supplying architectural
assistance, and commissioned him drawings and accessories xii but
to design all the scenery for the buisness did not go well and
new opera of Kenilworth brought again he was forced to abandon
out in the season of 1831.”vii The his plans. In 1833 after loosing
production was granted with great his first wife xiii Pugin got
success and it presented married to Louisa Burton (1813-
designs of medieval 1844)who bore him six children.
representations of great accuracy In 1835 he would convert to Roman
and taste. Pugin was so Catholicismxiv and therby begin to
enthusiastic of his new venture receive the steady architectural
that he convinced his parents to practice which was to secure him
turn the upper floor of their the reputation of the most
house into a model theatre prominent figure of the 'English
“removing the attic ceiling, Gothic Revival'. During 1837-43
cutting away the roof, and the architect Charles Barry (1795-
constructing cisterns” viii here 1860) would employ Augustus Welby
he would work on his scenic Pugin to design the Gothic
designs enabling him to exhibit details required for the
experiments and study competition of 'The new House of
compositions before they were Parliament' and consequently won
adopted on the actual stage “ the the competition.xv
most exquisite scenery, with
fountains, tricks, traps, drop- As professor of ecclesiastical
scenes, wings, soffites, hilly antiquities in the Roman Catholic
scenes, flats, open flats, and college of St. Marie's Oscott,xvi
every magic change of which stage , Pugin, took it upon himself to
mechanism was capable.” ix His explain the 'True Principles of
connection to the theatrical Pointed or Christian
world however would not last Architecture," and set two
- “there should be no features family; known as 'The Grange,' a
about a building which are not church and monastery were also
necessary for convenience, part of his plans. Longing to
construction, or propriety” recreate the medieval lifestyle
- “all ornament should consist he so admired Pugin bought land
of enrichment of the essential in 1841 and between 1843 and 1844
construction of the building.” together with his builder George
Myers(1830-1875) he would be able
"the neglect of any of these two to build freely and according to
rules" he said "was the cause of his own principles. The houses
all the bad architecture;" furnishings were all Pugin’s own
principles which so profoundly designs complemented with the
influenced the decorative arts paintings and objets that he had
and architecture and design. collected in his journeys. Sadly
Pugin’s contribution would become his second wife Louisa died in
apparent about a decade later 1844 just before the family had
whith the criticism that rose the chance to move into the new
from the 'Great Exhibition' of house. In 1848 Pugin would marry
1851 as well as the writings of his third wife, Jane Knill (1825-
John Ruskin. The two lectures 1909), with whom he had two more
would be published in the book : children.
'True Principles of Pointed or
Christian Architecture,' (1942) In the Great Exhibition of 1851 a
expanding his campaign in favor seperate 'Medieval court' was set
of Gothic architecture; but now up to exhibit Pugin's designs
on rather 'functional grounds.' featuring amongst others
Pugin would also interestingly metalwork and stained glass by
emphasize on the importance of Hardman & Co, ceramics and
local materials and local encaustic tiles by Mintons Ltd,
tradition “Only be natural, he textiles, wallpaper, furniture
said, (...) and picturesqueness by John Gregory Crace and a
would appear like a capricious, medieval a tomb by George
unbidden guest. (...) Gothic Myers.xvii Quoting the
would no longer be one respectable Waagen Gustav
architectural style, but the best Friedrich(1794-1868), in his
and simplest way of building. notice on the various sectional
There is no reason why noble divisions of the Great Exhibition
cities, containing all possible we may read: "Professor A. Welby
convenience of drainage, water- Pugin, one of the most
courses and conveyance of gas, distinguished amongst English
may not be erected in the most architects, as a designer of
consistent, yet Christian Gothic buildings and ornaments.
character. Every building that is In this court he has endeavored
treated naturally, without with great success to present to
disguise or concealment, cannot the spectator a general idea of
fail to look well.” ecclesiastical art, by exhibiting
an assemblage of altars, shrinks,
In 1843 Pugin begun to build his tapestries, painted windows,
house on the West Cliff at chalices, and pattens, vestments
Ramsgate aiming to create an and other ecclesiastical
ideal setting for him and his furniture and objects.”xviii
Augustus Welby Pugin
After years of strain and
overwork, early in 1852 Pugin
was attacked by insanity,and was
placed in the Bedlam asylum in
St. George's Fields, Lambeth.xix
from 'that day on came his
downfall he died on the 14th of
September of that year, the same
day as the Duke of Wellington.
Pugin was essentially a dreamer
and a designer; and for these
reasons it is appropriate to
study his architecture not in his
finished buildings, but in his
exquisite etchings since many
of his buildings were not fully
carried out xx Pugin himself was
not satisfied by the realization
of his designs and belived that
the single church he had designed
which met his standards was St.
Augustine's Church, in Ramsgate
where he was both paymaster and
architect.xxi
Gilbert Scott, perhaps the most
representative figure in Gothic
Revival wrote... “I was awakened
from my slumbers by the thunder
of Pugin's writings(...) I was
from that moment a new man.xxii
Refrences:
ihttp://www.pugin-society.1to1.org/home-
intro.html
ii 'An Oxford companion to the romantic
age: British culture, 1776-1832'
(2001)Iain McCalman, Jon Mee pg 665-666
iii“His buildings looked back to the
picturesque past, his writings looked
forward to the ethical future " :
Kenneth Clark (1928)
iv http://www.pugin-
society.1to1.org/home-intro.html
v 'The Gothic Revival: An Essay In The
History Of Taste' (1928)Kenneth Clark
pg 145
vi 'Recollections of A. N. Welby Pugin,
and his father, Augustus Pugin; with
notices of their works' (1861) Ferrey,
Benjamin, Purcell, Edmund Sheridan pg57
vii ibid pg 59-60
viii ibid
ix ibid 61
x ibid 62
xi Dictionary of National Biography
XLVII (2005)Eliborn Classics pg 6 Pugin
xii Benjamin, Purcell, Edmund Sheridan
op.cit pg 65
xiii Pugins first wife had died in 1832
during parturition to a daughter that
named after her.
xivhttp://www.dictionaryofarthistorians.o
rg/pugina.htm
xv Encyclopedia britannica 1911 Under:
Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin
xvi Benjamin, Purcell, Edmund Sheridan
op.cit pg 333
xviihttp://www.dictionaryofarthistorians.
org/pugina.htm
xviii Professor Waagen Gustav
Friedrich(1794-1868), in his notice on
the various sectional divisions of the
Great Exhibition Benjamin, op.cit
Purcell, Edmund Sheridan pg 258
xix Benjamin, Purcell, Edmund Sheridan
op.cit pg 269
xx Kenneth Clark (1962) pg 135
xxi ibid pg 128
xxii 'Personal and professional
recollections' (1879) George Gilbert
Scott pg 373
 "On comparing the Architectural Works of the present Century with
those of the Middle Ages, the wonderful superiority of the latter
must strike every attentive observer."
A.W.N. Pugin

1.4 Pugin contrasting contemporary and medieval water fountain.

1.5 Pugin contrasting a contemporary and medieval church.

The Reformation of Design
Benjamin Robert Haydon

Benjamin Robert Haydon (1786-1846) The Academy's mission was

an English historical painter, therefore was to promote the
writer and lecturer was pioneer of 'Arts of Design' through
the idea of 'art as a social education and exhibition; iv but
force,' and proponent of the already by 1800, the Academy had
theory of 'unity between art and transformed from educational
craft' for the progress of institution to an 'elite club'
society. As early as 1823 while for oil painters, sculptures and
imprisoned in 'King's Bench few architects. The Royal
Prison' for dept, Hayton drew up Academicians enjoying the merits
a petition to parliament asking of the single art authority in
for "a committee to inquire into the country were essentially in
the state of encouragement of control of the 'cultural state'
historical painting." i Haydon of English society. In 1809 the
essentially called for denial of he Royal Academy's
governmental patronage for Committee to exhibit Haydon's
artists, proposing the adornment picture of 'Dentatus' in the
of governmental buildings with main hall would resulted in a
historical paintings. Ultimately lifetime quarrel motivating
it would have been his outcry that Haydon to start a tumult campaign
was to pave the way for the urging for serious public art
establishment of the new national education; against monopoly of
'art and design' education system the Royal Academy. In his crusade
in England. Haydon battled for the Haydon would be supported by a
right of diffusion of art in all front of businessmen, economists,
levels of society for the benefit radical politicians, and the
of all; rather than just the rising middle class, but foremost
elite clubs of the higher classes. and constant supporter of
His urge could only become Hayton's campaign would be
apparent if one examined the William Ewart(1978-1869) M.P. for
contemporary state of art in Liverpool a respectable social
England; the single institution reformer who in the same attitude
that provided public art education advocated for public museums, art
was the Royal Academy of Arts in galleries and libraries.
London which had been established
in 1768 by King George the III. Well into the nineteenth century
“for the Purpose of Cultivating England was enjoying the title of
and Improving the Arts of leading industrial nation of the
Painting, Sculpture, and world. The developments in
Architecture.”ii In their appeal industrial production and the
to the King it the artists had competitive market would open a
stated that “the Painters, public debate around the role of
Sculptures and Architects of this art in industry and society. The
metropolis are desirous of focus was centered around the
establishing a Society for problem that although production
promoting the Arts of Design (..) rates were increasing the quality
and most humbly beg to your of the products was falling
Majesty's assistance, patronage, behind realizing what the
and protection in carrying this Luddites had stood up for about
useful plan into execution.”iii fourty years earlier.
 The Reformation of Design

When William Ewart put down a acknowledgement that French

motion in Parliament. The radicals manufacturers were superior to
took it one step further demanding British.ix The second session
an enquiry,v thus the 'House of started in February 1836 and
Commons' appointed a 'Select ended in August the same year;
Committee on Art and Manufactures' with hearings on European art
in order “to enquire into the best education, the Royal Academy,
means of extending a knowledge of galleries and museums;
the arts, and of the principle of terminating its proceedings with
design, among the people the following conclusion: "from
(especially the manufacturing the highest branches of poetical
population) of the country; also design down to the lowest
to enquire into the constitution, connection between design and
the management, and effects of manufactures, the arts had
institutions connected with the received little encouragement in
arts”vi In July 1935 the committee this country."x
began a series of hearings under
the chairmanship of William Ewart Thus a series of measures was
in order to investigate the decided: to set up a 'Normal
contemporary state of public art school of Design' at 'Somerset
education in Britain. Among the House,' to provide grands for
witnesses would be Benjamin provincial schools, to form
Hayton, Waagen Gustav museums and art galleries and
Friedrich(1794-1868) German museum that sculptures and paint should
director and pioneer art be used to embellish public
historian, James Skene (1775- buildings. The aim was double,
1864) watercolorist and secretary raising the standard of British
of the 'Board of Trustees for the manufactures by improving design
Encouragement of Manufacturers in and elevating the level of public
Scotland,' as well a number of 'taste'. The 'Normal School of
architects, artists, sculptors, Design' was opened on the 1st of
decorators and merchants of June, in 1837,xi “for the purpose
various trades textile, metalwork, of giving instruction to those
glasswork, jewelery, porcelain engaged in the purpose of
etc.vii ornamental art, and in the
preparation of designs for the
Hayden as one of the main various manufacturers.”xii and
witnesses would find the urged that in any such school. "
opportunity to elaborate on his not theoretical instruction
views of state patronage for alone, but also the direct
painters and the decoration of practical application of the arts
governmental buildings with to manufactures, ought to be
historical paintings as well as deemed an essential element."xiii
the outline of a plan for the
establishment of a system of Distinguished individuals in art
design schools, centered in ,manufacture and parliament
London, with branches in the large formed a committee of artists,
manufacturing towns.viii The manufacturers, and amateursxiv in
hearings of the first session a structure that would govern the
ended in September 1935 and one Normal School of Design up to
of its practical results was the 1848. The appointed members
consisted of the President and taste and manufacturing. When the
Vice-President of the 'Board of deficiency of the
Trade', 'Royal Academicians', schools was realized, Haydon
members of Parliament and alltogether condemned the school
Manufacturers. At their first and its methods and initiated a
committee meeting, held at the new movement starting the
offices of the Board of Trade on 'Society for Promoting Practical
14th April, 1837, J. B. Papworth Design' a straight forward answer
was appointed Director of the with the intention to keep the
Normal Schools of Design and he initial principles alive. In this
appointed in turn as Headmaster society amongst others Benjamin
Mr. Lambalette, Assistant- Haydon, Martin Acher Shee(1769-
Headmaster, Mr. Spratt. As 1850)and William Ewart, would
Modeller Mr. James Leigh, and as endeavor "to correct the narrow
Secretary and Librarian, Mr. policy of the government and
Papworth,Jr .xv carry out the views of the
parliamentary committee to extend
Two months later in July 7th, artistic instruction among the
1837, on a meeting of the Council population.” xviii

it was decided that 'drawing from

the human figure should not be In 'Saville House' School drawing
taught to the students' also from the antique, as well as
approving a report that “the lectures on anatomy, design,
object of the school ought to be color, and fresco were
to afford manufacturers an delivered, Haydon went as far as
opportunity of acquiring a to introduced a female model, for
competent knowledge of the fine the students to draw life . The
arts, in so far as these were school became immensely popular
connected with manufactures, and and competed with the 'Normal
that steps ought to be taken to School of Design' in 'Somerset
limit the students to these House' Their object was to assume
interests."xvi The Normal school of pressure on the Government School
Design under the control of the at 'Somerset House' in order that
'Board of Trade' and the it would change its policy which
presidency of Charles Poulett had supposed that the exclusion
Thomson (1799-1841) sought of of drawing from life was the best
creating a practical design school means to limit the students
based on the German interest to ornament .xix The
'gewerbeschulen' with a clear biggest achievement of 'Saville
distinction between 'art and House' was that it forced the
craft'. The students apparently Government School at 'Somerset
even had to sign a statement that House' to compete for existence
they were never to practice as as a counter reaction to Haydon's
historical, portrait or landscape female model, the 'Somerset
painting after they entered the House' School introduced a male
School of Design.xvii This policy as well as a female model,
was of course opposite to Hayden “yielding the point of the study
and Ewart's initial intentions of the human form”xxi Finally on
which expected a new class of the l0th August, 1838, at the
'artist-designer' to rise and first council meeting under
bring 'redemption' to public William Dyce as new Director of
 The Reformation of Design
William Dyce

the Normal Schools of Design it William Dyce(1806-1864)British

was decided that "the human figure painter and Royal Academician
for the purposes of ornament be was the second Director of
taught in the school."xx Feeling Studies of the School of Design
that the group had accomplished after J.D. Papworth's resignition
its goal in 1839, Haydon and his in 1838. His directorship lasted
circle, withdrew from 'Saville five years up to 1843; in 1837
House,' and the school shortly Dyce was already master in the
after was closed nevertheless he School of Design of the 'Board of
continued to thoroughly fight for Manufactures' in Edinburgh in the
the right to proper education till same year he published, along
his last breath; between the years with Charles Heath Wilson a
1937-39 Haydon had traveled across pamphlet: “Letter to Lord
Great Britain, to Edinburgh and Meadowbank, and the committee of
Glasgow, Manchester and Liverpool, the Honourable Board of Trustees
Leeds, Hull, Sheffield, Newcastle, for the Encouragement of Arts and
and Leicester, lecturing on the Manufacturers: The Best Means of
importance of educating the next ameliorating the Arts and
generation of designers on the Manufactures of Scotland in point
correct principles and to the of Taste” with proposals on
practical effect that this would improvingthe management of the
have on manufacture and society. Schools of Designxxii this would
His famous “Lecture on painting ultimately lead to his transfer
and design” was first delivered from Edinburgh,to be appointed
in 1935 and published 1944. superintendent and secretary of
the Normal school of Design in
A man clearly ahead of his time London. At that time Dyce was
Haydon no doubt lived a passionate also sent on a official visit to
life of uncompromising posture to Europe by the 'Board of Trade'
the very end; on the other hand in order to examine the systems
the economic problems that had of organization of foreign design
been tormenting him for so long training schools in design, which
(he had been imprisoned for three would lead to a throughout full
times) and his belief that he was scale remodeling of the London
not as accomplished as he ought to Central School of design. On 13th
have been would lead him at the January, 1840, the Council passed
age of sixty-one to put an end to a motion deciding that : "the
his life by firing a bullet into order of study pursued in the
his head with the phrase “Stretch German schools, by which the
me no longer on this rough world." drawing of the figure is made
written in his diary; ironically subsequent to a course of
the bullet failed to kill him and ornamental design, should be
he had to slash his throat twice adopted." xxiii Dyce's ultimate aim
with a razor before he was dead. was to train workers for
Although his achievements have industry; the students would
today been rather forgotten; above focus on making designs based on
all Hayton will remain as a the variety of industrial
mastermind in the understanding of processes used in the British
how art can and should used as a manufactories of the time.xxiv
medium for social change.
"The Normal School of Design under with the German Nazarenes from
Dyce developed a curriculum that which he would be strongly
de-emphasized figure drawing and influenced both in art and life
focused almost exclusively on philosophy. Notabely in a letter
training in product design." xxv It to the writer and art critic
was rather clear that Dyce was a Ernest Chesneau,xxviii John Ruskin
practical man he disagreed with had admitted that his real
the emphasis on “fine arts” in introduction to the Pre-
regards to design education and Raphaelite school of art was
had alternatively promoted a initiated by William Dyce,
closer relationship between literally dragging him, up to
designers and manufacturers. Millais picture of 'The
William Dyce was a pioneer in Carpenter's Shop,' which Ruskin
design training practice in 1838 had passed disdainfully, and
he set up workshops for weaving forced him to look for its
and pottery, installing a loom and merits xxviii He resigned from his
a pottery kilnxxvi his mission directorship in 1843 but remained
was to transform the 'Somerset close to the schools as
House' into a 'gewebeschule' with inspector of provincial schools
a 'werkstatt' according to what he at least until 1848. Charles
had seen in Bavaria. Nevertheless Heath Wilson, who had meanwhile
his innovative approach was not been director of the Edinburgh
altogether successful and the school, was appointed his
students were little interested in successor.
the pattern making of weaving
classes. Dyce's view of design Charles Heath Wilson
training was essentially
pragmatic, emphasizing on methods Charles Heath Wilson (1809-1882)
not art “the object is to teach author, art educator and
the art of preparing designs for landscape-painter succeeded
manufacturers.”xxvii he said. He William Dyce as director of the
was author of the most widely used Normal School of Design in 1943.
drawing manual of the century. He had co-written the 'Letter to
“The drawing book of the Lord Meadowbank" in 1837 and was
government School of Design” headmaster of the 'Glasgow School
(1848) which was published in four of Design.' His directorship was
different versions. Dyce's quite incidental having to cope
personal opinion was that with the staff educational
historical ornament should be the structure and philosophy of his
basis for study because it precursor in order to be able to
demonstrated more rigid implement his own ideas. After
geometrical structures than dealing with the innovative
nature. He would go on to play an educational methods of the
important role in the development charismatic George Wallis (1811-
of the British Schools of Design 1891)in Manchester; Wilson would
and under his directorship classes even to tackle with a 'student
for female students were organized revolt,' protesting against the
and the provincial schools grew in current teaching methods a
numbers. Earlier in his life while 'revolt' which amongst others
in Rome Dyce had came in contact would arouse public suspicion and
 The Reformation of Design

eventually lead to a parlimentary student going beyond the

'committee of enquiry' one of the craftsman's limit when drawing
reasons for Wilson's step down from life was impossible; once
from directorship in the first Wilson's authority came to such
place. Characteristic of Wilson's an end to order the gas lighting
administration was his love for and heat be turned off and the
discipline bringing “order silence casts removed from the figure
and regularity” to the school classxxxivit would span what became
along with a devotion to the to be known as 'revolt of 45' in
antique xxix his policy was in which Richard Burchett (1815-
line with the prevalent concept of 1875) would be one of its leading
contemporary art education to figures. Within this context John
imitate classic and renaissance Roger Herbert(1810-1890),an
art, advocated by the Dilettanti, important English painter
the upper class and the Royal precursor of Pre-Raphaelitites
Academicians.xxxHis essential and friend of the Pugin family
difference with Dyce, was that was obliged to resign from his
unlike Dyce, Wilson was not position as 'Master of Figure'
interested with trade necessities and was replaced by John
which as a subject he found Callcott Horsley (1817-1903).
repulsive. The new curriculum took
the students away from practical In a Letter to J.R Herbert in the
studies, and proposed instead Builder, on the 2 August 1845
systematic copying from the Pugin in support if the students
antique i.e. vases, pots and wrote: “My dear mister Herbert, I
Chinese baubles as an effect had have almost given up my hope of
the result to treat everyday seeing any real good effect by
objects such as carpets, mugs and the School of Design(...) in
tea trays like “cartoons for creating a school of national
historical pictures or designs for artists ;not mere imitators of
regal palaces" xxxi carpentry any style,but men imbued with a
students were not shown how to throughout knowledge of the
design in wood, but instead were history wants,climate and customs
made to draw Renaissance figures of our country.(...) The real
in outline from engravings, while source of art is nature, and the
upholsters were expected to paint best artists of every nation and
arabesques”xxxii Wilson, also had period have taken it as their
an intolerant notion on the standard and represented it under
school's mission; separating 'art' the peculiar aspect of their
from 'craft' or the 'artist' from locality and period.(...)The
the 'ornamentalist' he had school should be a place for the
straight-forwardly urged that formation of the operative as
“persons studying to become well as designing artists: we
artists rather than ornamentists want artist smiths in silver and
should be excluded from the iron, artist chasers in metals,
school." The problem of how to artist glass painters for the
draw a dividing manufacture of stuffs and the
line between instruction to be production of embroidery and
given to students in 'fine' and in these should be well grounded in
'applied' art” had started to the fundamental principle of
become apparent.xxxiii Preventing a adapting the style and working of
its ornament, not only to the importance of selecting
purpose, but the material in appropriate masters acquainted
which it is to be produced. Wood, with the subject of design
stone, glass, silk and metal stating that: " The school should
require total different treatment have three functions: To give
in their enrichment suited to elementary instruction in Art, to
their separateprod." Towards the improve Art workmen actually
end of 1846 a special committee engaged in manufactures, and to
was appointed in order to create a more educated class of
investigate the issues that had original designers."xxxviiThe later
been raised. " The main attack 'general attack' was instrumented
upon the school was to the effect by Henry Cole, a respectable
that, while it gave excellent member among the new emerging
instruction in imitative drawing design scene who had advocated
and coloring, it had entirely for the reforma of design
failed to attain its object as a education in England. Through the
School of Design. It was urged periodical "The Journal of
that the principles of ornament Design" he would published
and the practice of original evidence on the report of the
design, as applicable to Select commitee thereby
manufactures, were not assuming pressure on the shcool's
efficiently taught,' and that no administration something that
attempt was made to give the would eventually lead to the
students a knowledge of full rearrangement in the
manufacturing processes so as to management of the schools of
enable them to unite fitness and design which nevertheless would
practicability in ornament."xxxv not prove sucessfull until Henry
The former council of 'artists, Cole would assume full control.
manufacturs and amateyrs' was Wilson directorshp on the other
dissolved in April 1848, in hand was beneficial in the growth
octomber 1847 the 'Board of of art education in the form of
Trade' took control by museums since he has made it a
appointing governing body the priority for the central as well
'Committee of Management' all the as the provincial schools to form
members of which were amongst a core of exhibits in order for
its officers except for two the students to be able to copy
artists Richard Westmacott(1799- from. The employement of Alfred
1872) and George Richmond(1809- Stevens (1818-1875) should also
1896). J.Shaw Lefevre(1797-1879) be mentioned.
was made secretary of the new
commitee and in November, Wilson
was dismissed from the
directorship was apointed
honorarily appointed director of
Provincial Branch Schools.xxxv
Again in 1849 a new select
committee reported on the
failure of the general system of
'Schools of Art' to produce any
material effect upon
manufactures; as well as on the
pic 2.1 Benjamin Robert Haydon (1820)
 The Reformation of Design
Henry Cole

Henry Cole(1808-1882) started his to decorate each article with

career at the age of fifteen, as a appropriate details relating to
civil servant, but would evolve its use, and to obtain these
into one of the major figures of details as directly as possible
the English industrial arts. from nature.”xxxix
Author of children's books under
the pseudonym “Felix Summerly” During the 1840s, the 'Society of
i.e. Felix Summerly's Handbooks — Arts' was granted a Royal Charter
Sammerly's Home Treasury, Cole and under the presidency of
had notably commissioned a number Prince Albert staged a series of
of respected artists (among them small-scale competitions
Richard Redgrave) to provide promoting British industrial
illustrations for his books.A products that embraced artistic
designer himself he had an design. This initiative would
interest in industrial design and develop in a series of annual
was member of the 'Society for the exhibitions in 1847, 1848 and
Encouragement of Arts, 1849 and would evolve to the
Manufactures, and Commerce' 'Great Exposition' of 1851 in
founded in 1754; and Commisioner 'Crystal Palace'. Summerly's Art
of the 'Great Exhibition' of 1851. Manufacturers had presented
Cole essentially supported an nearly 100 items at the 1848
alliance between 'fine art' and exhibition of British
manufacture ultimately 'beauty and Manufacturers held by the now
utility' he said would promote 'Royal Society of Arts'xl and had
public taste and restore Britain's announced that the execution of
premiership in the expanding world their designs should be entrusted
market. He believed that design only to the most eminent British
standards were low because Manufacturers and that the
talented designers were not principal objective was to obtain
working closely with as much beauty and ornament as is
manufacturers. The result was consistent with cheapness.xli
that, although cheep and Summerly's Art Manufacturers
competitive the commercially lasted 3 years and clearly
produced goods were tasteless and expressed the desire to raise the
ugly condemning the vulgar level of English applied art.
incongruity of much of industrial Amongst its members were
design.xxxviii prominent artists such as : John
Absolon, John Bell, Sculptor, T.
His attempt to connect leading Creswick, A.R.A. W. Dyce, R.A.,
'fine' artists with applied art Master of the School of Design.
was realized with “Summerly's Art J. R. Herbert, R.A. J. C.
Manufacturers” founded in 1847. Horsley, Master of the School of
The art association's aim was to Design. S. Joseph, Sculptor, D.
provide designs for commercial Maclise, R.A., W. Mulready, R.A.,
production. “The Art-Manufacturers Richard Redgrave, A.R.A. H. J.
will aim to produce in each Townsent, Master of the School
article superior utility, which of Design, Sir R. Westmacott,
is not to be sacrificed R.A. xlii

to ornament; to select pure forms;

In June 1849 together with exhibitions between 1846 and 1849
Richard Redgrave, and Matthew as well as the 1849 report (that
Digby Wyatt Henry Cole started a Cole and Wyatt had brought forth)
periodical titled the “Journal of supporting that the French were
Design and Manufacturers.” A already considering the idea of
magazine primaraly for designers an international exhibition the
and manufacturers as its title 1851 International Exhibition
implied the Journal's double aim emerged; with the support of
was to improve public 'taste' and prince Albert, president of the
lift the standards of British R.S.A.,Cole, Wyatt, Redgrave and
industry. Ornamental design in Jones would all be involved in
mass manufactured machine the planning, execution and
products and the relationship organization of the 'Great
between 'decoration and function' exhibition'
was its main subjects, the
introduction of actual pieces of The 'Great exposition of Art and
fabric and wallpapers from Industry' was held in London at
leading manufacturers whithin the Hyde park in 1851 and was the
journals pages heightened its largest trade show the world had
appeal and success. Their idea ever seen: intended to
was to succeed in becoming a demonstrate Britain's industrial
communication - marketing tool supremacy and prosperity; the
between manufacturers and the event was organized by Royal
public. xliii Commission its two most
influential leaders being Prince
Richard Redgrave (1804-1888) was Albert and Henry Cole. The
part of 'Summerly's Art exhibition was housed in a
Manufacturers' and had also temporary structure designed by
raised his voice in demand for Joseph Paxton (1803-1865) dubbed
design reform whilst he served as 'The Crystal Palace' by the the
educator in the Normal School of satirical 'Punch' and was built
design since 1846. Matthew Digby in six months, attracting about 6
Wyatt(1820-1877) decedent of the million people between May and
'architectural dynasty' Wyatt October 1851, who visited the
family was himself engaged in over 100, 000 exhibits. Never
advocating the proper use of before had the decorative arts
ornament in design exhibiting been made subject of such
trought publications examples supreme attention making it the
based on design reform first attempt to bring artists,
principles. Later together with manufacturers, and the public
architect, critic and author of together on the same roof.
the classic “Grammar of
ornament” (1853) Owen Jones (1809-
Nontheless after the 1851
1874)they would design the fine
Exhibition a second 'new wave' of
arts decoration for the second criticism on the role of art in
erection of the 'Crystal
industry was unleashed. It became
Palace'. xliv rather apparent that British
design was 'lacking in purpose'
Due to the increasing success of and that 'crude decorations' were
the national industrial Art rather a way to cover the
 The Reformation of Design

'cheapness' or ' simplicity' that utility (the machines and

machinery of the industrial utensils of various kinds), where
process offered. The 'aeshetic use is so paramount that ornament
crisis' was to be related to is repudiated and, fitness of
society since it was the populace purpose being the end sought,a
which its main recipient. noble simplicity is the result.”
“Domestic possessions were tarted Ralph Wornum is his prize winning
up to look finer goods: pine essay "The Exhibition of 1851, as
grained to resemble to mahogany, a Lesson in Taste commented on
cotton died to fool the viewer the harmony between beauty and
into believing that it was silk, design remarking that: dramatic,
carpets ornamented to imitate allegoric, or whatever other
clematis vines or jungle scenes principle be associated with
or railroad stations" xlv The ornament, it must be kept
honesty and morality in secondary to the effect of
decoration that Pugin had utility, if it is desired to
advocated and the 'Cole Circle' make a good design."
had pragmatically supported had
been overpassed and instead Henry Cole on the other hand
ostentation was now its dominant would point out the errors that
feature. had led to the acknowledged
failure of the Schools of Design
However the harch reaction and breaking it down to three basic
criticism that followed the Great points: The 'hasty assumption'
Exposition would it prove that there existed already
fruitful. Richard Redgrave's students competent enough to
'Supplementary Report on Design' enter the schools in the first
which appeared in the 'Reports by place; that the manufacturers
the juries'(1852) commenting on were not 'sufficiently convinced
design and ornamental decoration of the value and importance of
said: 'Design' has reference to the schools' and they preferred
the construction of any work both not to cooperate with them; and
for use and beauty therefore also finally that the public eye
includes ornament also. untrained as it was would not be
'Ornament' is merely the able to receive healthy
decoration of a thing innovative designsxlvi In a
constructed; therefore it can not lecture delivered in front of
be other than secondary, and must Prince Albert twoard the end of
not usurp a principle place, if 1852 Cole had said that: “the
it does the object is no longer a experience of many years had
work ornamented but is degraded shown that it is not enough to
into a mere ornament. It is produce good designs unless the
impossible to examine the works taste of the consumer is
of the Great Exhibition without sufficiently educated to
seeing how often utility and appreciate them (...) Until Art
construction are made secondary education is more generally
to decoration designers are too extended, and the principles of
apt to think of ornament before form, and of the harmony and
construction leading to sicken us contrast of colours, are better
of decoration, and leads us to understood and acted upon by the
admire those objects of absolute people, in vain is it for the
manufacturers to produce good Lithography, and Porcelain
designs.” xlvii Thus the vision of Painting xlix An institution for
creating a new educational center training teachers under the
emerged, in support of the new directorship of Richard Burchett
attempt the profits from the was to remained in 'Somerset
international exhibition would be House' while the 'Female School'
invested in buying land in South was transferred to Gower Street.li
Kensington, and prince Albert In 1857, under the auspices of
would donate in 1852 the Henry Cole, the offices of the
'Marlborough House' where the 'Department of Science and Art'
school of design was to be moved and the 'National Art Training
to from its former grounds. Cole School' (former Normal School of
on the other hand had demanded Design) were removed from
that the 'Board of Trade' create a 'Marlborough House' to South
new department the 'Department of Kensington. lii to join the
Practical Art' which was to absorb Victoria-Albert museum (which
the 'Normal School of Design' and from 1860 onwards would install
one year later in 1853 change its gas-lighting allowing working
name to the 'Department of Science classes to visit at night hours).
and Art'. Cole and Redgrave would
be appointed administrative and Owen Jones in his 1852 lecture
artistic director respectively and “The Decorative arts arise and
by September of the same year Should be Attendant Upon
would open in 'Marlborough House' Architecture” would set the new
the 'Museum of Manufactures', standards of the School:
which whould change its name in - decoration is secondary to form.
the following year to 'Museum of - form is dictated by function
Ornamental Art'xlvii forming the and the materials used.
foundation of the South Kensington dictums along with the
Museum (later Victoria- Albert). recognition of the for value of
practical education would form
In the new ciriculum 'technical the nucleus the 'South
instruction in art' was given a Kensington system.' which was to
novel emphasis and once again in produce sucessfull artist-
the steps of William Dyce designers such as the case of
practical workshops were set up in Christopher Dresser (1834-1904)
the schools premises. The new the true pioneer of industrial
faculty members were chosen by design who had entered the school
Cole and Redgrave including in 1857.
amongst others: Gottfried Semper
(1803-1897) who taught practical
construction, architecture, and
plastic decoration,(including
metal work and furniture design).
Octavius Hudson (?) teaching
surface decoration plus
manufacture and decoration of
textiles,(including weaving and
printing), John Thompson(1875-
1866) who taught Wood Engraving,
as well as teachers for pic 2.2 Henry Cole
 The Reformation of Design
Refrences :
i Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 xxvi 'Social radicalism and the arts:
edition under: Benjamin Robert Haydon. Western Europe : a cultural history
ii 'The history of the Royal Academy from the Frech Revolution to 1968'
of Arts from its foundation in 1768 (1970)Donald Drew Egbert pg 454
to the present time. With xxvii Richard Cary loc.cit
biographical notices of all the xxviii 'Letters from John Ruskin to
members' (1862) Sandby William pg 49 Ernest Chesneau' (1894) p22 (Letter
iii Ibid pg 48-47 date 28 December 1882)
iv loc.cit xxix 'Grand designs: labor, empire,
v 'The history and philosophy of art and the museum in Victorian culture'
education' (1970) Stuart MacDonald pg (2007) Lara Kriegel pg 40
69 xxx MacDonald op.cit pg126-127
vi 'The encouragement of the fine xxxi Lara Kriegel op.cit pg41
arts in Lancashire, 1760-1860' (1976) xxxii MacDonald op.cit pg 89
Cornelius P. Darcy xxxiii Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 4
vii Mac Donald loc.cit xxxiv Mac Donald op.cit pg 96
viii 'Benjamin Robert Haydon xxxv Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 6
Historical Painter' (1952) Clarke xxxvi Mac Donald pg op.cit 100,101
Olney pg 223 xxxvii Frank P.Brown op.cit pg 8,9
ix Mac Donald loc.cit xxxviii 'William Morris: design and
x 'South Kensington & its art enterprise in Victorian Britain'
training' (1912) Frank P. Brown pg 1 (1991)Charles Harvey, Jon Press pg 40
xi ibid pg2 xxxix 'Fifty Years of Public Work of
xii 'The Origin,progress and present Sir Henry Cole, K. C. B., Accounted
condition of the Fine Arts in Great for in His Deeds, Speeches and W
Britain and Ireland' (1841)William ritings' (1884) Henry Cole, Alan
Benjamin Sarsfield Taylor pg 357 Summerly Cole pg 108 Charles Harvey,
xiii Frank P. Brown loc. cit Jon Press
xiv MacDonald op.cit pg 67 xl loc.cit
xv Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 3 xli Ibid pg40-41
xvi ibid pg4 xlii Henry Cole, Alan Summerly Cole
xvii Mac Donald op.cit pg 70 (note in op.cit pg 108
the diary of Benjamin Dayton) xliiihttp://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhi
xviii The Civil engineer and bns/month/aug2001.html
architect's journal, (1866-67) Volume xliv 'A History of Modern Design'
15 William Laxton pg 324 (2003) David Raizman, Laurence Pu
(Artistic Education-Working Classes.) King pg 51
xix 'Benjamin Robert Haydon : xlv 'Household gods: the British and
correspondence and table-talk ;with a their possessions' (2006)Deborah
memoir by his son Frederic Wordsworth Cohen pg 17
Haydon' (1876) Haydon Benjamin Robert xlvi Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 12
pg 198 xlvii loc. cit
xx Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 3 xlviiihttp://www.british-
xxi Hayton op.cit pg history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=47519
xxii Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 xlix.Henry Cole ,Alan Summerly Cole
edition under : Willian Dyce op.cit pg 299
xxiii Frank P. Brown op.cit pg 5 l Henry Cole, Alan Summerly Cole
xxiv 'Critical art pedagogy: op.cit pg 298
foundations for postmodern art li Frank P. Brown op cit pg 9
education' (1998)Richard Cary pg 83 lii Encyclopedia Britannica 1911
xxv loc.cit under : Art Training
pic 2.3 Selection of plates from Owen Jones' “Grammar of ornament” (1853) featuring Indian,
Byzantine,Chineese,Egyptian ,Greek,Celtic,Medieval,Turkish and Hindu ornaments respectively
 John Ruskin

John Ruskin
"Do not think of your faults, still less of other's faults; look for
what is good and strong, and try to imitate it. Your faults will drop
off, like dead leaves, when their time comes."

John Ruskin(1819-1900)English of labour treating men as

author and art critic was one of 'machines and animated tools' - “
the major figures of the so that all the little piece of
Victorian age, for over fifty intelligence of men is not enough
years of his life he wrote to make a pin . Or a nail, but
consistently and persistently on exhausts in making the point of a
art, architecture and society. pin or the head of a nail.” all
Ruskin's feverishly writings in the name of profit.
would include books and essays on With his work Ruskin gave
geology, botany, church politics, inspiration both to the
painting, sculpture, literature, 'Aesthetic' and 'Arts and Crafts
art education, myth, aesthetics Movement' his influence in
and poetry. Ruskin has been architecture can be seen in both
credited for bringing the 'hoi the 19th century Gothic
polloi' closer to art. He would revivalists as well as the 20th
embrace and develop the idea, century modernists. “The
that 'the buildings and art of a purposefulness and solidity of
people are the expression of modern architecture and
their religion, their morality industrial art are very largely
and social habits' and supported the result of Ruskin's endeavors
that art should be perceived and doctrines”i
within its social and political
context and not separate form it. Son of Scottish John James Ruskin
Ruskin essentially preached that (1875-1864) and Margaret Cox
the built environment of a (1781-1871); Ruskin's ideas would
society is a direct result of be a combination of the literate
that societie's zeitgeist. This and the word of God; which so
awareness of the sociopolitical profoundly influenced his
dimensions of art, architecture personality and the way he
and literature would later lead communicated his ideas with the
to his writings on political people. His father was a man of
economy and socialism which was 'belles letters' and 'fine art'
to dominate the greatest part of while his mother was of the old
his life. Ruskin advocated that Puritan school of Calvinists.
in order to reform society the This mixture would ultimately
workman should find 'space of create a charismatic 'art
creativity and joy' within his preacher' which was destined to
labour and that this could only seize the Victorian world.
be done if we were stimulate the Ruskin's father a prosperous wine
status of the workman within the merchant, partner of 'Ruskin,
community removing the boundaries Telford & Domecq,' would
between fine and applied art. frequently travel across England
Ruskin attacked modern society in which travels the young Ruskin
which was producing 'inhuman would accompany him together with
relationships' with the division his mother and in this way
 The Nature of Gothic

cathedrals, castles, colleges, introducing new ideas in art,

parks, mountains and lakes would philosophy and life. At the age
captivate the boys imagery. His of 17 Ruskin wrote for
continental travels would include 'Blackwood's Magazine' a defense
European cities such as Paris, for J.M.W.Turner (1775-1851)
Brussels, Switzerland as well as which was nevertheless not
the Alps, travels that resulted published; Turner's defense
in an unexpected aesthetic against his critics would be just
education and perceptio. On the the beginning of Ruskin's critic
other hand his practice both in incursion in world of Arts
prose and verse were also part of between 1936-1937 Ruskin authored
his childhood 'sole shaping' and a series of papers i.e 'The
while his mother trained him poetry of architecture' for
reading the bible, his father 'London's Architectural Magazine'
introduced him to Shakespeare, signing as 'Kata Phusin'ii. These
Scott, Don Quixote, Pope and essays were divided in two parts:
Byron. The young Ruskin began to in the first part Ruskin would
compose as soon as he had learned describe the cottages of England,
to read and write acquiring an France, Switzerland, and Italy,
excellent command of language and and the second part the villas of
sense of style; beginning at the Italy and England - with special
age of five Ruskin began to write reference to Como and Windermere;
poetry, dramas and romances the essays were followed with a
imitating the great writers. At discussion on the laws of
the age of eleven his education artistic composition and
was further elaborated with practical suggestions, hints and
lessons in Latin, Greek and directions for picturesque
geometry as well as drawing and cottage-building. Ruskin had been
oil painting. In 1837 Ruskin influenced by William Wordsworth
entered Christ Church Oxford, his (1770-1850) and the Lake School's
parents expecting him to take iii romantic descriptions of Lake
Holy Orders and enter the Church; country and the humble rural
he was enrolled in Oxford as a cottages where Ruskin himself
'gentlemen commoner' which meant had spent time as a child .
he needn't complete a full course
of studies. Ruskin's education in In 1843 Ruskin finished the first
Oxford would not be a successful volume of one of his major works
one, but in the 'Oxford years' 'Modern Painters' carrying out a
he made life-long friendships more careful defense on Turner
which would help him later in his and signing the book as 'A
career; his single noteworthy graduate of Oxford.' Here he
success was winning the would launch an attack on the old
'Newdigate Prize' with his poem masters before 1800, focusing on
'Salsette and Elephanta,' in 1839 their lack of attention to
he graduated in 1842. If there natural truth; Ruskin commented
was one thing that Ruskin was on the fact that they invented or
capable of doing was describing composed their landscapes in
what he could see. Ultimately their studios. Contrary to the
this would be his weapon to modern painters which were closer
change 'Victorian perception' to reality'observing water, air
clouds stones and vegetation.'
 John Ruskin

Ruskin would then travel to Italy The essence of Ruskin teachings

in order to study and work on the triumphed in the effect that he
second volume of 'Modern profoundly modified the view of
Painters' which appeared three artists, critics and public of
years later in 1846. In 1849 he his time. The moral of his
published 'The Seven lamps of teachings that all art requires
Architecture' which enlarged his truth, nature, purity and
reputation as an art critic 'The earnestness has become axon of
stones of Venice' was announced all aesthetic work and judgment.
in 1849 and the fist of three It is safe to say in other words
volumes appeared early in 1851 that John Ruskin was one of the
elaborating on the ideas he first architects of the reformation of
communicated on 'The Seven lamps art.
of Architecture' he was then 31
years old. The year that 'The Refrences:
Stones of Venice' appeared was
coupled with two other major i George P. Landow Professor of English
events in Ruskin's life the death and the History of Art, Brown University
of J. M. W. Turner and the essay ii Greek for 'According to Nature'
he wrote in defense of Pre- iii Lake School :Romantic Group of Poets
Raphaelitism. In 1853 'The Stones
of Venice' were completed and
Ruskin begun a series of letters
and notes on 'Pictures and
Architecture'. During the same
year Ruskin also begun a series
of Public Lectures i.e 'The
Edinburgh Lectures'(November
1853)dealing with Architecture,
Turner and Pre-Raphaelitism and
'The Manchester Lectures'(July
1857)treating the moral and
social issues of Art. From then
on - till 1860 Ruskin would
write apart from others : 'The
elements of Drawing' (1857) and
'The elements of Perspective'
(1859). After prolonged labor in
1860 the final Volume of 'Modern
Painters' came out which would
marking the end of an era in his
life and career ending his works
on art strictly. Having already pic 3.1 John Ruskin
reflected on the the 'evils' of
modern and industrial society
Ruskin would spend the last forty
years of his life devoted to
expounding his views and
propositions on socialism,
labour, education, morals and
religion.
 The Nature of Gothic

The Nature of Gothic

"...to some of us when we first read it, now many years ago, it seemed
to point out a new road on which the world should travel.”

William Morris

'The Nature of Gothic' the second Venetian architecture is an

part in the first volume of 'The intermediate step between
stones of Venice' is regarded as Byzantine and the Gothic forms.
a landmark in the landscape of 'Gothic Architecture' has
the Art and Design world.William “external forms and internal
Morris characterized it as one of elements” its internal elements
Ruskin's most important wittings can be found in certain mental
“one of the few necessary and tendencies of the builders such
inevitable utterances of the as legibly expressed in it;
century.” Ruskin's words are faithfulness, love of variety,
strong and heartfelt, he teaches love of richness etc. Its
the world that art is essentially external forms on the other hand
the expression of man's pleasure are the pointed arches, the
in labor; that it is possible vaulted roofs etc. Unless both
that man finds rejoice in his the elements and the forms are
work; and that there was a time there, there is no right to call
when he actually did so. it Gothic. It is not enough that
Constructing arguments that no it has form, it must have also
one can challenge or deny with power and life. It is not enough
the soul of a poet, the eyes of that it has power if it not have
an artist and the power of a form. Therefore these two
preacher Ruskin delivers his separate characters may be
gospel reading behind the lines determined as the 'Mental
revealing uncomfortable truths. Expression' and the 'Material
Pragmatically the Book Examines form'.Regarding the 'Mental Power
the different faces of Venetian or Expression' which are the
architecture establishing the characters that the Gothic
position that only in Gothic builders love, or instinctively
architecture did mankind ever express in their work as
find pleasure in working. distinguished from other
buildings, the characteristic or
Navigate through this summarized 'Moral elements' of Gothic placed
extract of 'The Nature of Gothic' in their order of importance are :
and listen to what it has to
say... speaking directly to your I.'Savageness'
heart; II.'Changeableness'
III.'Naturalism'
IV.'Grotesqueness'
V.'Rigidity'
VI.'Redundance'
 John Ruskin

Henceforth Ruskin examines one by - Servile ornament: in which the

one the internal elements of execution or power of the
Gothic architecture and within inferior workman is entirely
the 'frame' of this examination subjected to the intellect of the
he gives his 'lights' to the higher.
world. - Constitutional ornament: in
which the executive inferior
Savageness: Gothic as power is, to a certain point,
architecture of the North was emancipated and independent,
intended to imply reproach, and having a will of its own, yet
express the barbaric character confessing its inferiority and
among the nations whom this rendering obedience to higher
architecture arose. Their powers ;
buildings exhibited a degree of - Revolutionary ornament: in
sternness and rudeness which in which no executive inferiority is
contradiction to the character of admitted at all.
southern and eastern nations,
appeared like a perpetual The Greek master-workman being
reflection of the contrast advanced in knowledge and powder
between the 'Goth' and the above the Assyrian or Egyptian.
'Roman' in their first encounter. Neither he(master-workman) nor
It is true, greatly and deeply those for whom he worked for
true that the architecture of the (patron)could endure the
North is rude and wild; and for appearance of imperfection in
that it deserves our profoundest anything ; and, therefore, what
reverence. ornament he appointed to be done
by those beneath him was composed
Comparing the ongoing for of mere geometrical forms, balls,
centuries natural difference of ridges, and perfectly symmetrical
the South and North Ruskin foliage, which could be executed
describes the Mediterranean with absolute precision by line
“lying like an irregular lake and and rule.
its ancient promontories sleeping
in the sun,” and compares this The Assyrian and Egyptian, on the
image to “the wall of ice, like other hand , less cognizant of
iron sets, deathlike.” - There is accurate form in anything, were
no degradation, no reproach in content to allow their figure
this he says,but all dignity and sculpture to be executed by
honorableness; “The wildness of inferior workmen, lowering the
thought is reflected ultimately method of its treatment to a
on the roughness of work”. standard which every workman
could reach, and then trained him
The Systems of Architectural by discipline so rigid, that
ornament according to Ruskin there was no chance of his
might be divided in three falling beneath the standard
categories : appointed.

The workman was, in both systems,

was a slave...
 The Nature of Gothic

In the medieval, or especially “it is not that men are pained by

Christian architecture, the the scorn of the upper classes,
workman was freed(...) “Do what but they cannot endure their own
you can, and confess frankly what ; for they feel that the kind of
you are unable to do ; neither labor to which they are condemned
let your effort be shortened for is verily a degrading one, and
fear of failure, nor your makes them less than men.” (...)
confession silenced for fear of
shame.” This is, the principal “never had the upper classes been
admirableness of the 'Gothic so generous towards the lower
schools of architecture', that classes, and yet never were they
they received the results of the so much hated by them.”
labor of inferior minds.
Resulting through these miner "we have much studied and much
imperfections to a perfect whole. perfected, of late, the great
civilized invention of the
Ruskin here takes a jump to division of labor ; only we give
examin architecture from the it a false name. It is not, truly
viewpoint of laborer - the people speaking, the labor that is
that built the Pyramids, the divided ; but the men :—Divided
Assyrian palaces,and the Greek into mere segments of men—broken
temples suggesting that this into small fragments and crumbs
'labor slavery' should be done of life ; so that all the little
with, forever if it is for piece of intelligence that is
society to prosper: “we should left in a man is not enough to
look for the thoughtful part of make a pin, or a nail, but
the workers, and get it out of exhausts itself in making the
them, whatever the lose and point of a pin, or the head of a
whatever the consequence.”(...) nail.”

“either make a tool of the “we manufacture everything except

creature, or a man of him(...)Men men we blanch cotton, and
were not intended to work with strengthen steel, refine sugar,
the accuracy of tools, to be and shape pottery ; but to
precise and perfect in all their brighten, to strengthen, to
actions(...)you must un-humanize refine, or to form a single
them”. living spirit, never enters into
our estimate of advantages.”
“the degradation of the operative
into a machine more that anything “the solution to this decay is
else evil is what is leading the not by teaching nor preaching,
mass of the nations everywhere for to teach them is but to show
into a struggle for freedom them their misery, and to preach
to them, if we do nothing more
“it is not that men are ill fed, than preach, is to mock at
but that they have no pleasure in it(...) it can only be met by
the work by which they make their right understanding from all
bread and therefore look to classes, of what kinds of labor
wealth as the only means of are good for men, raising them,
pleasure.” (...) and making them happy”
 John Ruskin

How can this be done? Easily by so on, but nothing to bring out
following three simple rules : the whole mind."

- Never encourage the manufacture "every person who wears cut

of any article not absolutely jewels merely for the sake of
necessary, in the production of their value is, therefore, a
which invention has no share. slave-driver.”
- Never demand an exact finish,
when it does not lead to a noble But : “the working of the
end. goldsmith, and the various
-Never encourage imitation or designing of grouped jewelery and
copying of any kind, except for enamel-work, may become the
the sake of preserving record of subject of the most noble human
great works. intelligence. Therefore, money
spent in the purchase of well-
“glass beads are utterly designed plate, of precious
unnecessary, and there is no engraved vases, cameos, or
design or thought employed in enamels, does good to humanity”
their manufacture.(...) The men
who chop up the rods sit at their
work all day, their hands “ if you are to have the thought
vibrating with a perpetual and of a rough and untaught man, you
exquisitely timed palsy(...) must have it in a rough and
Neither they, nor the men who untaught way ; but from an
draw out the rods, or fuse the educated man, who can without
fragments, have the smallest effort express his thoughts in an
occasion for the use of any educated way, take the graceful
single human faculty” expression, and be thankful(...)
do not silence the peasant
“every young lady, therefore, who because he cannot speak good
buys glass beads is engaged in grammar(...) thus in art,
the slave-trade, and in a much delicate finish is desirable from
more cruel one than that which we the greatest masters, and is
have so long been endeavoring to always given by them. Lower men
put down.” than these cannot finish, for it
requires consummate knowledge to
On the other hand: “glass cups finish consummately, and then we
and other vessels may become the must take their thoughts as they
subjects of exquisite invention ; are able to give them.”
and if in buying these we pay for
the invention, that is to say for “so the rule is simple : Always
the beautiful form, or color, or look for invention first, and
engraving, and not for mere after that,(...)demand no
finish of execution, we are doing refinement of execution where
good to humanity.” there is no thought, for that is
slaves' work, unredeemed. Rather
Again: “the cutting of precious choose rough work than smooth
stones, in all ordinary cases, work, so only that the practical
requires little exertion of any purpose be answered, and never
mental faculty; some tact and imagine there is reason to be
judgment in avoiding flaws, and proud of anything that may be
 The Nature of Gothic

An example on Venetian glass: “we are always in these days

“modern glass is exquisitely endeavoring to separate the two ;
clear in its substance, true in we want one man to be always
its form, accurate in its thinking, and another to be
cutting. We are proud of this. We always working, and we call one a
ought to be ashamed of it. The gentleman, and the other an
old Venice glass was muddy, operative ; whereas the workman
inaccurate in all its forms, and ought often to be thinking, and
clumsily cut, if at all. And the the thinker often to be working,
old Venetian was justly proud of and both should be gentlemen, in
it. For there is this difference the best sense”
between the English and Venetian
workman, that the former thinks “only by labor can thought be
only of accurately matching his made healthy, and only by thought
patterns, and getting his curves can labor be made happy, and the
perfectly time and his edges two cannot be separated with
perfectly sharp, and becomes a impunity.”
mere machine for rounding curves
and sharpening edges, while the “in each profession, no master
old Venetian cared not a whit should be too proud to do its
whether his edges were sharp or hardest work. The painter should
not, but he invented a now design grind his own colors ; the
for every glass that he made, and architect work in the mason's
never moulded a handle or a lip yard with his men ; the master-
without a new fancy in manufacturer be himself a more
it.Therefore, though some skillful operative than any man
Venetian glass is ugly and clumsy in his mills ; and the
enough, when made by clumsy and distinction between one man and
uninventive workmen, other another be only in experience and
Venetian glass is so lovely in skill, and the authority and
its forms that no price is too wealth which these must naturally
great for it ; and we never see andjustly obtain.”
the same form in it twice.”

“choose whether you will pay for Enough, I trust, says Ruskin been
the lovely form or the perfect said to show the reader that the
finish, and choose at the same rudeness or imperfection which
moment whether you will make the rendered the term 'Gothic ', one
worker a man or a grindstone.” of the most noble characters of
Christian architecture, not only
Questioning his own argument noble but an essential .
Ruskin asks:"If the workman can
design beautifully, I would not “it seems a fantastic paradox,
have him kept at the furnace. Let but it is nevertheless a most
him be taken away and made a important truth, that no
gentleman, and have a studio, and architecture can be truly noble
design his glass there, and I which is not imperfect.”
will have it blown and cut for
him by common workmen, and so I
will have my design and my finish
too."
 John Ruskin

“since the architect, whom we "accept this then for a universal

will suppose capable of doing all law, that neither architecture
in perfection, cannot execute the nor any other noble work of man
whole with his own hands, he must can be good unless it be
either make slaves of his imperfect ; and let us be
workmen(...) or take his workmen prepared for the otherwise
as he finds them, and let them strange fact, which we shall
show their weaknesses together discern clearly as we approach
with their strength.” the period of the Renaissance,
that the first cause of the fall
“accurately speaking, no good of the arts of Europe was a
work whatever can be perfect, and relentless requirement of
the demand for perfection is perfection, incapable alike
always a sign of a either of being silenced by
misunderstanding of the ends of veneration for greatness, or
art.” softened into forgiveness of
simplicity.”

“for two reasons, both based on We finish this summary with

everlasting laws. Ruskins words as regards to
rudeness or savageness...
“the first, that no great man
ever stops working until he has "true Gothic can not exist
reached his point of failure ; without it.”
that is to say, his mind is
always far in advance of his
powers of execution,(...)and
therefore, if we are to have
great men working at all, or less
men doing their best, the work
will be imperfect, however
beautiful.”

“the second reason is, that

imperfection is in some sort
essential to all that we know of
life. It is the sign of life in a
mortal body that is to say, of a
state of progress and change.
Nothing that lives is, or can be,
rigidly perfect (...) All things
are literally better, lovelier,
and more beloved for the
imperfections”

pic 3. 2 William Morris (1892) Kelmscott

Press Edition 'The Nature of Gothic'
 P.R.B.
The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.

"Let us only look around at our exhibitions, and behold the cattle-
pieces, and sea-pieces, and fruit-pieces, and family-pieces, the
eternal brown cows in ditches, and white sails in squalls, and sliced
lemons in saucers, and foolish faces in simpers, and try and feel what
we are, and what we might have been."
John Ruskin
In September 1848 seven young Ruskin on the other hand who had
artists John Everett Millais, the power 'to make or break an
William Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel artist’s career' would publicly
Rossetti along with William defend them and provide with the
Michael Rossetti(1829-1919), James substantial funds to encourage
Collinson(1825-1881), Frederic their art.In the first volume of
George Stephens(1828-1907) and 'Modern painters' (1843) Ruskin
Thomas Woolner(1825-1892) gathered had urged the young artists of
in Bloomsbury London "to form an Britain to go to Nature “in all
secret pact an alliance based on singleness of heart, and walk
their mutural aversion twoards the with her laboriously and
state of art in Europe and trustingly, having no other
England. They sought their thought but how best to penetrate
inspiration in the art from the her meaning, rejecting nothing,
middle ages and the early selecting nothing, and scorning
Renaissance before Raphael. They nothing" advice whether bad or
wanted to lift the meaning of art good, as he said involved
in a higher level and believed “infinite labor and humiliation”
that art should be based on issues for those who followed it, thus
that were serious and heartfelt it was for the most part,
like life, love, passion and rejected. It was however carried
death on that rugit autom out, 'to the very letter,' by a
afternoon in London they formed group of very young men who as
the Pre-raphaelite Brotherhood and reward, were attacked with the
forever changed the face of "most scurrilous abuse ever seen
British art." Prerafaelitrna from the public press". They were
(26.2-24.5) National Museum Sweden. the P.R.B.

The essence of Pre-Raphaelite work We begin. says Ruskin, examining

was the battle against the teachings of the Royal
superficial art and exaggerated Academy " telling the yoth of
traditionalism which had led to fifteen or sixteen that Nature is
the hypocrisy and materialism of full of faults, and that he is to
the Victorian world. Their aim was improve her ; but that Raphael is
to establish an 'artistic perfection, and that the more he
renewal' and a 'moral reform' into copies Raphael the better ; and
the world of art in order to do so after copying much of Raphael he
they studied nature; working to should try in a Raphaelesque but
portray her simplicity and beauty yet original manner to occupy
"rejecting nothing, selecting himself in composing a painting,
nothing, and scorning nothing" and yet subjected to Raphaelesque
signed all their paintings with rules, which say that :
the initials P.R.B.

32
 P.R.B.

there should be a principal light, 'High Renaissance' in favor of

occupying one-seventh of its earlier art. ii simple and
space, a principal shadow, sincere.In the beginning of the
occupying one-third of the same; Pre-Raphaelite Movement the
that no two people's heads in the artists were caught up by
picture are to be turned the same religious subjects: 'Christ in
way, and that all the personages the house of his parents'(1850)
represented are to possess ideal by John Millais, would the
beauty" i painting which caused fury, but
also made the Pre-Raphaelites
Breaking free from the their name. The 'heightened
Raphaelesque shackles the P.R.B. realism' introduced in the
revolutionized technically and painting by Millais represented
thematically the manner of looking an alternative non idealized
and rendering the world on canvas image of Christ and the Holy
documenting current social Family, 'returning the truth by
issues such as the role of women imagining,' prompting the
in society, life, love, death, reaction of conservative
obsession, betrayal and human Victorian taste. Jesus was
frailty. Taking their inspiration portrayed in a carpentry
from the medieval artists who workshop, with a dusty and dirt
preceded Raphael they claimed to floor as a 'red-headed Jewish
“return the truth by imagining.” boy' and the Virgin Mary as an
They began painting outdoors ten 'ugly, every-day sempstress,'
years before the 'impressionists' a furious Charles Dickens would
introducing a 'heightened write of “a hideous, wry-
realism' in which every necked, blubbering, red-headed
particularity of the natural world boy, in a bed gown,” and the
was minutely displayed, depicting figure of Mary as a “woman so
the human form without idealizing ugly that she would stand out
it; ultimately their work was a from the rest of the company as a
departure from the 'trend style' Monster, in the vilest cabaret in
that had dominated British France, or the lowest gin shop in
paintings rejecting the academic England.”iii The Pre-Raphaleites
'dogma' of classicism and the would move on to contemporary
'formula' which had been created subjects of urban life and scenes
out of the paintings of Raphael; from the modern city. 'Mariana in
serious and heartfelt their the Moated Grange' (1851)from
workoften portrayed symbolswhich William Shakespeare's play
suggested deeper meanings while 'Measure for Measure' portrays a
picking up 'everyday' moral woman which has just been
issues such as 'justice', rejected from her future husban
'piety', 'domestic relationships' rising tiered from her seat with
and the everlasting struggle of her hands holding her waist. The
'purity against corruption'. . painting depicts the role of
According to Holman Hunt , it was women in society and their
the discovery of Lasinio's book of dependency on marriage in a
engravings of the frescoes at the medieval scenery but with a clear
'Campo Santo di Pisa' which reference to their time. In
convinced the group to reject 'The Awakened Conscience' (1853)

33
 P.R.B.

William Holman Hunt does not deeper symbolic message embodied

bother to 'dress up' his scenery within a high definition
in a medieval fashion and takes a depiction of the scenery. hich
step further: he depicts a young nevertheless, is the result of
mistress; rising from her position his work.
in the lap of her lover, looking
out towards the open window, with A character not yet mentioned,
a series of depicted symbols which however played a central
stressing the fact that the girl role to both the formation and
wants to escape from the shameful the 'development' of the
lifestyle. brotherhood and was to later to
be the main inspiration for the
Landscape painting, would then 'second wave' of Pre-
come to the attention of the Raphaelitism would be Dante
P.R.B. in their hunt for the Gabrielle Rossetti. Rossetti's
'Holy Grail' of art. The train art was characterized for its
now made it easier for the young 'eroticism and medievalism' in a
artists to travel in the rural 'dreamy-like' atmosphere this
areas outside of London tendency can be seen from the
experimenting on colouring nature very beginning, in his
outdoors. Working with high paintings 'Girlhood of Mary,
definition and the precision of Virgin' (1849) and 'Ecce
photographic lens the P.R.B. Ancilla Domini' (1850) full of
'transformed' landscape painting spirituality and symbolism. The
into scientific representation. Brotherhood somewhere along the
'Ophelia' was the piece which way separated with Millais and
established the P.R.B. in the Hunt devoting themselves to
consiousness of the British landscape painting whereas
society, based on Shakespeare's Rossetti sought inspiration in
tragedy 'Hamlet' Ophelia's death Medievalism. Hunt and Millas
was completed by Millais in 1852. created art based on 'scientific
The background scenery was and realistic knowledge'
painted along the banks of the Rossetti on the other with his
Hogsmill River in Surrey and it is explorations in the 'world of
considered a landmark in landscape wonder' hand would fuse the later
painting, due to its minute wave of 'Aestheticism' which
display of the flora of the river was destined to change the world
and the riverbank. Completed in of decorative arts for ever.
two phases first came the outdoor
landscape, and then indoor the A new chapter in the history of
figure of Ophelia modeled by art was written by the 'elder
Elizabeth Siddal(1829-1862) who brother' of the P.R.B. Ford Madox
sat in a bathtub in order to Brown with his painting 'The
capture 'that' 'heightened Pretty Baa Lambs' (1851) which
realism.' thet the P.R.B. sought along with Holman Hunt's
for. Holman Hunt's painting 'Hireling Shepherd' and Millais’s
'Our English Coasts,'(1852) 'Ophelia' attempted to capture
depicts a herd of sheep 'naturalistic light effects' Ford
hazardously hanging over a cliff Madox Brown although never was
near Hastings; a combination of a member of the P.R.B. 'both
inspired and drew

34
 P.R.B.

inspiration' from the brotherhood. conventionality' and that the

Following the dictum'go to nature systematic generalization of
and reject nothing, select rules was utterly malicious.
nothing, and scorn nothing' Brown Brown first based his art on the
decided to paint not only the love of study of actual fact and
background of his painting but the not on the cold convention of
entire scene outdoors including classic tradition. Madox Brown
his model capturing colors - had come under the spell of
lighting conditions - shadows - Romantisism in the early stage of
daylight - sunlight. Brown later his career; by 1845, already an
would write in his 1854 diary on able painter, he had visited the
this picture: “The Baa-lamb’s studios of the German Nazarenes,
picture was painted almost in Romev The Brotherhood of Saint
entirely in sunlight which twice Luke attempted to return to the
gave me a fever while painting. I art of the fourteenth and
used to take the lay figure out fifteenth century before the
every morning and bring it in if rationalism of the Reinessance
it rained, my painting room being and the Reformation; they had
on the level with the Garden. Emma resident in Rome since 1910 and
sat for the lady and Kate for the had made an international
child. The lambs and sheep used to reputation for their work and
be brought every morning from archaist style.vi Ultimately Brown
Clapham Common in a truck. One of would be influenced by the works
them ate up all the flowers one Hans Holbein (1497-1543)and
morning in the Garden, and they Albrecht Dürer(1471-1528). Today
used to behave very ill." iv Madox Brown may be regarded as
the originator of the Pre-
The association of the three men Raphaelite Movement in England
in 1848 Hunt being twenty-one, something although that William
Rossetti twenty, and Millais only Holman Hunt would not agree with
nineteen, was to begin the most in his autobiography suggesting
eminent art movement of modern that it was rather him and
England. Rossetti, was full of Millais that had started the
dreams and desires had the heart whole thing.'An English autumn
of a poet, and was gifted with the afternoon' begun in 1852 and
power of infusing his enthusiasm took Ford Madox Brown three years
into others. Hunt, was self- to complete it; 'microscopic'
conscious fervent and hard- in its examination and with the
working, with ambitions of eye of 'photographic lens' Ford
completing noteworthy and original Madox drew everything he could
achievements and Millais, was the see out of the window from the
marvel child, the shining star, an north-east view of his house over
already successful artist, Hampsteadand. Today the painting
conscious of his talent, and full is literaly regarded as a
of the ambition of a genius. 'microscopic treatise' of the
Nontheless the influenced of the life and natural history of North
thought and the personality of London. When Brown had it first
Ford Madox Brown should not be exhibited in 1855. Ruskin asked
forgotten. Feeling that art was him “what made you take such a
' captured in the cage of very ugly subject, it was a pity
for there was some nice painting

35
 P.R.B.

in it” his reply was that he had Dante Gabrielle Rossetti (1828-
painted it simply “because it lay 1882) English painter and poet,
out of his back window.”vii Ford was son of an Italian political
Madox Brown unlike Hunt and refugee Gabriele Pasquale
Millais who were painting detailed Giuseppe Rossetti (1783-1854)and
pictures, depicting accurate Frances Mary Lavinia
studies of nature, self-styled a Polidori(1800-1886).From an early
more modest motivation: 'love of childhood the young Rossetti had
the mere look of things'.As in displayed a talent in drawing and
'Work' and 'The Last of England' painting; on the oher hand his
which were painted at the same literary nurturing began with
period, 'An English Autumn Shakespeare, Scott, Byron and the
Afternoon' depicts the ordinary Bible and moved on to Shelly and
everyday life of the people.viii Robert Browning and old Scottish
ballads and of course Dante which
was his favourite and even put it
front of his given name in order
to honour him. By 1847 he was
deep into Robert Browning, Victor
Hugo and De Muset amongst French
poets.ix Given this information
we can easily understand that the
heart of young Rossetti must have
been shaped into the heart of a
Romantic. In 1848 impatient and
discontent of the teachings in
the Royal Academy, Rossetti
wrote to Ford Madox Brown a
letter; fascinated by his work
and his 'admiration for his
skill and genius he expressed
his desire to become his pupil'x
Brown would accept him as a
scholar and their meeting would
lay the foundations of strong
life-lasting friendship. It was
about this time that Rossetti had
also became acquainted with
Millais and Hunt. His impression
Pic 4.1 The Pre-Raphaelite periodical 'The
of Brown rose especially from
Germ' 1850
the artist's contribution to the
'Free Exhibition of Modern Art',
at Hyde Park Corner in the spring
of 1848. The special piece which
attracted Rossetti's attention
was 'The First Translation of the
Bible into English,' or,
'Wickliffe reading his
Translation of the New Testament
to John of Gaunt'(1847-8).xi The

36
 P.R.B.

painting itself also attracted Guinevere at the Tomb of Arthur'

much attention, arousing public (1854);'Paolo and Francesca'
controversies,and perhaps may be (1855)'The Blue Closet'(1857);
regarded as the first Pre- 'The Wedding of St George'(1857).
Raphaelite picture ever produced. In the second phase of
Rossetti's art more
Rossetti's essential aim was to characteristic were his work in
reach through art the forgotten oil.xv Perhaps the best known of
world of romance, mystery, wonder the pictures of this period is
and spiritual beauty. A rebel 'Beat a Beatrix', the oil picture
against classicism, in his poetry was completed in 1863xvi a year
as well as in his paintings after Siddal's death. This was
Rossetti cultivated more than followed such works as 'Fait
anyone else the 'modern revival' Rosamund' (1861); 'Belcolore'
of the 'romantic spirit', 'the (1863); and 'Lady Lilith' (1864).
renaissance of Wonder' as it was The third phase of his work saw
called, so as much that the poet the completion of oil-colour
who would go beyond Rossetti would versions of masterpieces such as
pass out of the realm of poetry 'Venus Verticordia'(1864-68), and
into pure mysticism.xii Rossetti 'The Belove'(1865-66) later came
turned instinctively to the 'Joli Cceur' (1867); 'Proserpina'
mysterious side of nature and (1874); 'Veronica Veronese'
life, walking on grounds that no (1872) and 'La Bella Mano'
other artists of that time dared (1875).'His essentially romantic
step into, and remained so, to spirit delighted in the exotic
his last breath. In the spring of and the unique.'xvii Technically,
1860 Rossetti would marry his capacity was not equal to his
Elizabeth Siddall, the central gift of imagination; it could be
model and muse of the Pre- said that he was 'a poet working
raphaelite Brotherhood. in pigments'; he sought for
beauty and when he found it, it
Rossetti's first picture was “The gave him the inspiration which
Girlhood of Mary Virgin”,(1849) transformed his paintings into
hung in the " Free Exhibition" masterpieces. But the distinction
in Hyde Park, while Millais and of Rossetti's work lies in the
Hunt were exhibiting their fact that he conceived and
pictures at the Royal Academy. embodied not only beauty, but the
The picture that followed, was element of 'strangeness in
“Ecce Ancilla Domini.”(1849-50) beauty' which Walter Pater (1839-
his later paintings are mostly an 1894) English essayist and art
expression of romanticism but critic discerned as the “inmost
one may still trace an attention spirit of romantic art” .xviii

to details displaying the artist's

will for sincerity in
representation.xiii Most
characteristic of this phase of
Rossetti's work are his numerous
water-colours executed between the
years 1850 and 1860.xiv 'Dante on
the Anniversary of the Death of
Beatrice' (1853) ; 'Lancelot and

37
 P.R.B.

William Holman Hunt (1827-1910) later works he would untangle his

son of a city warehouse manager 'personal mark' confessing a
with a taste for art and strong religious feeling trough
literature would initially not symbolism which penetrated his
be supportive of his son desision work. xxiii

to embrace art as a career xix

nevertheless, he did not repress 'The Hireling Shepherd' (1851)
Hunts temperament to draw either was followed by works of a
since he looked upon it as a similar aim, 'The Awakened
'fine amusement for the leisure' Conscience'(1851-53); 'The
; At the early age of twelve Strayed Sheep';(1852) and then
Hunt was pulled out of School and the religious tendency of the
had gained a job in an office at artist's mind, already shown in
that time the young Hunt would 'A Converted British Family
separete his time between sheltering a Missionary',(1850)
reading, drawing and painting. which promoted the world famous
One day as his Master returned to 'Light of the World.'(1853-54)
the office he caught him drawing The success of that great
a sketch; instead of putting him allegoric painting led to the
down he told him: “In there is a artist's first journey East, in
complete box of oil colors, January 1854 Hunt left England to
brushes, palette, and everything travel to Jerusalem and Palestine
necessary for painting, and some in order to depict biblical
day we shall shut ourselves up scenes in their natural scenery
and have a good day with them thus came 'The Scapegoat'(1854)';
together, a thing I dearly 'The Finding of the Saviour in
love."xx the box of oil colors the Temple'(1854-60); 'The
eventually was passed over to Afterglow'(1854-1863); 'The
Hunt and this is how he began his Shadow of Death'; 'The Plains of
career as an oil painter. Esdraelon'(1877-78); and other
Shortly afterwards he attend the well-known pictures all depicting
mechanics institute to practice a completeness of portrayal and
drawing; his father then took symbolism, illustrating the
him to John Varley(1788- history of Christianity in its
1842),professor of watercolor actual surroundings. Once again
landscape and 'Zodiacal except for its artistic
Physiognomy' in order that he importance the paintings also had
further pursued his studies.xxi the value of the historical
Between the age of seventeen and landscape documentation. Hunt
eighteen, after several attempts admittedly was the master of
Hunt finally entered the Royal definite presentment xxiv remaining
Academy where he met and studied entirely unaffected by all the
along with his new friend fifteen movements in the art world after
year old John Everett Millais. 1850, he spent too much labor on
Already, in his student life Hunt each of his works that made it it
had developed a remarkable power impossible to produce many.
of patient work.xxii A loving care Nevertheless perhaps no other
and patience in the execution of ninteenth century painter made
work is evident and so is his such a reputation by so few
struggle to portray things as pictures as Hunt. On the early
realistic as possible. In his 'Two Gentlemen of Verona'(1850-51)
38
 P.R.B.

Ruskin would comment saying that John Everett Millais (1829-1896)

"There had not been nothing in art English painter and son of John
so earnest or complete since the William Millais, and Emily Mary
days of Albert Durer "xxv Hunt from a very young age had shown
returned to Jerusalem in 1875 and his natural talent in sketching.
painted 'The triumph of Once in London in 1838 after
Innocence' is characterized as presenting some of his sketches
the most serious labor in his life. to Martin Archer Shee(1764-1850),
at that time the President of the
Royal Academy it was strongly
recommended that he attend
Gary's Drawing Academy.xxvi He
entered the Royal Academy schools
in 1840 having already won a
silver medal from the 'Society of
Arts' in 1839. xxvii In 1846 he
exhibited 'Pizarro seizing the
Inca of Peru' and in 1847
'Elgiva seized by the Soldiers of
Odo.'xxviii In the beginning of
1848 he had already resolved to
pic 4.2 John Everett Millais
the Pre-Raphaelite ideology “to
present on canvas what they saw
in Nature” xxix Millais's first
picture on these new principles
was a banquet scene from John
Keats'(1795-1821) "Isabella"
(1849), which contains all the
characteristics of Pre-Raphaelite
work, including minute imitation
of nature down to the smallest
details, as well as the study of
all persons and objects directly
from the originals.xxx His next
important picture, 'Christ in
pic 4.3 Dante Gabriel Rossetti the House of His Parents,' or
(photo cr. : Rosetti archive ) 'The Carpenters Shop' (1850),
represented an imaginary incident
in the childhood of Jesus Christ
but treated in un-beautified
realistic manner, the piece as
has been said before drew upon it
a rage both, religious and
artistic abuse. The rest of his
more strictly Pre-Raphaelite
pictures include 'The Return of
the Dove to the Ark (1851); 'The
Woodman's Daughter' (1850-51)
'Mariana' (1851), 'The
Huguenot' and 'Ophelia'
pic 4.5 William Holman Hunt (1852), all received from the

39
 P.R.B.

public, establishing his Refrences:

reputation as a sucessfull i Pre-Raphaelitism (1851 )John Ruskin
painter, a public which had also ii Pre-Raphaelitism and the pre-
been greatly influenced by the Raphaelite brotherhood (1905) William
sway of John Ruskin, who in his Holman Hunt pg130
letters to 'The Times,' in 1851 iii Household words, Volume I (1850)
and his pamphlet 'Pre- Charles Dicken pg 225-226
Raphaelitism' enthusiastically iv Preraphaelite diaries and letters
embraced the cause of the (1900)Rossetti, William Michael, pg 109
Brotherhood and supported that (Emma and Kate being his wife and
“as they gain experience may lay daughter respectively)
in our England the foundations of v The Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood : a
a school or art nobler than the critical monograph (1920)Ford, Ford Madox
world has seen for three hundred vi The art of Ford Madox Brown (1998
years”xxxi Millais who had become )Kenneth Bendine pg 12
Ruskin's protégé would later marry viiRossetti: his life and works
Ruskins divorced wife Effie (1928)Evelyn Waugh pg 74
Gray(1828-1897). In 1855 Millais viiihttp://www.schoolsliaison.org.uk/2004
exhibited "The Rescue," a scene /bmag/resources/pre_raphs_web.pdf [1]
from a fire, which drew great Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery
attention for its realistic ix Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 under
depiction. Millais was one of the 'Dante Gabrielle Rossetti'
greatest painters of his time, and x Waugh op.cit pg 26
did more than any to infuse new xi ibid pg 40
and healthy life into British art xii Britannica loc.cit
he may have not been an idealist, xiii The English pre-raphaelite
but he could paint what he saw. painters, their associates and
The Pre-Raphaelite days of Millais successors (1910)Bate Percy pg 41-42
lasted from 1849 to 1859, and in xiv ibid pg42
the course of that time he xv ibid 43-44
produced a large number of xvi ibid 45
important works, many of which are xvii ibid 50
considered as masterpieces of the xviii ibid loc.cit
English school. When the three xix Painting was no way to make a
first formed the alliance it was living - Story of Morland
ultimately Millais who was looked xx Holmanop.cit pg12
upon as the champion of the xxi ibid pg 15
movement far more equipped xxii Percy op.citpg 26
technically than both Hunt and xxiii ibid loc.cit
Rossetti. In his work one may xxiv Ibid pg 26
distinguish Millais love for xxv The complete works of John Ruskin,
sincere and absolute accuracy of Volume 18 (1891)John Ruskin pg 70
presentment. Later in his career xxviEncyclopedia Britannica 1911 under
he would abandon the aims of the 'Sir John Evert Millais'
Brotherhood and adopt to more xxvii ibid
commercial subjects. He died a xxviii ibid
Baronet and the official Head of xix The life and letters of Sir John
English art 'President of the Everett Millais, president of the Royal
Royal Academy' in 1896. Academy (1900) Millais, John Guille pg 55
xxx Britannica op.cit Millais
xxxi Letter to the Times 26 may 1851

40
 P.R.B.

pic 4.6 'Christ in the House of His Parents' John Everett Millais (1849-50)

pic 4.7 The Shadow of Death William Holman pic 4.8 'Ecce Ancilla Domini' (The
Hunt (1870 -1873) Annunciation), Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1849-
50)

41
 P.R.B.

pic 4.89 'Ophelia' John Everett Millais, (1851-52) / Model : Elizabeth Siddal

pic 4.10 'Pretty Baa-lambs' Ford Madox Brown (1851-1859)

42
 Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. 1861

Origins of the Art and Craft Movement

“The growth of Decorative Art in this Country, owing to the efforts of

English Architects, has now reached a point at which it seems
desirable that Artists of reputation should devote their time to it.”

Prospectus Morris, Marshall Faulkner & Co

The decline of rural handicrafts in a direct way; the
as a result of the rise of broader range of society, the
'industrial society' was a cause 'hoi polloi' remained unaffected.
for concern for many designers The question to which extent
and social reformers of the mid should the message of Medievalism
ninteenth century. The machine and Pre-Raphaelitism be diffused
made production of the industrial within mediums other than the
revolution and the idea of 'fine arts,' was to be
'mechanical perfection' that had laboriously answered by a
dominated the English society the 'fellowship' of artists, poets
cause of doom for English and architects, who under the
craftsmanship. All the same the premiership of William Morris
factory system by the extreme (1836-1896) in a workshop in
division of labor among its Queen square London would
workmen left no space for succeeded in realizing the Pre-
individual artistic expression Raphaelite and Medieval values
among the younger generation of in the the most amazing and
craftsmen working and training in effective way. The formation of
the new factories. Nevertheless Morris, Marchal, Faulkner &
since the 1840's a movement Company would have a profound
twoards the study of medieval art effect on Victorian 'taste',
in England had emerged and many infiltrating and gradually
architects, designers and transforming the perception and
antiquaries expressed interest in style of the contemporary
the medieval world: such as the interiors. The firm notabely
Pugins, Henry Shaw(1800-1889), carried not only the 'medieval
William Burges (1827-1881) and look' in design, but also the
George Edmund Street (1824-1881). 'medieval idea' of construction
All the same in the world of and workmanship; their sucessful
visual arts it would be the 'translation' of design elements
school of Pre-Raphaelites which from the 'fine arts' into a new
would lead the rebellion against vocabulary for everydday objects
classicism; their careful and and the 'applied arts' would rise
throughout method of painting the standard and taste of
would ultimately turn attention domestic decoration as well as
to the 'beauty of color and revive the dignity of hand
design,' thus awakening, labour. This foremost achievement
'sleeping conspicuousnesses.' and of bringing 'art' within the
expressing the further need to reach of thousands by decorating
return to a more pure way of the 'less obvious' articles of
life. household ultimately 'rescued'
design from the 'decay and
The 'message' nevertheless could ostentation' of the lifeless
not have influenced the people industrialized products of the
 Pre-Rapahaelitism, Aestheticism

It would be the association of of Dante Gabrielle Rossetti or

William Morris and Edward Brune the existence of the 'Pre-
Jones(1833-1898),proponents of Raphaelite Brotherhood'iii . The
the 'Arts and Crafts Movement' spark to set ablaze the two young
with the Pre-Raphaelites ideals men would come from a woodcut of
which was destined to change the Rossetti's 'Dante drawing the
course of decorative arts Face of Beatrice'iv The 'poetic
forever. In 1853 William Morris fancy and rich coloring' of the
entered Exeter College Oxford and little picture had an enormous
made a lifelong friendship with effect on both men who now saw in
another freshman Edward Brune Rossetti the truest exponent of
Jones i. Their acquaintance would their own high ideals and truths
grow primarily due to their and from that moment on they both
mutual interests in literature decided to leave the church and
and art. Both Morris and Jones pursue an artistic career.
had come to Oxford with the
intention of taking Holy Orders In 1855 Eduard Burne Jones, still
and entering the Church. The two an undergraduate went to London
of them along with a Birmingham to the 'Working Men's College' (a
group at Pembroke joined together center of art and literature work
to form a companionship which was at the time) at Great Ormond
to be known as “The Street in order to find Rossetti
Brotherhood.”ii They would get (who spent there a considerable
together in regular meetings and amount time teaching and
study architecture, theology, lecturing) and ask him for his
ecclesiastic history, medieval opinion of some of his designs.V
poetry romances and chronicles When Rossetti eventually saw the
as well as Tennyson and Ruskin. young artists drawings admiring
his imagination and feeling for
Young William at this time would beauty' urged him to drop his
discover his talent in verse and degree, and to devote himself
begin to write his first poetry. entirely to artvi through Jones,
Morris' and Jones' ideas would Rossetti would also come to know
emerge from the same dilemmas William Morris. Now the highly
that had formed the earlier group spirited Burne-Jones left Oxford
of Pre-Raphaelites particularly , and settled in London in order
following the publications of to begin a systematic study and
“The stones of Venice” and much practice of art. William Morris,
later “Unto this Last” both of on the contrary, in no hurry to
which sought to relate the moral leave Oxford, would complete his
and social health of a nation, to University studies, visiting his
the quantities of its friend in London during weekends
architecture and designs; ideas and receiving his B.A. degree in
which had a profound influence on 1856.vii
both men challenging their views,
beliefs and philosophy.
Nevertheless it was not until
1854 in Ruskin's 'Edinburgh
Lectures' did either Morris or

Brune Jones ever hear of the name

 Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. 1861

On the 1st of January 1856 after legacy.ix This 'new' separate

just having graduated from Oxford school, also termed Pre-
Morris launched The 'Oxford and Raphaelite, was considered as
Cambridge Magazine' which was to the 'second face' of the movement
include besides poems and short in which Edward Burne-Jones would
stories, social articles. The become its central figure and
'experiment' was considered to would be better termed the
some extent to be the successor 'Aesthetic Movement' x

of the 'Germ.'viii and within its

pages saw moments of fine poetry. In the summer of 1856 Gabrielle
The new publication contained Rossetti in the company of
several of Rossetti's best poems, William Morris visited the city
such as 'The Staff and Scrip,' of Oxford in order to paint the
and 'Nineveh,' as well a series new Oxford Museum; a neo-Gothic
of medieval romances and poems building which John Ruskin had
written by the two young artists also been involved with. The
(MorriS-Jones) who helped launch building was designed by the
the 'second phase' of the Pre- Irish architects Thomas Newenham
Raphaelite movement, developing Deane (1828-1899)and Benjamin
the reputation of the Pre- Woddward (1816-1861)but a
Raphaelites poets to new agreement didn't come forth
horizons. The magazine came out since Rosetti allegedly denied
in monthly numbers and lasted a to paint the figure Newton
year long; and all its contents gathering pebbles on the shore of
were anonymous. In that same year the 'Ocean of Truth'xi on this
the firm of George Edmund Street same occasion the two artists
for whom Morris had been working were also shown the newly
for in Oxford would move to completed 'Hall of the Oxford
London and the young Morris in a Union Debating Society.' and
feverish manner would work hard observant of the blank spaces of
both on painting and the gallery window-bays Rossetti
architecture. impulsively offered to paint a
series of Sir Thomas Malory’s
After 1856 Rossetti had quite Morte D’ Arthur.xii Then seven
diverged from the initial path of artists would volunteered to
Pre-Raphaelitism and had become help; the company consisted of
an inspiration for the medieval- course of Gabrielle Rossetti,
strand of the Pre-Raphaelite Burne-Jones and William Morris
movement. His close association along with Arthur Hughes(1832-
with Morris and Burne-Jones, 1915), Val Prinsep (1838-1904),
helped to initiate the second Spencer Stanhope (1829-1908),
generation of Pre-Raphaelitism, Alexander Munro(1825-1871), and
which aim was to express J. Hungerford Pollen (1820-1902).
'spiritual truths' through The work was carried out by the
'aesthetic beauty'. From the group in the form of fresco, but
1860s onwards, Morris, Burne- as none of the artists was
Jones, and Rossetti would familiar with the processes and
integrated in their romantic art of fresco as well as the fact
medieval artwork ornamental that it was done too soon and too
design developing thus a separate fast it consequently soon began
characteristic of the PRB’s to fade; the scheme after two
 Pre-Rapahaelitism, Aestheticism

at least attempts to restore was of 1860 the house was ready for
finally dropped, in 1859. All habitation; in a letter to P
the same the effort alone became Professor Norton of Cambridge,
a highpoint in developing the Massachusetts Rosetti would write
groups ideological 'platform' of the house: “I wish you could
especially in regards to see the house which Morris has
medievalsim; remaining as an built for himself...it is more of
important relic of the 'Aesthetic a poem than a house.” The
Movement' as well as Williams experience of building the 'Red
Morris' first attempt towards the House' made it clear that apart
decorative arts. On the other from the fact that it was
hand the experience of working impossible to buy anything ready
side by side with Rossetti and made of 'tolerable taste', it
other established artists and was also almost impossible to
designers proved invaluable for get things made by order.
the artistic self-awareness of Carpentry was the only trade in
both Morris and Burne-Jones and which the tradition of hand
although Brune-Jone's displayed a workmanship had survived...
stunning technical ability and glass, china, wallpapers, stuffs,
proficiency as a painter. silver plate, could only be
Morris's 'grotesque' figures procured in debased machine made
which were 'poorly and clumsy patterns.xv
painted'xiii contrasted his
backgrounds which revealed a Therefore after the success of
natural tendency towards design. the 'Red House' the idea to form
a co-operativexvi society of
After his marriage to Jane artists, in the form of medieval
Burden(1839-1914) in 1859 Morris craft guilds came about; this
desided to build his family house idea was soon to expand into a
in Upton and embody all his legal firm in which at its head,
principles of decorative art. would stand the figure of William
Philip Webb(1831-1915) which had Morris who also provided the
become acquainted with Morris largest share of capital.
during their co-workmanship in Through Rossetti who was amongst
G.E.Street's office in London was the first to agree, Ford Madox
commissioned to design the 'Red Brown was enlisted followed by
House.' Then Morris his newly- Burne Jones; Charles Falkner,xvii
wedded wife and his friend along and Phillip Webb, architect of
with their wives would entirely the ' Towers of Topsy'xviii a.k.a.
decorated the house, building up 'Red House'. The business started
all the furniture, designing the in January under the Title
stained glass windows, painting 'Morris, Marshall, Faulkner &
the murals, weaving tapestries Co'- To create and sell medieval
and textiles all in proper inspired items for home - The
medieval fashion. xiv Noteworthy prospectus set forth that the
amongst others is Rossetti's firm would undertake carving,
painting upon one of the doors of stained glass, metal work, paper
the 'Red House' 'Dante meeting hangings, chintzes and carpets.
Beatrice in a Florentine street, In the following years, similar
and in the Garden of Eden.' In to the days of the 'Oxford
the summer Murals' and the 'Red House' work
 Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. 1861
in a collaborative way. The
contributing partners hoped that
the income from 'the shop' would
supplement that of the painter
and the architect, supporting
their art through craft would
liberate them from obligation of
commercial work. Morris' vision
on the other hand was much more
radical; he believed that craft
was the only socially responsible
form of art and 'the firm' was
his first attempt to bring
aesthetics beyond the realm of
'fine arts'. The partners would
meet a regularly in a 'sufficient
informal' manner to discuss the
companys projects.
The company would continue to
operate for several years up to
1875 on much the same basis.
“It is a portion of the artistic
and industrial history of our
times, written upon our walls in
the guise of wall-papers, spread
beneath our feet in the form of
carpets, and patent to the eye in
a hundred ways.”xix
pic 5.1 Edward Burne-Jones and
William Morris.
Refrences:
ihttp://www.victorianweb.org/authors/morr
is/wmbio.html
ii 'The Life of William Morris' (2001)
John William Mackail pg77
iii 'William Morris: design and
enterprise in Victorian Britain' (1991)
Charles Harvey,Jon Press pg22
ivhttp://www.victorianweb.org/painting/pr
b/cvitan.html
v 'Memorials of Edward Burne-Jones'
(1904) Burne-Jones, Georgiana, Lady,
pg128
vi 'The English pre-Raphaelite painters,
their associates and successors'
(1905)Bate, Percy Hpg101
vii Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 under
William Morris
viiihttp://www.rossettiarchive.org/docs/a
p4.o93.raw.html
ixhttp://www.victorianweb.org/painting/pr
b/cvitan.html
x As a movement it should be regarded
distinct from the Decadent Aestheticism
which succeeded it.
xi 'Mural painting in Britain 1840-1940:
image and meaning' (2000) Clare A. P.
Willsdon pg 258
xii It has also been suggested that the
commission was patronage of John Ruskin
but the exact details of the story vary.
xiiihttp://www.victorianweb.org/painting/
prb/cvitan.html
xivhttp://www.victorianweb.org/authors/mo
rris/wmbio.html
xv 'Rossetti his Life and Works' (1928)
Evelyn Waugh pg 103
xvi The original idea is attributed to
Peter Paul Marshall, a civil engineer
and close friend of Rossetti.
xvii An old Pembroke friend,of Morris
who abandoned a mathematical fellowship
at University College, Oxford, to manage
the economics of the firm.
xviii Topsy was the nickname of Morris
'Topsy from Uncle Tom's Cabin'.
xx Ibid pg 60
 Pre-Rapahaelitism, Aestheticism

pic 5.2 The 'Red House' London commissioned by William pic 5.3 Window detail in 'Red
Morris and designed by Philip Webb (1859) House'
(photo cr. : William Morris Society)

pic 5.4 Trellis wallpaper, (1862) pic 5.5 St George Cabinet Morris,
William Morris and Philip Webb. Marshall, Faulkner & Co. attributed to
Philip Webb and William Morris

pic 5.6 Sussex armchair Morris, Marshall, pic 5.7 Armchair Morris, Marshall, Faulkner
Faulkner & Co attribulted to Philip Webb and or &Co attribulted to Dante Gabrielle Rossetti
Ford Madox Brown (?) (photo cr Rosetti archive)
(photo cr.:Victoria -Albert Museum)
 Miscellaneous - Authoritarian

Prometheus Kratos and Via.

“The archaic fire that is stolen by Prometheus symbolized the
intellectual energy that helped mankind rise from animality and
through the instrumentalisation of nature initiated the beginning of
artistic and scientific evolution” i

Prometheus was son of Titans Behind his act lies the

Ipateus and Themis;ii the original questioning of absolutism; Thus
race of gods that sprung out from Fire = Power = Light is an
Uranus and Gaia.iii He sided with equation that exists since
Zeus and the other Olympians; the prehistoric– mythological times.
younger race of gods, during
their battle to overthrow the The rather provoking combination
Titans; a clash known as War of of Absolutism in the form of
the Titans or Titanomachy (Greek: Cratos and the Gods, Rebellion in
Τιτανομαχία) a series of battles the face of Prometheus, and
fought between the two races of punishment in the form of
deities before the existence of Violence are knotted together in
mankind. a allegoric myth: a system which
one may clearly today in the
Prometheus is credited for organization of modern society.
teaching humans art, science and
craft. He stole fire from the “Where the state begins,
Gods and gave it to humanity for individual liberty ceases, and
its own benefit. This action vice versa”.
alone is considered to have been
the beginning of civilization. Mikhail Bakunin
Prometheus symbolizes the
autonomous being, which rises
against authority making Refrences:
decisions and facing his destiny;
i Text from “Prometheus the Art
Punished for his action performance” a multimedia
Prometheus was arrested and bound performance inspired by the myth
to a stake on Mount Kaukasos, of Prometheus hosted by Mouseio
chained with help of brothers Benaki. www.prometheus.gr
Cratos and Via, where an eagle
was sent to feed upon his ever- iiIn Greek mythology, the Titans
regenerating liver day-to-day. (Greek: Τιτάν Tītān; plural:
The literal English translation Τιτνάες Tītânes) were a race of
of Cratos (Greek: Κράτος) and powerful deities that ruled the
Via (Greek: Βία) would be in this earth long before the existence
case Authority and Violence. The of mankind.
revolutionary act portrayed in
this myth is the theft of fire iii Heaven and Earth
an element which was lone
privelage of the Gods... Light(!)

49
Luminaire Craftmanship

50
Art

Discover
L. S. Lowry (1887-1976)

A Lancashire Village (1935)

photo cr.:Open Directory - L.S. Lowry

Piccadilly Circus (1960)

51
Music-Film-Documentaries

-Six-part dramatised television series (2009) following the lives

of the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood - 'the men who blew the art
world apart' (BBC)

-'Victorian Revolutionaries' documentary examining the Pre-

Raphaelite Brotherhood who 'brought notoriety to British art in the
19th century(...)shocking their peers with a new kind of radical
art.'(BBC)

52
www.thebombilla.blogspot.com