You are on page 1of 126

A C o mp i l a t i o n o f T e c h n i c a l T i p s , Q u e s t i o n s a n d A n s w e r s , a n d C u s t o me r F e a t u r e s f r o mt h e T e c h N o t e s N e w s l e t t e r

Ma t e r i a l s T e s t i n ge B o o k

Tensile Testing

Green Plastic: The Garbage Dump Killer? 5 Study Shows Differences in Mesh Materials for Hernia Repair 7 Why Alignment is Important in Tensile Testing 8 Testing of High Strength Rebar 9 Hidden Sensors Provide Extra Safety 10 The Bridge to Safety 11 What's Inside Your Arteries? Testing Could Reveal Your Risk of Stroke 12 Q: We take great care to ensure our test setup is consistent and our test equipment is as good as it can be, but our Poissons ratio values still show too much variability. Is there anything else we can do? 13 Multi-Purpose Grip Shields 14 Q: Can I trust my strain figures when they are derived from crosshead position rather than from an extensometer? 15 Q: When testing some specimens, the strain values appear to go backwards when the specimen is yielding. Could extensometer slippage be causing this effect? 16 Q: Which grips are best for testing thin metal specimens? 17 Can clip-on extensometers affect my strain results when testing thermoplastics? 18 Do Your Test Results Change When Your Operators Change? 19 Study Reveals Benefits of Video Extensometers 20 Protect Your Investment with Proper Use of Grip Accessories 21 Tightening Your Wedge Grips 22 Q: How can I get better r-value results when using clip-on extensometers? 23 Q: What style of extensometer do I need? 24 Faster, More Consistent Testing With Pneumatic Grips 25 Q: How do I select an extensometer when determining a yield stress? 26 Worn Grip Faces? 27 Choosing the Right Grips 28 Why Am I Not Seeing Upper Yield? 29 What to Consider When Measuring Plastics 30 How can I improve the accuracy and repeatability of my Poisson's Ratio results? 31 The Best Solution for Gripping Low-Force Specimens 32 Why do I see a negative load after clamping my tensile specimen? 33 Indicating the Correct Gauge Length for Your Specimen 34 Grip Attachment Techniques 35 Q: Why does the speed of tensile testing after yield vary from material specification to material specification? In your opinion, is there a significant difference in results? 36 Q: Why do I see a negative load value when I grip my specimen? 37 Q: Why am I getting low modulus values from my test machine? 38 Protecting Our Environment: Reducing Waste in Landfills 39 The Invisible Rebar: Microscopic Nanotubes Dramatically Increase Material Strength 40

Compression Testing
The Tower of Babel: Testing the Possibilities A New Hip Material Recent Testing Uncovers Titanics Mystery From CO2 to Solid Rock

41
42 43 44 45

Subscribe to TechNotes

Hardness Testing
Increasing Efficiency in Knoop and Vickers Testing Best Practices: Which Rockwell Scale to Use Q: How far apart should I space each Rockwell hardness test Hardness Testing on Cylindrical Specimens The Difference between a Knoop and a Vickers Test Q: What is the difference between a Knoop and a Vickers test? How GR&R Helps Your Rockwell Testing Process Q: What is a Jominy test? How Can Testing Strengthen Your Smile? ASTM E18-07: New Changes will Affect Your Rockwell Hardness Indenters Hardness Testers: Closed-Loop or Deadweight? Different Rubber Hardness Scales for Your Testing Needs Select Jaw Faces Based on the Hardness of Your Specimens Q: How do I know when my hardness test block is no longer useful?

46
47 48 49 50 52 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

Impact Testing
Why Should I Instrument My Impact Tests? Why Instrumented Impact Testing is Becoming More Popular Q: What Causes the First Peak in the Load Curve of My Impact Test Data? Q: How Much Energy Should I Use for My Impact Test? Damaged Tups Change Results

61
62 63 65 66 67

Fatigue Testing
Q: I want to perform cyclic testing on my static testing machine. How fast can I go? 3M Ensures Quality under Different Test Conditions Lab-grown Tissue MacGyver-style Leg Brace May Reduce Amputations Volvo Meets the Challenges of High Strain Rate Testing Characterizing Spinal Range of Motion for Development of Improved Devices Patients Own Tissue Repairs Torn Ligaments Simulating Physiological Conditions of Implants

68
69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76

Bend Testing
Q: What is the difference between a single-point and a 4-point flexure test? The Impenetrable Ship

77
78 79

Torsion Testing
Q: How can I measure the torsional properties of a pipe or cylinder?

80
81

Environmental Testing
Testing at High or Low Temperatures Using Grips in a Low Temperature Chamber

82
83 84

Component Testing
Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

85
2

Challenges in Testing Biomedical Components Q: How does side loading and specimen/component misalignment of varying geometries of medical devices and implants affect my test results? How should I best address these challenges? How does the mechanical testing of solar cells contribute to the "green energy" initiative?

85 87 88

Software Tips

89

Q: When writing a procedure in Bluehill Software, how do I deal with "Toe Compensation" (as described in ASTM D882) when testing the secant modulus (1%) of a thin film (1-5 mils)? Should I add a preload? And how much is appropriate? 90 Capturing Testing in Action 91 Q: The way we currently test for N-value is cumbersome. We are looking for a way to improve productivity. Is there a way that we can get the program to automatically assign the uniform elongation at the end of the calculation, instead of having to do it manually? 92 Q: What happens if power is suddenly lost during a test? Will I lose all my data in Bluehill? 93 Q: How can I be certain my extensometer is ready to use? 94 Correcting for Compliance 95 Benefits of the Preload Feature in Bluehill Software 96 Q: Do I Need to Enter Dimensions for Each Specimen? 97

Service and Calibration Tips

98

Are You Always "Investigation-Ready?" 99 Q: Can you give me a letter certifying that my test is in accordance with a specific ASTM or ISO standard? 101 Q: What does accreditation mean and how does it affect testing standards? 102 How do you move a 250,000 pound deadweight stack, while maintaining its integrity and accuracy? 103

Errors in Testing
Are You Receiving the Highest Quality Test Results? What is Data Rate? Q: What is the Relationship between Accuracy and Resolution? When You Shouldn't Balance the Load Cell Test Specimen Cutting and Stamping

104
105 106 107 108 109

Testing Standards

110

Q: What types of international testing standards are used in the medical device industry? 111 Q: What is 21 CFR Part 11 and how does it affect me? 112 Q: I've been testing to ASTM test standards and now I've been asked to do the ISO equivalent. What is the difference between ASTM and ISO? Can I use my existing test fixtures? 113 Q: What testing standards serve as guidelines and requirements for the development and manufacture of hip implants? 114

Customer Stories
Research Institute Partners with Private Steel Company Materials Science for Young Minds The Sound of Quality The Science Behind Superhuman Strength Formula 1 Racer Gears Up With Carbon Fiber Materials Testing Explored in High School

115
116 118 119 120 121 122

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing

Tensile Testing
A tensile test, also known as tension test, is probably the most fundamental type of mechanical test you can perform on material. Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized. By pulling on something, you will very quickly determine how the material will react to forces being applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, you will find its strength along with how much it will elongate.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

Tensile Testing
Green Plastic: The Garbage Dump Killer?
The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a colossal floating garbage dump in the northern Pacific Ocean. Roughly the size of Texas, it lies between Hawaii and San Francisco. It contains about 3.5 million tons of trash, much of it plastic--shoes, toys, bags, pacifiers, wrappers, toothbrushes, and bottles are only part of what can be found in this dump. A similar dump exists in the Atlantic Ocean. The global buildup of plastic, both in the sea and along every shoreline, is an environmental nightmare. Most commercial plastics are produced from petroleum. These plastics degrade into small pieces so plastic waste builds up and can exist for many years. A great deal of research has taken place to develop biodegradable plastics that break down with exposure to sunlight, water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes, and so on. Instron customer Metabolix, Inc. has been researching for two decades to develop a commercially viable biodegradable plastic from corn sugar and has recently made the leap from research to commercial production with their product Mirel.

Photo courtesy of Mirel

Plastics produced from plant material are not new; they have been around for more than 150 years. First produced in 1845, polylactic acid (PLA), a thermoplastic polyester, was made by fermenting various agricultural products such as cornstarch. Dow Chemical revived PLA production in the 1950s, but high production costs precluded its widespread use. In the 1980s, the British chemical company Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) developed Biopol, a bioplastic produced through bacterial action. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) polymers are produced by most species of bacteria from food sources such as plant sugars and oils. One of these PHAs, known as polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), has properties similar to those of polypropylene. But once more, ICI was unable to produce Biopol cheaply enough to compete with conventional plastics. Monsanto purchased Biopol from ICI in 1996. In 1998, Monsanto discontinued its bioplastics operations due to high costs and limited commercial opportunities. It sold its interests to the U.S. bioscience company Metabolix that began researching and developing a cost-effective process for manufacturing PHB-based plastics. In 2006, Metabolix formed a joint venture called Telles with the agricultural giant Archer Daniels Midland to commercialize a bioplastic under the name Mirel. Mirel is designed as a suite of products, each of which can withstand heat and cold, is capable of containing food products, and biodegrades in natural soil and marine environments, home composting and industrial composting facilities, where these facilities are available. However, like nearly all bioplastics and organic matter, Mirel is not designed to biodegrade in conventional landfills. The rate and extent of Mirels biodegradability depends on the size and shape of the articles made from it. As with any new material, its testing requirements have been extensive. Its product data sheet gives mechanical test specifications for tensile strength?, elongation at break, flexural modulus, flexural strength, notched IZOD impact values, and melt flow figures, using ASTM and ISO standards.

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
After initially producing Mirel bioplastics in a pilot plant, Telles opened a new production plant in Clinton, Iowa, USA, in December 2009 with a 50,000 ton/year capacity. One of the first Mirel products is the injection molding grade used to make 60% of the pen components for the $1.25 Biodegradable Paper Mate pen made by Newell Rubbermaid. The pen costs more to manufacture, but Paper Mate forecasts a strong demand. Other potential applications are cups, food containers, beverage cartons, razor handles, brushes, applicators, cell phones, erosion control netting, plant pots, and plant clips. The success of the venture is partially linked to consumers continued and increasing demand for green products, though businesses also use the material as a cost savings measure, in applications where biodegradation saves time and labor. The market appears confident that the demand is there, with Metabolix more than doubling its share price since February despite a $38 million loss last year. It remains to be seen if the current enthusiasm to take care of the environment can eventually have the effect of shrinking or even eliminating the ocean garbage dumps.

What is Tensile Strength?


Ultimate strength of a material subjected to tensile loading. It is the maximum stress developed in a material in a tensile test.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

Tensile Testing
Study Shows Differences in Mesh Materials for Hernia Repair
Twenty years ago a patient undergoing hernia surgery would be marked by a noticeable scar, endure a long recovery time, and according to a medical study, up to 20% of these patients would experience a recurrent hernia. Due to medical advancements, hernia surgery is now less invasive, has a quicker recovery time, and decreased risk of recurrence (less than 1%). What is this magical medical advancement? Laparoscopic surgery. According to Dr. Corey Deeken, Director of the Biomedical Engineering and Biomaterials Laboratory at Washington Universitys School of Medicine, it is important for surgeons to choose an appropriate prosthetic mesh material when performing laparoscopic hernia repair. In the world of hernia repair, there are so many materials and preformed sizes available for surgeons to choose from, Deeken said. The mesh that is right for a particular patient and type of repair may not be the best choice for the next patient. Deeken, a biomedical engineer, wants to give surgeons more standardized information to compare when choosing what is best for their patients. This includes a recent project to characterize the properties of a variety of mesh materials available for hernia repair applications. During this project, Deeken and her team used a tensile testing system to measure the biomechanical properties of more than 25 different hernia repair materials using techniques such as suture retention and tear testing, as well as standard uniaxial and mesh strength testing. Deeken hopes to present the data from this study at an upcoming surgical conference to make surgeons aware of differences in the biomechanical properties of hernia repair materials.

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Why Alignment is Important in Tensile Testing
Laboratories performing low-cycle fatigue tests know how important it is to have good alignment of the test specimen relative to the principle stress axis. There is an increasing awareness of the role alignment can play in the accuracy of tensile testing results. Organizations, such as NADCAP and ASTM, are addressing this in the form of laboratory accreditation and methodology for measuring alignment. For example, a NADCAP audit checklist for a composite materials testing lab will now include an alignment check of the testing instrument and refer to ASTM E1012 - Standard Practice for Verification of Test Frame and Specimen Alignment under Tensile and Compressive Axial Force Application as the method of checking alignment. This process ensures the testing instrument is capable of performing tensile tests that produce less than 10% bending for non-brittle materials and less than 5% bending for brittle materials.

To meet the bending requirements noted above, the testing instrument must be designed and built to a high standard and the alignment of the loading frame, load cell and grips must be measured to determine the percent bending. This is typically done using an alignment specimen having a total of 12 strain gauges; four at the upper gauge length area, four in the center, and four at the lower gauge length area. The outputs of the 12 strain gauges are used to calculate concentricity error and angularity error. Our AlignPro Software is available to perform the calculations for percent bending and provide a guide to the adjustments needed to correct for bending that exceeds acceptable limits.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

Tensile Testing
Testing of High Strength Rebar
Many standards govern rebar testing including: ASTM A 370, ASTM A 615, ASTM A 996, BS 4449 and EN 10002-1. The mechanical tests these standards outline can be demanding on operators and testing equipment. So, when testing large rebar samples #14 (all grades) we suggest using a single test space load frame in lieu of traditional dual test space styles. For this test we used a 1500 KN model, which has a capacity of 1500 kN (337,500 lbf) and accommodates rebar specimens ranging in length from 400 mm to 700 mm. This load frame features a top-mounted hydraulic actuator which places the loading area at ground level. This significantly reduced our lifting requirements for loading the heavy rebar specimens. Additionally, we were able to perform both tension and bend tests on the rebar sample by adding compression adapters to the tension grips. This saved change-over time because we didnt need to use the overhead crane to remove the large, heavy tension grips. Adding the compression adapter and bend fixture took only a few minutes and involved tightening a few screws. For the tension test we used hydraulic wedge grips because the initial clamping force reduced grip slippage on the uneven surface of the rebar. These hydraulic wedge grips accept rebar specimens from 10 mm (0.39 in) to 70 mm (2.75 in) in diameter. The grip jaws are vee-shaped with a custom-cut groove to accept the ribs found on rebar. Finally, we used an automatic extensometer to capture strain. The model we selected, an M300B, has an adjustable gauge length from 10 mm to 300 mm (required for most rebar applications). It automatically clamps to the ribs of the rebar surface when a test is started and unclamps at a specified point during the test. The strain data can be used for required modulus? and yield? calculations.

What is Modulus?
Rate of change of strain as a function of stress. The slope of the straight line portion of a stressstrain diagram. Tangent modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain diagram at any point. Secant modulus of elasticity is stress divided by strain at any given value of stress or strain. It also is called stress-strain ratio. learn more >>

What is Yield?
Indication of maximum stress that can be developed in a material without causing plastic deformation. It is the stress at which a material exhibits a specified permanent deformation and is a practical approximation of elastic limit. learn more >>

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Hidden Sensors Provide Extra Safety
When someone says "fiber optics", you most likely think of telecommunications and not aircrafts or stadiums. However, fiber optics can be embedded in structures to continuously monitor mechanical strain and temperature changes, a technological breakthrough in the sensing industry. Historically, such measurements were captured using electrical-type sensing devices, but in extreme environments, such technology can be vulnerable. On the other hand, optical fiber sensors are rugged, efficient, and extremely light, making them particularly interesting for the aerospace industry. Fiber Optic Sensors & Sensing Systems (FOS&S), a Belgium-based company, turns optic fiber into a sensor by exploiting a physics law known as the Bragg condition. Simply put, through exposing the core of a fiber to intense ultraviolet light, the reflective properties can be used to measure temperature and strain. FOS&S is currently working on two notable projects. The first is monitoring the structural health of the Athens Olympic Velodrome roof structure (designed by the famous architect Santiago Calatrava). The second project is the in-flight structural health monitoring of aircraft structures for Airbus. FOS&S uses an Instron testing system for the calibration of its strain sensors and performs tensile tests on composite samples embedded with Fiber Optic Sensors.

Photo courtesy FOS&S

"Placing fiber optic sensors in structural elements of an airplane enables continuous monitoring of the actual distribution of mechanical strain and temperature data Photo courtesy of FOS&S within these structures," says Mark Voet, CEO of FOS&S. "This way, it immediately alerts operators of abnormal load situations like excessive vibration and internal damage, allowing them to take the appropriate remedial action."

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

10

Tensile Testing
The Bridge to Safety
Eighty percent of all earthquakes occur along the edge of the Pacific Coast. So far in 2007, there have been nearly 15,000 detected earthquakes worldwide. Depending on its force, some buildings, roadways or bridges could collapse. When sitting in stopped traffic on a bridge, do you wonder how it holds hundreds of tons without collapsing? California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) ensures California is getting the highest quality materials for bridge and highway projects throughout the state by testing materials, from concrete to reinforcing bars to structural steel components and couplers. With a daily volume of nearly 300,000 vehicles, one of the busiest bridges in the USA is the 71 year old west-coast San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge (SFOBB). This 4.5 mile (7.2 km) long bridge consists of two major spans. Once deemed impossible to build, Caltrans designated the SFOBB as the emergency lifeline route to use in disaster response activities. This requires the bridge to be secure, fully functional, and earthquake-resistant. In 1989, the bridge closed for more than a month due to repairs needed after the Loma Prieta earthquake. In response, the eastern span between Oakland and Yerba Buena Island is now being replaced by an entirely new crossing making the bridge less susceptible to damage during an earthquake. This is known as the East Span Seismic Safety Project.

Photo courtesy of CalTrans

"We are using Instron's testing system to tensile test large diameter steel bars (#14 and #18) to ASTM A 615, ASTM A 706 and ASTM A 722 specifications," said Rosme Aguilar, the Structural Materials Testing Lab Branch Chief. "This custom built 2 million pound (8,896 kN) capacity system has replaced our existing testing system because its 1 million pound (4,448 kN) capacity could no longer handle materials of larger diameter and strength that require a higher capacity." The system, which stands more than 26 feet (8 meters) high, is located at the Structural Materials Testing Lab in Sacramento, CA. As California's only state transportation testing lab accredited by the American Association for Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA), it quickly responded to a recent bridge collapse due to a tanker truck explosion. The lab had the responsibilities of assisting with the damage assessment to determine if the material properties of the steel girders and bent caps had been compromised due to the heat from the tanker truck fire. Remarkably, the damaged bridge was fully functional in 18 days.

11

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
What's Inside Your Arteries? Testing Could Reveal Your Risk of Stroke
Strokes are the second most commonly feared condition; in fact 2 out of 3 people know someone who has suffered a stroke. In order to better understand prevention and treatment, many researchers are studying the causes of strokes, including the Department of Engineering at The University of Cambridge under the direction of Dr. Michael Sutcliffe. Together with his colleagues, Dr. Sutcliffe is studying plaque (a material that is deposited on the walls of the arteries) and the hardening of the carotid artery, which can lead to a stroke. The aim of their research is to develop better methods for estimating a persons risk of having a stroke and to improve therapy selection. Dr. Sutcliffe is testing plaque-filled arteries using an Instron 3367 30kN Universal Testing Machine to understand the modulus and strength changes associated with plaque growth. These results will be used in models of the carotid artery to predict rupture of the artery and fluid flow patterns. "In the future, we will be working with others to link the way cells change their shape under stress with tissue-level testing and clinical experimental work. Our aim is to understand how the stresses these plaques experience in the arteries affect the way they grow," said Dr. Sutcliffe.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

12

Tensile Testing
Q: We take great care to ensure our test setup is consistent and our test equipment is as good as it can be, but our Poissons ratio values still show too much variability. Is there anything else we can do?

A. Poissons Ratio is defined by the division of transverse strain by axial strain. Instron has carried out extensive reproducibility studies to investigate inconsistent results between labs, as well as within individual labs. Difficulty in calculating the ratio relates directly to the measurement of transverse and axial strain at very small strain ranges. As you indicate, a consistent setup with accurate equipment is vital. For most plastics, the recommended extensometer is a high-resolution biaxial extensometer. It is equally important to use the appropriate grips. Pneumatic side acting grips are preferred since they are self-aligning and offer adjustable clamping pressures, which allows for consistent clamping forces on the specimen from one to the next. You should try setting up a small preload value on all your future test methods for plastics. When specimens are initially placed into grips, they can be subjected to small compressive forces. These forces can cause specimens to bend imperceptibly, causing inaccurate and inconsistent results. We have shown that establishing a small preload as a part of the test method eliminates those compressive forces on specimens and improves the repeatability of results.

What is Preload?
A test segment where the crosshead moves to load the specimen to a specified value before a test starts. Data is not captured during the preload segment.

13

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Multi-Purpose Grip Shields
The new Instron pneumatic side-acting grips are supplied with adjustable jaw face shields on either side of the grip. You can adjust the position of the shields so that you can insert a specimen between the jaw faces, but the shields help to prevent you from inadvertently placing a finger between the jaws. Many people dont realize that the shields also provide useful guidance for specimen centering. There are two centering guides on the shields, one for round specimens and the other for flat specimens. A notch in the shield arms is aligned with the center of the grip jaws. This notch is useful when mounting a round or a thin specimen such as wire or thread. When the shields are correctly installed and aligned for the specimen size, you insert the specimen between the shields and hold it against the notch while you close the grip jaws. You are then assured that the specimen is centered. For flat specimens, there are marks engraved at intervals on the shield arms equidistant from the center. When inserting a flat specimen, you use the marks as a guide to accurately locating the specimen in the center of the grip jaws.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

14

Tensile Testing
Q: Can I trust my strain figures when they are derived from crosshead position rather than from an extensometer?
A. Crosshead movement is measured using a high-resolution encoder. When you move the crosshead with no specimen installed, the reported measurement of that movement is often more accurate than for many extensometers. However, when you install a specimen and apply a tensile or compressive load, the accuracy of the measurement of crosshead movement becomes dependent upon the system compliance. Compliance refers to the tendency of the various components of a test system to deflect under load. Consider every component in a test system as equivalent to a very stiff spring. When you apply a load to that component, even a major item such as a crosshead, it will deflect, either bending, stretching, or compressing. If it is a very stiff spring the deflection is tiny, but still measurable. Compliance is the inverse of stiffness; the stiffer, the less compliant. There are three sources of compliance in a system: the load frame, the load string components, and the specimen itself. The load frame is designed with a very high stiffness. Instron measures the stiffness at a particular load and publishes that figure as part of the specifications of the load frame. Load string compliance is usually not known. There may be few or many components in a load string; grips or fixtures, couplings, one or more load cells, and so on. Many components do not have published stiffness values. The specimen compliance is usually what you are trying to measure. As a rule of thumb, if the compliance of your specimen is around 100 times greater than the compliance of the load frame and the load string components, you can assume that the reported crosshead movement is equivalent to the deflection experienced by the specimen. However, if you are testing a very stiff specimen, you should always use an extensometer to measure specimen deflection. If using an extensometer is not possible, then you should evaluate the system compliance before the test. Either install an extremely stiff specimen and apply a tensile force, or install compression platens and apply a compressive force with the platens touching each other. The resulting deflection measurement gives a close indication of the system compliance. When you test the specimen, you can remove this value from the result.

15

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Q: When testing some specimens, the strain values appear to go backwards when the specimen is yielding. Could extensometer slippage be causing this effect?
A. Yes it could be, but if you are aware of it and you have mounted the extensometer correctly its unlikely. Its more probable that the strain is really going backwards. Many metal alloys have a non-homogenous structure with grains of different sizes and orientation, and they also contain various impurities. Under loads that are sufficient to cause the material to yield, bands of localized plastic deformation, known as Luders bands, can form in the otherwise unyielding portion of the material. These bands of dislocations are the main contributor to the discontinuous yielding portion of the stress/strain curve. They can occur both inside and outside of the gauge length of the specimen, moving along the length of the specimen as the load increases. Your extensometer is probably reacting to yields that are occurring both inside and outside of the gauge length, which can create this phenomenon of backwards strain.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

16

Tensile Testing
Q: Which grips are best for testing thin metal specimens?
A: Screw side-action grips open the door for specimen slippage, high standard deviation, and low throughput. We recommend selftightening wedge grips for metal applications. They offer improvement in all of these areas, do not require any tools, and are easy to use. Once the specimen is inserted between the jaw faces, manually turn the lever to close the wedged faces and apply only a slight amount of clamping force. This is sufficient enough for the jaw faces to pull on the specimen once the test is started. The clamping force increases as the specimen is pulled, eliminating jaw breaks that are normally caused by high initial clamping force. The exact model of grips and faces often requires a discussion about the material youre testing.

17

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Can clip-on extensometers affect my strain results when testing thermoplastics?
There are a variety of attributes used to describe thermoplastics since properties are dependent on the polymer, as well as additives. In some instances, thermoplastics are relatively soft, so knife edges on traditional clip-on style extensometers may cause premature failures. This occurs when high stress points are created where the knife edges contact the specimen. In other instances, thermoplastics may be rigid, if glass or talc is added. For these materials, significant energy releases may occur at failure, possibly damaging the clip-on extensometer since they are in direct contact with the specimen. Non-contacting video extensometers overcome both issues by providing a means to measure specimen strain without having direct physical contact with the specimen. A high resolution digital camera and real-time image processing allows the device to acquire accurate strain data without interfering with the specimen.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

18

Tensile Testing
Do Your Test Results Change When Your Operators Change?
During a tensile test the specimen is subjected to a force purely in the tensile direction along a single axis. If the specimen is not aligned properly, it will be pulled along multiple axes, which can cause premature specimen failure and adversely affect any measurements captured during testing. Also, operators could load the specimen differently or inaccurately causing erroneous end results.

To ensure proper alignment and accurate results amongst multiple operators, we suggest using a specimen alignment device. These specimen centering devices (which are shaped like an "L") are attached to the grip and help center the specimen within the grip faces. The operator can adjust the centering device making sure the specimen is centered and not over-inserted. Once the operator has the centering device set properly, each subsequent specimen will be in the same location in the grips, allowing for accurate, repeatable results.

19

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Study Reveals Benefits of Video Extensometers
We conducted a study to better understand the extensometry needs of our customers. We found that many of our customers experienced common issues while testing strain with clip-on extensometers. Included are a few solutions from that study, along with information about an alternative to clip-on extensometers. From those surveyed, our study revealed: Problem: 77% of those testing fragile, expensive, or delicate specimens (including tendons and sutures) struggled to capture strain without damaging their sample. These customers reported that the weight of a clip-on extensometer influenced the sample's behavior under test. Solution: Since video extensometers do not come in contact with the specimen, it makes them less damaging to the samples. They can also be used with in vivo testing of biomedical samples. Problem: Customers testing specimens that break violently were unable to use a clip-on extensometer through failure. They also reported problems with broken extensometers and felt uneasy about lab operators removing a clip-on device while the specimen was under load. Solution: Video extensometers offer lab operators the convenience of capturing strain through failure since they do not need to be removed. Problem: Many of our customers testing at high and low temperatures struggled to find traditional extensometry solutions that worked well with chambers. Solution: 86% of those who used chambers preferred video extensometers over traditional clip-on styles. In conclusion: we discovered that, of our customers who have used both traditional-style and video extensometers, 77% preferred the video technology. Learn more about non-contact video extensometry, or contact an applications specialist.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

20

Tensile Testing
Protect Your Investment with Proper Use of Grip Accessories
Do you notice your internal crosshead grip jaws extending outside of the system's crosshead while running tests? If you do, this may cause extensive damage to the machine. This style of grip is most commonly used in our SATEC Series, a product line designed to deliver high-capacity tensile forces up to 3,000 kN. Since this force is so high, it can deform the machine's crosshead if the proper accessories are not used. This damage may be irreparable and require replacement of several costly components, not to mention cause downtime.

To prevent this, we suggest using grip spacers (also called filler plates) to accommodate different sizes of specimens while keeping the jaws inside the crosshead. View an animation on In-head Grip Parts & Grip Accessories

21

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Tightening Your Wedge Grips
A common mistake many customers make to troubleshoot specimen slippage when using their mechanical wedge style tensile grips is over tightening them. Over tightening a wedge grip can damage the grip and exert unwanted load on the specimen. The mechanical design of a wedge grip works in the following way: 1. A tension force is applied to the specimen 2. This tension force causes the specimen to pull downward on the jaw faces (provided there is good bite between the jaw faces and the specimen) 3. The faces slide through the grip body along the wedge path 4. The faces then squeeze the specimen This entire process is self-tightening the higher the tensile load, the harder the jaw faces squeeze in on the specimen. While over-tightening isn't an effective way to improve slippage, customers can minimize specimen slippage by improving the bite through the use of proper jaw faces and ensuring the specimen contacts at least 2/3 of the grip faces.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

22

Tensile Testing
Q: How can I get better r-value results when using clip-on extensometers?
A: Determining r-value for ASTM E 517 requires precise measurement of axial and transverse strain. When using clip-on extensometers, make sure you are practicing the following techniques: 1. Set gauge lengths 2. Align instruments on the specimen 3. Zero instruments with no load on the specimen 4. Check that the knife edges do not deform the specimen 5. Be certain that the specimen is not bent 6. Ensure specimen markings havent deformed the specimen 7. Be certain specimens have smooth edges and meet ASTM E 517

23

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Q: What style of extensometer do I need?
A: There are two main styles of extensometers contacting and non-contacting. Contacting extensometers are widely used and provide accurate strain measurement. However, some applications (like biological tissue or thin film) demand a device that won't damage the specimen or affect test results. Non-contacting extensometers provide an ideal solution for delicate specimens, for specimens that break violently, for tests conducted in a chamber, and for specimens of varying lengths and elongations. An Instron Applications Engineer can recommend the correct instrument for your testing.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

24

Tensile Testing
Faster, More Consistent Testing With Pneumatic Grips
While screw side action grips are appropriate for certain applications, you may experience long setup times, premature specimen breaking at the jaws (due to over-tightening) or specimen slippage (due to undertightening). In addition, you will always need one hand to tighten the grip while the other hand holds the specimen, which is not always convenient and may result in a misaligned specimen. Upgrading to pneumatic side action grips could make your testing easier and faster.

25

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Q: How do I select an extensometer when determining a yield stress?
A: Extensometers are available from 1% to 3000%+ full scale travel, but using the longer travel is not always the best solution. When testing stiff specimens, such as steel, an extensometer with 10% or less travel is recommended to ensure adequate resolution for the determination of yield. On the other hand, materials such as plastics commonly yield at greater strain values, and therefore an instrument with 50% travel is recommended. Long travel instruments (100% or more) should be reserved for high-elongation specimens, such as rubber. An Instron Application Engineer can recommend the correct instrument for your specimen type.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

26

Tensile Testing
Worn Grip Faces?
Efficient gripping of your test specimen is important for reliable, trouble-free testing. Like any tool, you need to keep your jaw faces in good condition for optimum performance. Chipped, worn or clogged teeth on jaw faces can produce slippage and with it, the temptation to use excessive force, increasing the likelihood of jaw breaks. Unevenly worn faces can also produce undesirable bending effects. Rubber-coated faces can gradually degrade over time in your shop environment, particularly in higher temperature conditions. Cord and yarn grips rely on a smooth, polished surface for optimum resistance to jaw breaks. The original surfaces can wear with heavy use. The best way to restore lost gripping efficiency is with a new set of jaw faces.

27

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Choosing the Right Grips
Successful gripping solutions require the specimen to be held in a way that prevents slippage and jaw breaks and ensures axiality of the applied force. In some cases the gripping requirements are very specific and a purposedesigned grip or fixture is necessary to meet a particular testing standard. However, in most cases, you can use general purpose accessories. General purpose grips and fixtures have the advantage of being able to grip a wide variety of specimen types and materials using a range of options such as different jaw faces, alignment fixtures, etc. The most important step in successful gripping is to choose the best set of grips for your specimen type. To learn more about different grips and fixtures, browse our online Accessories Catalog.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

28

Tensile Testing
Why Am I Not Seeing Upper Yield?
Are you testing for upper yield strength, but not seeing a "dip" in your stress/strain curve? This is often the result of using improper test control parameters. During yielding, the strain rate needs to be as constant as possible. This is best achieved by using crosshead position or strain control*. For example, if you run a test in stress control at the onset of yielding, the testing machine will accelerate to maintain the desired stress rate. Incorrectly running in load control causes unwanted acceleration. This prevents the stress from dropping relative to the increase in strain. As a result, the upper yield strength calculation will fail because it cant find the dip in the stress-strain curve (a zero or negative slope).

To correct this situation, set up the test to use stress control during the first half of the elastic portion. Prior to the onset of yielding, switch to either position or strain control. We have software packages that are designed to allow for control transition.

* Refer to test standards such as ASTM E8, ISO 6892 or EN10002 for the allowable test rates during yielding.

29

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
What to Consider When Measuring Plastics
When injection molding plastics, the outer surface of the specimen may collapse inward, causing it to form a concave shape. Commonly referred to as "sink", it may cause variations in the specimen's thickness as a result of the concave surface. When a specimen exhibits sink, it is important to understand the affect it may have on stress-based calculations, such as yield stress or modulus. Sink will often cause the measured cross-sectional area to appear larger than what it actually is and this can result in lower modulus, yield stress, and other stressbased calculations. Methods to measure cross-sectional area may vary depending on the standard you are testing to. Standards may specify different procedural requirements, as well as different requirements for the measuring device itself. In some cases, it may not be possible to account for sink. For potential solutions, view our animation.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

30

Tensile Testing
How can I improve the accuracy and repeatability of my Poisson's Ratio results?
Poisson's Ratio? is the ratio of transverse strain divided by axial strain in the elastic region of a uniaxial tensile test. It is a measure of how much of a material contracts under tensile conditions, and is typically on the order of 1/3 (0.3). Since the displacement associated with transverse strain can be 10 to 12 times smaller than the displacement for axial strain (~4 times smaller gauge length multiplied by ~3 times smaller displacement), the accuracy of Poisson's Ratio is often limited by the accuracy of the transverse extensometer. Improving the accuracy and repeatability is best achieved by using a highresolution biaxial extensometer designed specifically for this purpose. View our complete solution for testing Poisson's Ratio.

What is Poissons Ratio?


Ratio of lateral strain to axial strain in an axial loaded specimen. It is the constant that relates modulus of rigidity to Young's Modulus in the equation:

E = 2G(r + 1)
Where E is Young's Modulus; G, modulus of rigidity; and r, Poisson's ratio. The formula is valid only within the elastic limit of a material. A method for determining Poisson's ratio is given in ASTM E132.

31

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
The Best Solution for Gripping Low-Force Specimens
Low-force biomedical testing applications vary widely, and include specimens such as native tissue, bio-engineered tissues, hydrogels, and contact lenses. In most cases, these specimens are tested in a heated, fluid environment that simulates physiological conditions; in other cases, the specimens are hydrated for several hours before testing. Generally, most customers assume that rubbercoated or serrated faces provide the ideal gripping solution. But do they? Rubber-coated faces tend to cause specimen slippage, while serrated faces cause premature failure. A study conducted by the Instron Application Lab proved the best gripping solution to be sandpaper or a grip surface called SurfAlloy, a surface that resembles sandpaper. This slightly roughened surface provides enough friction to prevent slipping, and not too much grit that could cause premature failure.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

32

Tensile Testing
Why do I see a negative load after clamping my tensile specimen?
This is due to the fact that material is being forced out of the grip as a result of the squeezing, which can cause a compressive load on the specimen, even with the best grip in particular for softer materials such as elastomers. When the sample is clamped in one grip, there is no apparent load on the sample since it still has a free end. However, when it is squeezed by the second grip, the material flows out of the grip, causing the specimen to be in compression. This will show up as a negative load on the readout before the test has begun. If this is the case, you should NOT balance out the load because the load you see is real; balancing it would introduce error into your test results. If you are experiencing this, you need to move the machine's crosshead to remove the compressive load. There are two ways to do this: 1. Manually adjust the crosshead, for example with a thumbwheel; or 2. Through software features, like the preload function Alternatively, we suggest using the load protect feature, which limits the maximum force applied to your specimen by automatically ensuring the force on your specimen remains within the pre-set bounds. It removes the possibility of the crosshead going into compression in real time.

33

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Indicating the Correct Gauge Length for Your Specimen
Understanding how specimen dimensions differ is important when setting up your calculations for a tensile test. Most calculations are based off stress and strain, and since both are dimension dependent, it is important to specify the correct values. For specimens that have the same cross-sectional area from end to end (tubes, rods, rectangles and fibers), the gauge length is determined by simply measuring the distance between the grip faces (refer to image).

However, the most common shape is the "dog bone" specimen (refer to image). Unlike the specimens mentioned above, its non-uniform shape often causes mistakes in identifying the gauge length. When a "dog bone" specimen is tested, most of the stretching occurs within the narrow region and not in the tabs because they have a larger cross-sectional area. Since most of the stretching occurs within the narrow region, that length should be used as the gauge length.* *Note: There is a small amount of stretch within the tabs of the specimen. In order to get the most accurate strain results, we suggest using an extensometer.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

34

Tensile Testing
Grip Attachment Techniques
Do you have a loose connection between your grips and the testing frame? If so, you could have slack in your load train that can cause blips in your curves, skew modulus data or alter extension results. There are two solutions to make sure you have a rigid connection. If your grips are equipped with a check nut, make sure it's tightened against the adapter, away from the grip. We use the check nut consistently in our lab because it's simple and convenient. If you do not have a check nut, an effective and inexpensive solution is to place a spring below the lower grip inside the clevis adapter. These techniques will remove the slack in your load train and ensure you're measuring true extension and not the movement of your grips.

35

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Q: Why does the speed of tensile testing after yield vary from material specification to material specification? In your opinion, is there a significant difference in results?
A: In tensile testing, most materials are sensitive to the rate at which they are stretched, meaning some of their properties are dependent on the rate of straining during the test. This effect is most noticeable after plastic flow occurs, although some properties can be affected while in the elastic region. There is no intrinsically correct strain rate for a given material, but to allow comparison of test results it is important for all tests to be done within a range of rates. Test standards define the range over which results will be consistent and therefore, comparable.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

36

Tensile Testing
Q: Why do I see a negative load value when I grip my specimen?
A: The closing action of wedge action grip jaws often applies a compressive load to the specimen. If your indicator is set to auto-zero at the start of the test, you may see lower load values. Remove the auto-zero function for the load channel to correct the low reading. Another way to reduce negative load caused by wedge action grips is to use the specimen protect feature available on most newer Instron control systems.

37

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
Q: Why am I getting low modulus values from my test machine?
A: Elastic modulus values are affected mainly by how strain is measured. Small errors in strain measurement can result in large errors in modulus values. If crosshead extension is used for strain, it will include small deflections of the testing machine and the grips under load, which are added to the specimen elongation. This results in artificially large strain values and lower-than-expected modulus values. The most accurate approach for modulus measurement is to measure strain by applying an extensometer directly to the gage length of the sample, thereby eliminating errors from other sources of deformation.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

38

Tensile Testing
Protecting Our Environment: Reducing Waste in Landfills
More than 60% of the refuse going to local landfills is business/industrial waste. Much of the plastic from this waste could actually be recycled. However, in order to recycle plastics, the materials must be recovered from the items they are part of; and the many plastic types must be separated from non-plastic materials and from each other. MBA Polymers, Inc. is leading the way with research, development and even large-scale commercial efforts in plastic recycling. MBA Polymers, and its newly opened manufacturing plants in China and Austria, recover high-value plastics from popular electronics such as computers, televisions and even automobiles. Using a proprietary separation process developed over the past 12 years by R&D Manager Brian Riise and several colleagues, MBA is able to remove non-plastic materials from complex durable goods and recover purified streams of ABS and high-impact polystyrene flakes. These flakes are then extruded into pellets; a process that requires less than 10% of the energy needed to manufacture virgin plastics. MBA then measures several common mechanical properties, including tensile properties, using an Instron universal testing system. "After the MBA separation process, we are able to create products with mechanical properties similar to what you would find in a virgin plastic. We tend to sell these pellets to customers who normally use virgin plastics, including some very demanding electronic equipment manufacturers," says Riise.

Photo courtesy of MBA Polymers, Inc.

39

Subscribe to TechNotes

Tensile Testing
The Invisible Rebar: Microscopic Nanotubes Dramatically Increase Material Strength
One of the exciting new building blocks for very small systems is carbon nanotubes (CNTs). These single- or multi-walled cylinders, made up of carbon atoms, are about 1/100th of the diameter of one piece of human hair. What makes CNTs attractive is that they are light (about 1/6 the weight of steel), strong (about 100 times stronger than steel), electrically conductive (more conductive than Copper), thermally conductive and UV absorbing. A promising application for CNTs is nanocomposites, where tubes are combined with another material (either an epoxy or polymer). The CNTs behave much like fibers in wood or rebar in concrete. The fibers are strong and make up most of the strength, whereas the matrix holds the fibers in place and makes it a usable material. In 2004, Nanocomposites, Inc. licensed the Rice University patented process for functionalizing CNTs, a process which affects the surface of the nanotubes and makes them more suitable for mixing with polymers. The process dramatically reduces the CNTs tendency to stick together, thereby allowing them to mix and bond with the matrix, significantly improving mechanical properties. For example, by adding treated CNTs to a rubber compound, Nanocomposites, Inc. measured a 35% increase in ultimate tensile strength.

Photo courtesy of Michael Strck

Additionally, 90% of the material's strength is retained at temperatures up to 400F (204C). Nanocomposites, Inc. used an Instron electromechanical testing machine equipped with a video extensometer to measure the mechanical properties of their materials at ambient and elevated temperatures.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

40

Compression Testing

Compression Testing
A compression test determines behavior of materials under crushing loads. The specimen is compressed and deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive stress and strain are calculated and plotted as a stressstrain diagram which is used to determine elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength and, for some materials, compressive strength.

41

Subscribe to TechNotes

Compression Testing
The Tower of Babel: Testing the Possibilities
The story of the Tower of Babel has fascinated scholars for centuries. The goal of the builders was to reach the heavens. An ancient document called the Book of Jubilees mentions the tower's height as being 5433 cubits and 2 palms, which is almost 2.5 kilometers (about 1.55 miles). That is certainly higher than any man-made structure today, but is that possible? The building materials of the time were simply bricks of mud and straw. So just how tall could the tower have been? Instron had the opportunity recently to meet with Professor Linn Hobbs of the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Dr. Hobbs along with two colleagues teaches the course Materials in the Human Environment that investigates the development of materials and technologies through human history. As evidenced by the name, the range of class teachings and projects is wide and our discussions included research into brick and mortar construction, natural-fiber rope bridges in the Andes, and whether the Egyptian pyramid blocks were cast in place rather than quarried and then lifted into place. The well-appointed MIT laboratories have several Instron test instruments that enable the students to evaluate the capabilities of the materials that they produce during the class. To estimate the possible theoretical height of a brick-built tower, Dr. Hobbs has his students manufacture bricks using clay, sand, and straw folded together. Some bricks are sun-dried while others are fired in a furnace, as they would have been as building technology advanced. A series of empirical compressive tests on the bricks using an Instron electromechanical testing system evaluates their individual strength and from these values they can calculate the possibilities. The sun-dried bricks withstand compressive loads up to 4000 lb/sq in. A pyramidal structure built with these bricks and with a wide base to spread the weight of the structure could reach around 1500 ft., or around a quarter of a mile. However, a new technology had developed that imparted much greater strength to the bricks; they were baked in wood-fired furnaces. When baked bricks are compressed, they can withstand 20,000 lb/sq in., which equates to a possible height for the tower of 10,500 ft or almost two miles high. Thats around four times as high as the worlds tallest building, the Burj Khalifa in Dubai. Its also high enough to have given altitude sickness to any Mesopotamians strong enough to reach the top! The aim of this fascinating inter-disciplinary course is to teach innovative thinking to our future materials scientists, civil and construction engineers, archeologists, architects, and so on, through an understanding of how materials and their uses and physical properties have developed over time. It doesnt hurt that building walls, pyramids, and plant-fiber bridges is great fun as well.

Photo courtesy of MIT

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

42

Compression Testing
A New Hip Material
The first surgery to replace a damaged hip joint with an artificial joint was performed just 50 years ago. Today more than 190,000 hip replacement surgeries are performed in the USA alone. During this time, there have been many improvements to the surgical techniques and to the technologies and materials of the replacement joints but inherent problems remain. One of these is the slow deterioration of bone tissue around the prosthetic material due in part to uneven load distribution between the prosthetic and the bone itself. Dr. Afsaneh Rabiei, a professor of mechanical, aerospace, and biomedical engineering at North Carolina State University has recently developed a new composite metal foam material that offers, among many other possibilities, the development of new hip joint prostheses that may overcome this problem. Artificial hip joints are usually manufactured using solid titanium, which is many times stiffer than the bone into which it is secured. The implant therefore assumes the majority of the loads exerted by walking and running. Regular load-bearing exercise is an important factor in good bone health. The bone around the implant, being now deprived of much of the load, loses density and strength, a phenomenon known as stress shielding. In time this deterioration, together with other changes due to biological reactions with the cement used to secure the implants to the bone, can cause the implant to loosen, resulting in the need for further Photo courtesy of Arthritis Research & Therapy surgery to reseat or replace the joint. Metal foams have been around since the late 1940s. Most are developed by introducing gases into molten metal, which cools to form a matrix of thin-walled metal. However, the cellular structure is difficult to control, leading to variations in cell wall thickness and random cell shapes and sizes. The resulting mechanical properties of the material are unpredictable and inconsistent. Dr. Rabieis composite metal foam material uses preformed hollow metal spheres. These are packed together randomly, and the spaces between the spheres are filled with metal powder. The whole is then sintered to form a sturdy composite structure. The foam displays superior compressive strength and energy absorption capabilities as compared to existing metal foams, while exceeding strength to density ratios. The ability to control the size, the wall thickness, and the percentage of spheres added to the matrix allows close control of the stiffness and durability of the metal foam. The foam can therefore be manufactured to closely match the stiffness of bone, thus eliminating stress shielding. Other benefits of the new material are energy absorption, so they Photo courtesy of Dr. Afsaneh Rabiei cushion the shock of each step. The composites pores also provide places where natural bone can grow and anchor the implant in place. The combination and predictability of these properties offers promise for use in other applications where light weight, high stiffness and energy absorbsion capabilities are important, such as automobile crumple zones, and structural members in air, naval, and space craft.

43

Subscribe to TechNotes

Compression Testing
Recent Testing Uncovers Titanics Mystery
The Unsinkable Ship sank in less than 3 hours back in 1912. Did the Titanic sink simply due to the impact of an iceberg and the speed of the ship or was it a malfunction in the mechanical property of a key material holding the ship together? A recent study, conducted by Tim Foecke of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), and his colleagues, tested the rivets of the ship's hull; rivets that were made of wrought iron, not steel like the rest of the ship's rivets. The one big difference: wrought iron tends to soften at lower temperatures.

Using a SATEC Series universal testing system, Foecke and colleagues simulated the ship's design with 2 pieces of 1-inch thick steel plates held together with wrought-iron rivets. Through a compression test, they were able to simulate the force on the rivets and found that the rivet heads broke off, proving their substandard quality. As the rivet heads popped, the steel plates separated, allowing water to pour into the ship's hull at a very fast rate. "If the wrought iron rivets were up to standards, they would have been fine," says Foecke. "But since there was no method for quality checking, the rivets used on the Titanic were not up to standards, which caused them to fail prematurely."

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

44

Compression Testing
From CO2 to Solid Rock
Did you know that each day we pump 70 million tons of CO2 into the Earth's atmosphere? Suzanne Hangx, M.Sc. of Utrecht University and her Dutch colleagues at CATO are using Instron equipment in their research to remove this greenhouse gas from the atmosphere. They are studying CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS), a technology that may provide 100 years of CO2 storage beneath the Earth's surface. So how does CCS work? Below the Earth's surface there is a vast volume of storage space available through unminable coal beds, depleted oil and gas reservoirs and aquifers. CO2 is captured at power plants and pumped underground into these storage spaces. As the Photo courtesy of Michael Strck CO2 spreads through the reservoir or aquifer it will partially dissolve into the present pore water, which results in the formation of an acid fluid. This fluid interacts with the porous rocks and causes the carbon to settle out through mineralization, resulting in a stable, solid rock. In addition, there are several organizations around the world performing CCS research, ensuring it doesn't lead to undesirable sinking of the Earth's surface. In order to understand and quantify the effects of CCS, Hangx performed constrained compression tests on granular CO2-injected rock samples using an Instron static testing system and a special compaction vessel "Our results show that geomechanical processes, like grain cracking, are significantly inhibited in CO2-injected samples and geochemical effects are negligible on short time scales. Our testing is proving that CCS is a viable and safe way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions," says Hangx. Currently, there are a handful of CCS test sites around the world. With expanded implementation, CCS may allow precious time to work on improving energy efficiency and using renewable energy sources.

45

Subscribe to TechNotes

Hardness Testing

Hardness Testing
Simply stated, hardness is the resistance of a material to permanent indentation. It is important to recognize that hardness is an empirical test and therefore hardness is not a material property. This is because there are several different hardness tests that will each determine a different hardness value for the same piece of material. Therefore, hardness is test method dependent and every test result has to have a label identifying the test method used.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

46

Hardness Testing
Increasing Efficiency in Knoop and Vickers Testing
Two of the most common hardness tests are Knoop and Vickers that are used in micro and macro testing. These tests determine the material hardness based on measuring the size of a diamondshaped impression from an application of a force. The nature of the test process typically dictates a relatively light force application, resulting in extremely small impressions that must be manually measured. Traditional techniques involve the use of microscopes with objective lenses to manually measure through an eyepiece. This is a time-consuming, subjective, and potentially error-filled process. Its not uncommon for a technician to manually produce and measure hundreds of indentations during a day which means that operator fatigue could compromise the measurements. During the past several years, automated processes have become a more popular technique. What used to take 25 minutes to test manually now takes 5 minutes to test with an automatic tester. Newer technology eliminates much of the hardware that created operational challenges and cluttered workspaces. It typically consists of: Automatic rotating turret Actuation in the Z axis for applying the indentation and for automatic focusing of the specimen Automatic XY traversing motorized stage and USB video camera integrated to the test frame Stage movement through a virtual joystick or stage controllers

Together, these produce a fully-automated hardness testing system. When loaded with samples and a stored program, it can be left alone to automatically make, measure, and report on an almost a limitless amount of indentation traverses. "Using an automated tester is very useful. The biggest benefit to our lab is the amount of time it saves us. What used to take us 1.5 weeks to test now takes us 2.5 days. Automated testing allows for less human error and frees up time for the operator to do other jobs. Plus, it saves us money." Dipak Patel, Prudential Steel

47

Subscribe to TechNotes

Hardness Testing
Best Practices: Which Rockwell Scale to Use
Rockwell hardness values are a combination of a hardness number and a scale symbol representing the indenter and the minor and major loads. The symbol HR and the scale designation represent the hardness number. The combination of indenter and test force make up the Rockwell scale. These various combinations make up 30 different scales and are expressed as the actual hardness number followed by the letters HR and then the respective scale. A recorded hardness number of HRC 63 signifies a hardness of 63 on the Rockwell C Scale. Higher values and Rockwell scales indicate harder materials, such as hardened steel or tungsten carbide. The majority of applications are covered by the Rockwell B and C Scales for testing steel, brass, and other metals. However, the increasing use of other materials requires a basic knowledge of the factors that must be considered in choosing the correct scale. The choice is between the regular and superficial hardness tests (a lighter, 3 kg minor load test), and the diamond and various carbide ball indenters The operator relies on the engineering specifications that are established at the material design. If no specification exists or there is doubt about the suitability of a predetermined scale, refer to our Best Practices article published in Industrial Heating Magazine. Request a Hardness Wall Chart

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

48

Hardness Testing
Q: How far apart should I space each Rockwell hardness test
A: Indent spacing is a common concern during specimen testing or coupon block verification. The purpose for these distances is to ensure that any new indentation is not influenced by work hardening of the materials edge or material around a previous indentation. The accepted criteria are that the distance from the center of any indentation should be at least three times the diameter of the indentation. The distance from material edge to the center of any indentation should be at least two and one-half times the diameter of the indentation. Also, the edge distance requirement ensures that the indentation's area of contact permits proper support.

49

Subscribe to TechNotes

Hardness Testing
Hardness Testing on Cylindrical Specimens
When performing hardness tests on cylindrical, convex, or concave surfaces, the operator should understand that the actual results may be inaccurate due to the curvature of the material. In most cases, these inaccurate results should be accounted and adjusted for when reporting actual material hardness. Due to the material curvature, several important factors may contribute to the invalid reading including the actual material hardness, the applied force, the size and shape of the indentation, and the diameter or radius of the test piece. However, there are many techniques operators should consider to minimize errors.

Correction Factors
If the curved sample is used for material control purposes only, there may be sufficient information and comparative data generated that allows operators to benchmark values and processes. To make correction factors necessary, as indicated by ASTM, it is advisable to compare the hardness of the rounded material with the hardness value of a flat piece. In a convex (curvature that extends outward) or cylindrical piece, the reduction in lateral support will result in the indenter penetrating further into the material which translates to apparent lower hardness readings. In this case a correction factor must be added to the generated result. In contrast to convex surfaces, concave surfaces will provide higher material support due to the curvature towards the indenter and result in apparently harder material due to production of a shallower indent. In this case, a correction factor must be subtracted. If the diameter of the material is greater than 25 mm the surface will provide suitable surface structure for testing and corrections are not required. Lower diameter materials will need the correction factor added to the test result.

Proper Test Type


If the diameter of the material is smaller than 3.175 mm, Rockwell testing is not recommended. Instead, operators should use a Knoop or Vickers test, which can accommodate lower diameters down to thin gage wires. Most digital Rockwell testers provide the means to input the diameter of the curve. This input automatically adds or subtracts a correct factor from the test results. In manual dial gage testers, ASTM correction tables should be referenced to determine the correction factor. All corrections produce approximate results and should not be expected to meet exact specification.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

50

Hardness Testing
Hardness Accessories
Another important factor in testing curved material is proper specimen support. The supporting anvil should be selected to match the specimen geometry and to ensure exact alignment of the indenter to the radius. It should be rigid and provide full support to prevent deformation. ASTM E18 is a good reference for anvil selection. The anvil must position the test specimen perpendicular to the indenter. A V style anvil is ideal for supporting cylindrical parts. A cylindron anvil is suitable for larger diameter parts. Elongated parts that extend beyond the frame should be supported with a Vari-rest type fixture to prevent part tilt or movement. Specialized anvils can accommodate varying geometries and radiuses.

51

Subscribe to TechNotes

Hardness Testing
The Difference between a Knoop and a Vickers Test
Knoop and Vickers tests are used in micro and macro hardness testing to determine material hardness. It is based on measuring the impression from an application of a force. The Knoop test uses a diamond indenter ground to pyramidal form that produces a diamond shaped indentation with an approximate ratio between long and short diagonals of 7:1. The depth of indentation is about 1/30 of its length. When measuring the Knoop hardness, only the longest diagonal of the indentation is measured. Originally the Knoop Hardness Number (KHN) was calculated by using this length and load in a formula. Then, look-up tables became a popular source to find the KHN. Currently, most KHN results are generated by digital measurement that automatically calculates the hardness number. The Vickers test uses a ground squared pyramid. The depth of the indentation is about 1/7 of the diagonal length. Unlike the Knoop test, when calculating the Vickers Diamond Pyramid hardness number, both diagonals of the indentation are measured. The mean of these values used in a formula with the load determines the Hardness Vickers value (HV). Similar to the Knoop test, tables of these values are available, and the most current techniques utilize electronic or imaging measurements. When choosing a test type you need to review the material, surface finish, geometry, thickness, uniformity and other characteristics.

Q: What is the difference between a Knoop and a Vickers test?


A: Knoop and Vickers hardness scales are used for determining the hardness of a range of samples, including thin materials or wires, coatings and small precision parts. In both cases, the hardness value is determined by measuring the size of the indent and the test forces range from 1 g 100 kgf. They're defined by ASTM test methods E 384 and E 92. The Vickers indenter is a pointed, square-based diamond and the Knoop indenter is a rhombic-based diamond.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

52

Hardness Testing
How GR&R Helps Your Rockwell Testing Process
A GR&R study determines how much of the tolerance in your testing process comes from the variation in the equipment and the operators. When operator error or equipment error becomes a significant portion of the tolerance, it's hard to determine if the results are accurately measured. Performing GR&R reveals a lot about how well your system is reading Rockwell hardness; provides insight to potential problems; and determines if you need additional testing, such as direct verification. A study conducted on 30 testers used daily showed that 90% failed a direct verification even though they passed an indirect verification using test blocks. These testers consume most of the allowable tolerances. Adjustments using test block verification do not accurately characterize an instrument's performance. A full GR&R study involves multiple operators performing 90 tests using Rockwell test blocks. The calculated results reveal the inaccuracy of the tester. Acceptable GR&R values vary depending on the tester type (analog, digital, closed loop), as well as the quality, condition, and calibration status of the tester.

53

Subscribe to TechNotes

Hardness Testing
Q: What is a Jominy test?
A: A Jominy test is a method for determining the hardenability of steel. A test piece that typically measures 25 mm x 100 mm is heated to a pre-determined temperature and quenched by a jet of water sprayed onto one end. When the specimen is cold, hardness measurements using the Rockwell HRC scale (10 kg minor and 150 Kg major forces) are made at specific intervals along the test piece from the quenched end. Test results are then plotted on a standard chart. Hardness values are the highest at the quenched end of the specimen. You should find that the values decrease proportionally as you move to the other end. We have found that using holding fixtures improves the accuracy of our results. We recommend using automatic software and stages to increase throughput. This setup accommodates from one to several bars at once, and performs the tests at preprogrammed intervals, while automatically plotting the data.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

54

Hardness Testing
How Can Testing Strengthen Your Smile?
There are an abundance of commercials luring us to buy different toothpastes each promising a different outcome: teeth whitening, cavity fighting, or breath freshening. Although having that bright white smile is appealing to most, without the strength of enamel even the whitest of teeth will still decay. Established in the 1940s, the Indiana University School of Dentistry has been researching enamel strength for nearly 70 years. One of the school's many groundbreaking findings includes the first successful stannous fluoride formula, the active decay-preventing agent in Crest toothpaste. Since 1999, Dr. Domenick Zero, Professor and Department Chair and Director, Oral Health Research Institute, and his staff have been studying various oral treatments and preventative methods to understand their effect on the hardness of tooth enamel. Without strong enamel, teeth become soft and prone to decay. "Conducting hardness tests on tooth enamel allows us to measure how much demineralization, or breakdown, of the tooth enamel has occurred, based on changes in the size of the indentation," says Dr. Zero. "The larger the indent the more demineralization of the enamel." Reversing this damage isn't an easy task. However, after more than 10,000 hardness tests, the group has proven that the breakdown of minerals in enamel can be repaired by remineralization a process which is enhanced by fluoride and helps to harden the enamel. Zero's studies show that when the tooth is remineralized, the indents get smaller. For his research, Dr. Zero conducts baseline microhardness tests on the tooth enamel. Then, he places the tooth specimens on dentures (or a similar appliance), which is placed in the mouth, and worn throughout the study. The specimen is eventually removed, tested again for microhardness, and compared to the baseline test results. "We're able to get answers much quicker and with much less expense than if we've had to run a full clinical trial measuring tooth decay," says Zero. "It's a way of getting clinically-relevant info without taking years to do the study."

55

Subscribe to TechNotes

Hardness Testing
ASTM E18-07: New Changes will Affect Your Rockwell Hardness Indenters
The latest changes to the ASTM E18 standard require suppliers to verify the geometry of indenters to meet E18-07 compliance. This new requirement ensures that every Rockwell diamond indenter tip is verified for correct cone angle and radius.

Why is this important?


The new standard ensures improved performance of the indenters throughout the testing range of applicable Rockwell scales. Old indenters verified to previous revisions are not compliant to the new standard and cannot be used when testing to ASTM E18-07 unless they are verified and recertified to the new standard. It's easy to verify if your indenters are compliant to the revised standard just view a copy of your indenter calibration certificate. According to E18- 07, it is required for the manufacturer to be ISO/IEC 17025 accredited by an accreditation agency recognized by the ILAC agreement. Examples of such approved accrediting bodies are NVLAP, UKAS and A2LA. The compliance of your indenters can be verified by the accrediting body logo that is required to be on the calibration certificate. If you have indenters certified prior to E18-07 revisions, you can send these indenters to our Wilson Lab for recertification. As one of the only labs certified (in the US) to provide calibration services to this new standard, we offer several options to obtain E18-07 compliant indenters.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

56

Hardness Testing
Hardness Testers: Closed-Loop or Deadweight?
Deadweight, or open-loop, testers have been performing hardness indentations since the Rockwell test was developed. They are still a popular and efficient way to perform a hardness test. A deadweight system utilizes stacked weights to apply a magnified test force at the indenter. Minor or preloads are applied by a spring or a smaller weight. More recently, closed-loop hardness testing techniques have been developed as an alternative method of load application. Closed-loop testers use a force measuring device (a load cell), instead of a stack of weights, to measure and regulate the applied force by a motorized actuator. This system constantly monitors and adjusts the applied force, virtually eliminating force errors and increasing tester accuracy and repeatability.

57

Subscribe to TechNotes

Hardness Testing
Different Rubber Hardness Scales for Your Testing Needs
Shore A is the most common scale for determining the hardness of rubber products. ASTM D 2240 recommends that the minimum sample thickness for A scale testing is .25 in (6 mm). But what happens when the thickness of the part is less than the required minimum? Unlike round parts, flat parts can be stacked. O rings are a good example of rubber parts that are normally specified in Shore A hardness but are frequently too small to be tested to the A scale. To resolve this problem, the Shore M scale was developed. With a shorter indenter extension, softer spring and a different indenter shape, the M scale tests parts as small as .050 in (1.25 mm) thick. It's important to remember there is no fixed conversion between the two scales; the Shore A and M scales are different, so the results will be different.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

58

Hardness Testing
Select Jaw Faces Based on the Hardness of Your Specimens
The hardness of metals and metal alloys varies. This can be a challenge when gripping metal specimens for a tension test. The jaw face material must be harder than the test specimen to provide adequate gripping and extended jaw face service life. If your jaw faces are too hard, the serrations could crack. If your jaw faces are too soft, the serrations will dull and your specimen may slip. As a general rule, the jaw face hardness should be at least 15 Rockwell scale points (Rc) higher than the test specimen. Soft materials, such as brass and magnesium, may require serrated jaw faces with as few as 4 teeth per inch. Gripping of medium hardness materials, such as sheet steel, is often done with serrated jaw faces having 16 to 25 teeth per inch. Harder steels may require smooth jaw faces coated with carbide particles called surfalloy. Match your jaw face selection to the hardness of the test specimen using the Rc 15 point rule to reduce slippage problems and extend your jaw face service life.

59

Subscribe to TechNotes

Hardness Testing
Q: How do I know when my hardness test block is no longer useful?
A: The useful life of a test block is determined by the population and proximity of the indentations. The distance between the centers of any two adjacent indentations should be at least three times the diameter of the indentation. The distance from the center of any indentation to an edge of the test block or test piece should be at least two and a half times the diameter of the indentation. Tests are to be taken on the top side of the block only.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

60

Impact Testing

Impact Testing
Impact testing is testing an object's ability to resist high-rate loading. An impact test is a test for determining the energy absorbed in fracturing a test piece at high velocity. Most of us think of it as one object striking another object at a relatively high speed. Impact resistance is one of the most important properties for a part designer to consider, and without question, the most difficult to quantify. The impact resistance of a part is, in many applications, a critical measure of service life. More importantly these days, it involves the perplexing problem of product safety and liability.

61

Subscribe to TechNotes

Impact Testing
Why Should I Instrument My Impact Tests?
The majority of impact tests have the same goal in mind establishing the amount of energy it takes to break a material. When conducting an impact test without a sensor on the striker, you limit the information that can be gathered. Since only the weight of the mass and drop height are known, you are merely able to calculate the impact energy. Since the falling weight will either stop dead on the test specimen or destroy it completely in passing through, the only results that can be obtained are of a pass/fail criteria based upon visual determination. By adding a load-sensing tup, you can continuously record the load on the specimen as a function of time and/or specimen deflection prior to fracture. The best systems record load vs. time or deformation for the entire period of the impact event. This gives a better representation of an impact than a single calculated value. Instrumented drop weight and pendulum testing is considered the best testing method available. By performing multiple tests at various rates, a complete impact profile can be developed for a polymer. This approach can be useful in simulating functional impact resistance and running material comparisons. There is enough flexibility to simulate real-life conditions and to perform audit inspections on parts or molded samples. By adding instrumentation to impact tests the all-important energy absorbed value is established much quicker.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

62

Impact Testing
Why Instrumented Impact Testing is Becoming More Popular
Traditional impact testing provides basic information about how a material or finished product may behave when it is intentionally or accidently impacted. Instrumented impact testing not only reveals this information, but also gives you a complete record of the test event, which can be captured and recorded in terms of: 1. Energy absorbed by the specimen over time 2. Force applied to the specimen over time 3. Displacement of the impactor (from the point it contacts the specimen) versus time 4. Velocity of the impactor versus time When you capture and graph this data, many details of the impact become visible. A tabulation of the test results can be easily obtained, which removes the need for tedious, manual calculations. Test standards, such as ASTM D3763 and ISO 6603-2, are commonly used as a way to create a comparison database and are fairly straightforward. For most homogeneous materials, four values are critical: 1. maximum or peak load? 2. energy to maximum load? 3. total absorbed energy? 4. deflection to maximum load?

The relationship between the material and its final application is important. For example, the primary function of a windshield is energy absorption keeping foreign objects from penetrating into the interior of the vehicle.

63

Subscribe to TechNotes

Impact Testing
In an automotive windshield, the total energy absorbed at peak load is the most useful data. Similarly, a windshield in a fighter-jet must not only prevent a foreign object from entering, but must do so while minimizing deflection during the impact event. In this application, energy to failure and deflection at maximum load are the critical data. The composite panels used on aerospace applications are often subjected to impacts. These impacts do not necessarily penetrate or even cause visible damage to the end product; however they may weaken the part with internal cracks. These cracks can only be seen through the graphical data by looking for the incipient load (point A), which is often much lower than the maximum load needed to puncture the panel. With composite materials such as this, incipient loads are often more important than the maximum load, since the internal cracks will propagate (due to fatigue), and lead to failure of the part. View an animation of fracture initiation.

What is Peak Load?


Typically, the highest value reached by the assigned channel during a test. For example, if load is assigned to the absolute peak calculation, then the highest value of load reached during a test is the absolute peak load. You can monitor for either a maximum peak, which occurs where the channel values decrease from a previous high value, or a minimum peak, where the channel values increase from a previous low value.

What is Energy to Maximum Load?


Energy absorbed by the specimen up to the point of maximum load. When maximum load corresponds to failure, the energy to maximum load is the amount of energy the specimen can absorb before failing.

What is Total Absorbed Energy?


The amount of energy that the specimen absorbed during the entire impact test from start to end. This value may be the same as energy to maximum load when the specimen abruptly fails at the maximum load point. learn more >>

What is Deflection to Maximum Load?


This is the distance that the impactor has traveled from the point of impact up to the point of maximum load.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

64

Impact Testing
Q: What Causes the First Peak in the Load Curve of My Impact Test Data?
A: The first peak in your test data is the initial contact between the tup and the specimen. Then, for a quick instant, the specimen moves away from the tup (rebounding from the initial impact). This quick separation is revealed as the first drop in your test data. Then the tup catches up with the specimen (reestablishing contact) and continues to penetrate through the material. This initial contact is known as the inertial loading event. The size of the inertial spike can be explained by Newton's Second Law of Motion, F=ma, the sudden acceleration (a) of the specimen mass (m) produces a force (F) on the tup. The greater the mass of the specimen relative to the force generated during failure, the greater the size of the inertial "spike". Inertial loads are a normal part of impact test data. The only time a problem occurs is when the inertial load is higher than the maximum load or when specimen failure occurs during the inertial loading event. When using a standard impact test method, the inertial load is rarely a problem and can be ignored. At times, problems occur in non-standard impact test applications where the tup first strikes a fixture that in response delivers the impact force. Fortunately, modern impact software contains various features that can be used to eliminate the inertial load event from the data calculations. View an animation of an inertial loading event.

65

Subscribe to TechNotes

Impact Testing
Q: How Much Energy Should I Use for My Impact Test?
A: When your test calls for the specimen to be completely penetrated by the tup or broken into multiple pieces, the general rule is to use at least three times the amount of energy absorbed by the test specimen. The reason behind the equation is that the energy delivered from the drop weight must be significantly greater than the energy absorbed, so that there is no appreciable slowdown of the tup during the impact event. Some standard test methods mandate that the velocity slowdown at the point of maximum load should not exceed 10% (GM 9904P) or 20% (ASTM D3763). The slowdown velocity can be calculated using modern impact software. The only time the energy ratio rule does not apply is when the test specimen is expected to absorb all of the impact energy so that the post test analysis can be carried out using other instruments. Examples of these types of applications are single impact rebound tests or component crush tests.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

66

Impact Testing
Damaged Tups Change Results
The tup insert is the part of the testing system that comes in contact with the specimen during an impact test. Similar to grips, tups range in size and shape depending on what you are testing. It also tends to be the part of the testing system that is most often overlooked. A damaged or worn tup insert can create errors sometimes subtle in the data that is being collected. In comparing the three sets of curves and results from new to old, notice the drop in maximum load (454 kN to 412 kN), the increase in total time (from 6.54 msec up to 7.36 msec) and the differences in energy values among the three. Even a small, seemingly insignificant amount of damage to the insert can affect your data over time.

67

Subscribe to TechNotes

Fatigue Testing

Fatigue Testing
The definition of fatigue testing can be thought of as simply applying cyclic loading to your test specimen to understand how it will perform under similar conditions in actual use. The load application can either be a repeated application of a fixed load or simulation of in-service loads. The load application may be repeated millions of times and up to several hundred times per second. In many applications, materials are subjected to vibrating or oscillating forces. The behavior of materials under such load conditions differs from the behavior under a static load. Because the material is subjected to repeated load cycles (fatigue) in actual use, designers are faced with predicting fatigue life, which is defined as the total number of cycles to failure under specified loading conditions. Fatigue testing gives much better data to predict the in-service life of materials.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

68

Fatigue Testing
Q: I want to perform cyclic testing on my static testing machine. How fast can I go?
A: The ability to perform cyclic testing on a static testing machine depends on the machine's maximum speed, the compliance of the specimen and the type of test. Most static machines (or UTMs) are capable of tension-tension or compressioncompression tests at a moderate rate of several Hz when testing very stiff specimens. Users will also need Instron's Gentest or Profiler software add-ons to create test procedures with cyclic waveforms. Thru-zero testing on static machines is usually limited to 1-2 Hz depending on the machine. If you want to perform cyclic tests at higher frequencies to increase throughput, you should consider a dynamic testing system that uses servohydraulic or electric linear motor technology. If you have specific questions about your machine's capabilities, contact our application specialists.

69

Subscribe to TechNotes

Fatigue Testing
3M Ensures Quality under Different Test Conditions
Imagine you have a paperclip in your hand and you bend it in half what happens? Nothing; it bends but it doesnt break. However, if you continually bend the paperclip back and forth on the same point of contact, it will eventually break. Just like with a paperclip, lab operators may be testing specimens that behave differently under a cyclic test versus a single, one-direction test. So when making a material selection for a particular application, what may appear as the right choice for the job one day, may fail when put to the test on another. In addition, different methods of physical evaluation can provide results that seem puzzling in comparison to one another. 3M was evaluating four adhesives and initially selected adhesive A for an automotive application because it exhibited the toughest strength characteristics when tested using a basic, static 3-point bend method. However, when a batch of adhesive joints failed prematurely, Richard Andrews, Product Development Specialist at 3M, questioned whether the chosen adhesive was too brittle to have an acceptable fatigue life. "We decided it was necessary to look more closely at the adhesive properties of our specimens," Richard Andrews said. "Instron was chosen as the company with the most experience in fatigue testing. It was important to know how the adhesive specimens would behave when subjected to a flexural fatigue test." The adhesives were incorporated into a bonded specimen style design and re-tested using the RR Moore system.

Each adhesive was subject to a flexural cyclic stress applied by the system until failure. Andrews team determined that although adhesive A had proven to be superior when tested using the static 3-point bend method, adhesive C was the clear choice in terms of toughness and durability for its intended dynamic use.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

70

Fatigue Testing
Lab-grown Tissue
Man-made medical technologies, including pacemakers and hip implants, were introduced to improve a patient's quality of life; to restore or regulate functions of a person's organs or joints. Now, a growing area of research focuses on the development of replacement soft tissue, such as skin and cardiovascular tissues. Today, doctors are using synthetic soft tissue replacements; however, they don't grow and act like real human tissues. As an alternative, researchers are pursuing a biological option that will closely match the patient's own tissue. One approach being explored is the use of cellseeded fibrin gels. A liquid mixture of fibrin (the factor in blood that causes clotting) and living cells is injected into a mold, which defines the shape and microstructure of the tissue. Different molds are used depending on the type of tissue being created. Once in the mold, the solution gels, then is compacted by the cells and remolded over time to form a biological tissue-like construct. This technology is being developed to replicate tissues from skin to heart valves. One research group currently focusing on this is that of Professor Robert T. Tranquillo at the University of Minnesota: Department of Biomedical Engineering. Since most biological tissues experience motions in multiple directions, a uniaxial test is insufficient for characterization of these tissues. Paul Robinson, PhD candidate, and colleagues are using the planar biaxial testing system to test the material characteristics of the tissue constructs and comparing the results to those of native tissues. "Our goal is to assess how closely our tissues match the native tissue and in combination with other test data and mathematical models, how the biaxial properties affect tissue function," says Robinson. Although research is still in progress, these new biological tissues could reduce failure rates of synthetic materials and improve the quality of a patient's life.

71

Subscribe to TechNotes

Fatigue Testing
MacGyver-style Leg Brace May Reduce Amputations
In developing African countries, many individuals wait several months to receive proper care for compound fractures, which often results in amputations. Treatment is delayed because appropriate surgical implant systems for leg fractures are expensive and scarce. The Dartmouth Biomedical Engineering Center took on this humanitarian challenge and is currently working with the Mulago Hospital in Uganda and the Anchorage Fracture and Orthopedic Clinic to develop an affordable solution for doctors in Africa. "We are making external fixation (ExFix) devices, designed to help stabilize compound fractures, with the materials that are readily available in Africa. This MacGyver-type approach means that we can only use supplies such as PVC pipe, gauze and construction glue," says John Currier, Research Engineer at the Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth. After Currier and his team designs and constructs the ExFix prototypes, they test them to simulate a patient walking with the device in place. Currier uses an Instron 8501 fatigue testing system, with an EXTEND upgrade, to test the materials available to build these devices.
Photo courtesy of Dartmouth Biomedical Engineering Center

"We learned that a single pipe allows too much motion of the bone, so it's important to place one of the pipes as close to the broken limb as possible, with the other pipe 2 or 3 inches away. This prevents excessive load on the bone fracture surface, which is not only painful, but can also inhibit healing. Once we design the best option, we will put together guidelines for the doctors to use in the construction of these ExFix devices in the field," says Currier. Currier and his coworkers applied to the Orthopedic Research and Education Foundation for a grant to fund this humanitarian project. Currently the team is on track to produce an ExFix device that could be made in Africa for a tiny fraction of the cost of a functionally equivalent device from the United States.

Photo courtesy of Dartmouth Biomedical Engineering Center

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

72

Fatigue Testing
Volvo Meets the Challenges of High Strain Rate Testing
Remember silly putty? If you pull it slowly, it stretches a lot; pull it quickly and it snaps. Silly putty is a good example of a strain-rate sensitive material a material that behaves very differently when subjected to different strain rates. Car crashes produce very high strain rates, or the rate at which the car parts are deformed on impact. Most mechanical tests, on the other hand, are performed at very low (or "quasistatic") strain rates. Vehicle designers are faced with the challenges of understanding the strain rate of materials they use when designing the safest possible environment for drivers and passengers. It is not appropriate to use static testing results to predict what will happen in an impact situation, because static testing will not reveal that many materials exhibit higher energy absorption at higher strain rates. Maximizing energy absorption is critical when determining the "crashworthiness" of a vehicle. Volvo's Technological Development Corp. (Goteborg, Sweden) turned to an Instron VHS frame for use in its Strength of Materials R&D Laboratory to perform high strain rate testing. These Very High Speed (VHS) systems accelerate from a dead stop to over 50,000 inches per minute (20 m/s) in less than the blink of an eye and allow engineers to simulate actual crash conditions on materials and assemblies. Using specialized hydraulics and super-light titanium grips, VHS systems provide Volvo with new insight on the mechanical behavior of metals, plastics and automotive assemblies used in their vehicles. This effort is part of a collaborative research program with Volvo LV, the truck manufacturer, which is investigating the properties of steel used in automobiles. Additionally, Volvo uses the system to test joined specimens, providing insight into the strain-rate sensitivity of joints made via welds, rivets, adhesives and multiple combinations. These features help Volvo to accurately characterize the properties of materials it uses and ultimately to produce safer vehicles.

Photo courtesy of Volvo

73

Subscribe to TechNotes

Fatigue Testing
Characterizing Spinal Range of Motion for Development of Improved Devices
Did you know that back and spine injuries are the most common musculoskeletal impairments? In fact, in a single year, more than 31 million doctor visits will be made for back pain. When an intervertebral disc bursts or slips and is beyond repair, surgery is required to remove the damaged disc and implant a fixation device, such as a plate or interbody fusion cage. These devices stabilize the spine, but also limit or eliminate the motion that occurs at the damaged location. This reduced range of motion is driving engineers to develop better spinal devices. The University of Minnesota is characterizing the spine's natural range of motion; a critical step for the development of improved spinal devices. The spine's motion is complex with six degrees of freedom. To evaluate the effect of implants on these natural motions, a comparison of a spine with and without the device must be made. The effect of an implant is not necessarily local, adjacent vertebrae may be affected, so understanding the full implications of a spinal fixation device requires engineers to characterize the range of motion over an extended section of the spine. The test data gathered by Instron's six-axis testing system reveals restrictions in movement and load bearing capabilities at the implant area and adjacent vertebrae.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

74

Fatigue Testing
Patients Own Tissue Repairs Torn Ligaments
A torn Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) is one of the most common knee injuries for recreational and professional athletes. The ACL is one of four ligaments that keep the knee joint in place during normal flexion and extension motions required for walking and running. Tissue Regeneration, Inc., Medford, MA, is an early stage company developing new technologies that may significantly address orthopaedic and other connective tissue clinical repair needs, such as ACL reconstruction. ACL reconstruction involves total replacement of the torn or injured ligament. Current treatments include (1) an autograft implant, harvested from the patients own body or (2) an allograft implant from cadaveric tissue. Allografts are available in limited supply and autografts result in pain in the area from which they were harvested. Patients with these treatments may never fully regain pre-injury activity levels. Tissue Regeneration, Inc., is designing a novel ligament replacement device to eliminate the need for current grafts options. These protein-based devices encourage growth of the patients own tissue around the graft, eventually replacing it completely. This allows the ligament to heal more effectively, thereby ultimately improving the clinical outcome for the patient. To be sure that these devices will endure a patients normal activity level, mechanical testing is required to measure failure load and fatigue life. A speciallyequipped fatigue testing system was used, in combination with a bath, to rupture the devices through single pull to failure testing and cyclic loading designed to simulate performance during walking or running. A temperature-controlled bath was required to ensure that all tests were conducted under physiological conditions, as previous studies have shown that the testing environment can have a significant effect on mechanical properties. Learn more about Tissue Regeneration Inc.s unique technology. Learn more about Instrons solutions for testing sutures and other medical products.

75

Subscribe to TechNotes

Fatigue Testing
Simulating Physiological Conditions of Implants
ISO 7206-4 provides a demanding test method that best simulates the physiological conditions a hip implant can undergo when stress shielding occurs. The implant stem is embedded into a medium and the application of a cyclic load to the head induces two-plane bending and torsion. It is important to use an ultra-low-friction bearing with the upper portion of the fixture in order to ensure that side loads caused by bending and torsion are not transferred into the machine. Side loads can damage the actuator and cause incorrect load measurements. Load cell placement for dynamic tests is always a consideration. Mounting the load cell on the base of a machine, rather than the moving actuator, helps to minimize errors associated with inertial loads. However, in tests with a number of medical devices or components, or when using saline baths, you must mount the load cell on the moving actuator of the test machine. Note that this location induces inertial loads that need to be compensated during the test to ensure the correct fatigue loads are applied to the hip implant.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

76

Bend Testing

Bend Testing
Bend testing measures the ductility of materials. Terms associated with bend testing apply to specific forms or types of materials. For example, materials specifications sometimes require that a specimen be bent to a specified inside diameter (ASTM A-360, steel products). Bend testing provides a convenient method for characterizing the strength of the miniature components and specimens that are typical of those found in microelectronics applications. Instron has bend and flexure fixtures available for both three and four point loading.

77

Subscribe to TechNotes

Bend Testing
Q: What is the difference between a single-point and a 4-point flexure test?
A: A single-point, or 3-point, bend test uses one loading anvil, whereas a 4-point bend test uses two loading anvils. The selection of an appropriate bend fixture depends on the material youre testing.

* Did You Know: A four-point conversion kit may be available for most standard three-point fixtures. Contact us for additional information.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

78

Bend Testing
The Impenetrable Ship
Imagine being a sailor in 1812, and watching a war ship built of enormous size and great strength repel its attacker's cannonballs without them penetrating the surface. This was the case with the USS Constitution, and when a sailor proclaimed, "Its sides must be made of iron!" the ship was nicknamed Old Ironsides. Obviously, the ship's sides were not made of iron, but crafted from an exceptionally strong oak. As the oldest commissioned war ship still afloat in the world, it's of great interest to the Navy. To find out more about this type of wood and how to preserve its condition, the Navy turned to the USDA Forest Products Lab (USDAFPL), the nation's leading wood research institute. Using Instron's 5544 to test samples from Old Ironsides, the USDAFPL found that the boat's main structural components are made of live oak, a common wood that was used in the 1700s and is found along the eastern seaboard of the US. No longer used as a common material, live oak is in a class of its own. "This type of wood doesn't follow the normal rules of wood," said Bill Nelson, Supervisory General Engineer at USDAFPL. "It is extremely strong and doesn't decay. When we would bend it in a u-shape, it would snap back to its original form. It's also extremely dense, making it incredibly hard to cut and fashion with even the sharpest tools." This 200+-year-old ship now resides in Boston Harbor where age and weather pose a greater threat than cannonballs. Although the toughness factor of live oak makes traditional wood construction challenging, Nelson is working with his team to find ways to preserve and restore Old Ironsides.

79

Subscribe to TechNotes

Torsion Testing

Torsion Testing
A torsion test can be conducted on most materials to determine the torsional properties of the material. These properties include but are not limited to Modulus of elasticity in shear, Yield shear strength, Ultimate shear strength, Modulus of rupture in shear, Ductility. While they are not the same, they are analogous to properties that can be determined during a tensile test. In fact, the "torque versus angle" diagram looks very similar to a "stress versus strain" curve that might be generated by a tensile test. Many products and components are subjected to torsional forces during their operation. Products such as biomedical catheter tubing, switches, fasteners, and automotive steering columns are just a few devices subject to such torsional stresses. By testing these products in torsion, manufacturers are able to simulate real life service conditions, check product quality, verify designs, and ensure proper manufacturing techniques.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

80

Torsion Testing
Q: How can I measure the torsional properties of a pipe or cylinder?
A: This requires a test machine with a torsional drive system, as well as a torsion (torque) load cell. Some tests also require use of a torsional extensometer. Instron has a range of grips and test fixtures to suit a wide variety of test specimens. For testing pipe, it is normally necessary to plug the open ends to prevent crushing of the specimen during gripping. For testing sections that are cut from a pipe, it may be necessary to use special grips because of the curved surface of the specimen. You can view Instron's standard torsion models on our website.

81

Subscribe to TechNotes

Environmental Testing

Environmental Testing

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

82

Environmental Testing
Testing at High or Low Temperatures
Testing at high or low temperatures can generate errors in your data if you begin testing before stabilizing the thermal conditions. When you first turn on your furnace or chamber, the load string is in a state of transition causing undesirable effects that can influence your results. Thermal expansion in the load string can cause compression loads and obscure fine extension data, as well as change the dimensions of the grips or pull rods. Even the highest quality load cells, which are thermally compensated so they can be used over a wide range of thermal conditions, only meet specifications once they are stabilized. During the transient stage, load cell drift could potentially affect test results. Its important to remember to allow your load cells to reach a stable temperature and remain at this temperature to prevent drift. Just like preheating your oven before cooking, allow your load string and machine to warm up and stabilize before running tests this will give you the most accurate test data.

83

Subscribe to TechNotes

Environmental Testing
Using Grips in a Low Temperature Chamber
Many Instron customers use standard grips for high and low temperature testing. While this approach may work, there are a few precautions to note. The foremost issue with using standard grips at low temperature is corrosion. This stems from the fact that the finish on standard grips is intended to protect the metal from corroding as a result of being exposed to normal lab air above condensing temperatures. However, if the grips are cooled and exposed to moist air, the moisture in the air will condense on the grips and potentially cause the metal to corrode. This effect can be minimized by keeping the moisture content in the lab air low, heating the grips to dry them, or purging the chamber with inert/dry gas to rid the cooled environment of moisture. Furthermore, if the grip is pneumatically operated, it presents two problems: one is finding a way to get the air through the chamber to the grip; the other is frosting when the air is released into the cold environment. Moisture from the frosting can cause the grips to rust. Again, this can be minimized by using dry air or by bringing the grips through a heating cycle before each test to dry them. Additionally, check that the lubricant needed for the standard grips is rated for the test temperatures and that the internal seals are not damaged, which can cause the grips to leak or malfunction. If not, it needs to be replaced with one that is rated for the test temperatures. A better approach is to use grips made from non-corrosive materials that are specifically designed for use in [high and] low temperature chambers. These grips are designed to last in extreme temperatures and offer an extra level of safety for operators. For instance, the foot pedal actuation of the pneumatic and hydraulic actuated grips eliminates the need for an operator to touch hot or cold surfaces, which may cause burns. In addition, there are extra handles on temperature-rated mechanical wedge grips; the four-handle design guarantees that one handle will always be in the front removing the hazard of an operator reaching deep inside the chamber.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

84

Component Testing

Component Testing

85

Subscribe to TechNotes

Component Testing
Challenges in Testing Biomedical Components
Medical device manufacturers have been following the ongoing trend of testing the final product instead of coupons or specimens. In so doing, their ability to use standard gripping techniques and fixturing is not practical. Although traditional grips, like pneumatic action or wedge action styles, worked well for standard materials, new test requirements force users to place the product into the testing system for evaluation or validation. To satisfy this requirement, testing instruments must be designed to accommodate a wide range of device sizes and configurations. We suggest using a component test plate that contains an array of tapped holes. This makes component or specimen attachment simple and repeatable. The plate is sized to satisfy a large range of medical devices and accessories. In the example above, an IV blood bag needs to be held in a specific position so that the connectors for the tubing can be tested for quality and integrity. Because alignment and test angle are critical to mimic the actual usage, a flexible set up is necessary. The component test plate not only allows this flexibility, but is also makes it simple to repeat the set up from test to test, ultimately reducing variability. For example, a common test for hip replacement prosthesis is a compression test where force is applied to the femoral head while the stem is held fixed. This configuration generates both axial loads and transverse loads due to the geometry of the specimen which sits outside the direct load string. System stiffness and off-center loading must be considered when testing components outside of the direct load string. The resulting side loads can have dramatic affects on the test data. To provide the most accurate and consistent results, the load weighing system (load cell and test frame) should produce minimal off center load effects. The larger the medical device, the more care should be taken for proper placement and alignment.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

86

Component Testing
Q: How does side loading and specimen/component misalignment of varying geometries of medical devices and implants affect my test results? How should I best address these challenges?
A: ISO and ASTM standards recommend that specimens are aligned so that the axis of force runs through the centerline of the specimen. Since medical device geometries are often odd, there is not a set way to hold specimens. It is very important to make sure the proper grip and a specimen alignment device, such as an XY stage, is used. This can significantly improve specimen placement by ensuring that the specimen is placed in the same location for every test. With odd shaped specimens, it is essential to take into account the offset loading specifications for the load cell. When failure occurs slightly offset from the primary force axis, there should be minimal deviation in the load reading. When testing cardiac rhythm management devices, like pacemakers, manufacturers must ensure that the leads and lead connections that deliver the electric charges to the heart are robust. Testing these small components requires very precise alignment to guarantee operational effectiveness and quality. Placing these devices in an XY stage allows operators to test at correct angles and index specimens for efficient testing that produces repeatable results. The combination of proper grip/fixture selection, consistent specimen placement, and minimizing offset loading effects on the load cell will help minimize the effects of side loading, ultimately reducing variation in results. Since the solution varies depending on your application, contact our Application Engineers for assistance.

87

Subscribe to TechNotes

Component Testing
How does the mechanical testing of solar cells contribute to the "green energy" initiative?
With a growing global focus on "green energy", companies are racing to develop higher efficiency and lower cost solar cells for various applications. These companies must obtain the design qualification and type approval according to IEC 61646 Specification: Thin-film terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules. The mechanical load testing requirements (Section 10.16) include: Four-point bend testing requirement of glass and stainless steel substrates to ensure the edge strength of these substrates. This test is used to ensure the substrate's rigidity is sufficient to guarantee a reliable, long-term electrical connection throughout the cells. A 90 peel adhesion test on various layers of thin films, also known as "stacks". This peel test confirms the quality of the adhesion between the layers and the adhesives used. It is important for companies to know the adhesion strength of these various film layers and which interface may contain the least amount of adhesion strength. Read our online Testing Solution for more information on Mechanical Testing of Solar Cells.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

88

Software Tips

Software Tips

89

Subscribe to TechNotes

Software Tips
Q: When writing a procedure in Bluehill Software, how do I deal with "Toe Compensation" (as described in ASTM D882) when testing the secant modulus (1%) of a thin film (1-5 mils)? Should I add a preload? And how much is appropriate?
A: In Bluehill Software, we refer to toe compensation as "slack correction" and it can be added to a specific set of test results through the Calculations section of the Method tab. When you add this calculation the software automatically updates each tested specimen after the test is completed. You can choose from 4 different slack correction types described in detail in the help system to accommodate a wide variety of material types. These help files will assist you in determining which calculation is best for your material type. In summary, a slack correction calculation can be used to compensate for the toe after specimens are tested. Better yet, we often recommend using a pre-load before the test starts if you know there will be some slack in your test setup or if your specimens exhibit some toe region in the data. You can set up Bluehill Software in the Control section of the Method tab to automatically apply a pre-load before data collection begins. This eliminates or minimizes the toe region and ensures that data collection on all specimens starts at the same point. The pre-load threshold value should be as small as possible to ensure valuable data isnt lost, but large enough so that the slack is removed before data collection begins. Typically, a preload threshold value is less than 5% of the expected break load of the specimen.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

90

Software Tips
Capturing Testing in Action
We find that many of our customers are faced with questions like "How did this specimen fail?" and "Why does one result look different than the others?" They often need to verify that the test was conducted and that it was conducted properly. The answer to many of these questions is to use a camera to record the specimen during testing. Video recording provides R&D engineers, lab managers, university professors, and students point-by-point playback of the specimen throughout the test. This source of invaluable information captures failure analysis and gives a better understanding of materials science.

91

Subscribe to TechNotes

Software Tips
Q: The way we currently test for N-value is cumbersome. We are looking for a way to improve productivity. Is there a way that we can get the program to automatically assign the uniform elongation at the end of the calculation, instead of having to do it manually?
A: You can automatically calculate N-value in Partner Software by using a logical expression for the domain of the N-value calculation. If you go to the calculation set up page for N-value, select "Domain" and you will see several options. At the bottom of the page, there is the option called "Logical Expression". Click the "Edit" button to open the "Expression Builder" tool. The expression you need to create should look as follows:

Strain = .06_[%] Until Strain = Uniform Elongation


If your measurement and calculation names are the same as above, you can simply copy and paste the above expression into the expression field. This should allow the software to calculate N-value automatically at the end of the test between .06% strain and Uniform Elongation.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

92

Software Tips
Q: What happens if power is suddenly lost during a test? Will I lose all my data in Bluehill?
A: Bluehill Software is designed to automatically save test results in the event of power loss and computer shutdown. When Bluehill restarts, the software will inform you that there was an interruption, and give you an option to recover the test file. You can continue testing after the file is recovered.

93

Subscribe to TechNotes

Software Tips
Q: How can I be certain my extensometer is ready to use?
A: Many of our customers use a variety of extensometers in their labs. Our software identifies which extensometer is connected to the system and restores calibration information for that extensometer. If an extensometer is not calibrated, a warning message is displayed to the operator. This selfidentification and calibration process eliminates the need for the operator to manually calibrate the extensometer before use.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

94

Software Tips
Correcting for Compliance
Materials testing systems subjected to a force will deform, however slightly. This is called compliance and can lead to significant errors in results for certain types of tests. Most materials testing systems measure crosshead or actuator displacement. However, the displacement output recorded by the system is actually the sum of the system compliance and the specimen deformation. Where very precise measurements of specimen deformation are required, the use of extensometers avoids system compliance errors completely. But what can you do if the use of extensometers in your application is inconvenient or difficult due to test fixturing requirements or test environment for instance when testing springs or gaskets? In such cases, we suggest using the Compliance Correction feature available in Instron's materials testing software. This feature subtracts system compliance from the load/displacement curve, leaving behind the true deformation of the specimen. If you are an existing Bluehill, Merlin, Series IX or Partner user, check your software's help system to see if your current version supports this feature. If not, contact us for details on how to upgrade to the latest version.

95

Subscribe to TechNotes

Software Tips
Benefits of the Preload Feature in Bluehill Software
One of our favorite Bluehill features is the Preload feature. For flex and compression testing, the Preload feature allows you to set the upper anvil a small distance from the specimen and start data collection automatically without "slack" at the start of the test. In tension testing, operators often start a test with an amount of negative or compressive load on the specimen (usually caused by a high-clamping pressure). Adding a preload setting allows for automatic data collection after the compressive load has been removed. The Preload feature increases repeatability and reliability, while improving the appearance of graphical results.

How do you turn this feature on? In your Bluehill software method, go to "Control" and then "Pre-test" on the left margin. Check the "Preload" option and set the control mode, rate, channel and value. Typical preload parameters include extension control at a rate slower than your testing rate and a value of load based on the load channel. As a rule, we suggest never using a preload threshold greater than 5% of the expected maximum load. In some cases, a value of 0.01N will be good enough to make sure that the test starts after zero load or when the upper anvil first makes contact with the specimen. Experimentation is often necessary to ensure you are not truncating important data from your results and graphs.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

96

Software Tips
Q: Do I Need to Enter Dimensions for Each Specimen?
A: Most tests require specimen stress to be collected. Because stress is calculated from the cross sectional area of a specimen (stress=load/cross-sectional area), it is essential that specimen dimensions are accurate. Therefore, specimen dimensions should be measured and entered individually; not as a default for the batch. As a time-saver, Instron's materials testing software allows the user to enter dimensions for future specimens while a test is in progress.

97

Subscribe to TechNotes

Service and Calibration Tips

Service and Calibration Tips

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

98

Software Tips
Are You Always "InvestigationReady?"
An overweight aircraft crashes, a bridge fails, a building collapses. Accidents occur as the end product of a chain of events; a series of small failures, each one linked to the next. Prevent any one of them, and you break the chain; the accident cannot occur. After every major accident, investigators examine every link in that chain of events. These investigations are detailed and comprehensive; they will include manufacturers calibration records for testing instruments used in the production of materials and structures. Public reports of poor calibration management and record keeping, whether contributing to the accident or not, promote doubt and distrust among your customers about your quality standards. Its clear that the more you know about how testing equipment is calibrated and verified the better prepared you are to effectively assess a calibration services qualifications and capabilities. However, even the basic terms calibration and verification are confusing to many people. Calibration is simply the process of comparing an unknown value to a known value. To calibrate a device is to compare the output of that device with the output of a similar but highly accurate device called a standard . Using load cells as an example, the load cell being calibrated (the unknown) and the standard load cell (the known) are mounted and a range of loads is applied. Because they are in series, both load cells experience identical loads and therefore the output values should also be identical. The calibration result is the difference between the two values, otherwise known as the measurement error. Verification is the subsequent evaluation of the calibration result against the expected performance specification for the equipment. The performance specification dictates the limits of the measurement errors for the device under test. If the measurement errors throughout the range are less than the specified limits, the device is verified as conforming to its performance specification. If the errors are greater than the specified limits, the device is verified as not conforming to its performance specification. Note that in either case, conforming or not conforming, the equipment is still considered to be verified. A common misconception is that calibration means adjusting the output of a device to bring its performance within limits. Any adjustment made to the output of the device is separate from the calibration and verification process, and must be followed by a further calibration and verification to prove the adjustment was successful.

99

Subscribe to TechNotes

Service and Calibration Tips


To summarize, calibration is the physical process of taking comparative measurements from your device against a standard device, and verification is the analytical process of comparing the resulting measurement errors against the performance specification of your device. Verification is, of course, not possible without the preceding calibration. However, verification is so closely related to calibration that they are treated as two inseparable parts of the same process. Will the next headline bring your company into sharp focus? It can happen any time. Make sure you know the importance of, and the difference between, calibration and verification, and that your calibration records are ready for scrutiny at all times.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

100

Software Tips
Q: Can you give me a letter certifying that my test is in accordance with a specific ASTM or ISO standard?
A: Well, no, we cant do that. But before you gasp in as tonishment and start to look around for a manufacturer that can, lets discuss the reasons why. A test standard details many things to which a material test must conform. Many of these are under Instrons full control for example, the rate of load application of a testing machine or the software algorithm code for a particular calculation. But the test must also conform to many things outside of Instrons control, such as the specimen alignment, the choice of grips and jaw faces, and the set up of the test control parameters. When we certify that a test instrument meets the requirements of an ASTM or ISO standard, we are confirming that the items under our control have been measured, validated, and verified in accordance with our ISO 9001 certification. We also publish letters of conformance that detail the extensive test processes that we apply to our software products. The final certification of the actual test and associated test results must come from you. But you can rest assured that the testing equipment that you are using, when properly maintained and regularly calibrated, fully meets the requirements of the published standards.

101

Subscribe to TechNotes

Service and Calibration Tips


Q: What does accreditation mean and how does it affect testing standards?
A: The International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC) is an international organization of laboratory and inspection accreditation bodies such as National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP), United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS), Comit Franais d'Accrditation (COFRAC) and so on. Accreditation of a calibration laboratory proves its competence, capability and performance.

A calibration service will always follow an internationally accepted standard where it is available. Many standards exist to cover the verification of materials testing equipment. One of the best known is ASTM E4 Standard Practices for Force Verification of Testing Machines. In cases where standards do not exist, an accredited calibration laboratory can produce a custom procedure for verification and submit this for approval from their accrediting body. If an ILAC member approves a procedure, you can be sure that the work done is to the highest standard. Our current accreditation certificates are available for download.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

102

Software Tips
How do you move a 250,000 pound deadweight stack, while maintaining its integrity and accuracy?
Did you know that the load cell used to calibrate your testing machines was originally calibrated using a 3story tall, 250,000 lbf deadweight stack; one of the largest deadweight force calibration systems in the world? Or that one nick on the deadweight could mean a lost gram; and a 5-mile change in location means a change in gravity of 0.0009%? A deadweight calibration system applies a series of weights to a load cell and compares the electrical readout of the load cell to the force of the weights. It applies force with an accuracy of 0.0012%; its accuracy depends on knowing precisely the masses of the weights, local gravity and air density. Instron faced many hurdles in moving the deadweight stack when the company relocated in April: the physical size of each weight, keeping the accuracy of the stacks physical properties, a change in gravity from neighboring towns and possible nicks and scratches that could affect the accuracy of the weights. After six weeks of careful disassembly in Canton and re-assembly in Norwood; an additional 60 days of finetuning and tweaking the mechanisms; and having a local gravity measurement made by a consultant from the National Geodetic Survey to an accuracy of 0.000002%, Instron succeeded in moving the 250,000 pound deadweight stack!

103

Subscribe to TechNotes

Errors in Testing

Errors in Testing

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

104

Errors in Testing
Are You Receiving the Highest Quality Test Results?
During these tough economic times, companies are forced to carefully review their budgets. Some lab managers may be inclined to take shortcuts including less training for their operators or decreasing their budgets for testing. However, these shortcuts may introduce error in your test results. It's important to understand sources of error in test results in order to make informed decisions about your lab. Gauge repeatability and reproducibility (GR&R) is a statistical analysis often performed by quality engineers and lab managers. This thorough statistical method determines the consistency of a testing instrument, and pinpoints the process variation for the measurement system. The term repeatability defines how well the system can produce a known result over multiple tests. Reproducibility is the ability of another operator to produce the same results from similar parts with the same level of consistency. The output of a GR&R study is a quantitative result by which a testing system can be measured. For most measurement systems, a GR&R value of less than 10% is ideal. It's important to remember that a GR&R number indicates consistency of the tester and all elements that may affect the tester (see diagram) it does not indicate tester accuracy.

Read and download our online article: GR&R: Understanding Sources of Error in Mechanical Testing Results

105

Subscribe to TechNotes

Errors in Testing
What is Data Rate?
Modern mechanical testing systems allow you to select the data rate for a particular test. This is a brief introduction on some basics associated with data sampling: how to determine the "optimum" sampling rate; what happens if the data rate is too low; and why faster data rates are not always better. The "data acquisition rate" associated with a testing machine is the frequency at which a data point is taken from the sensors and sent to the data file*. All the test results will be calculated based on this acquired data, so it is critical to ensure that the captured data accurately represents the raw signal. To capture all the meaningful features of load cell or extensometer signals from a test, there is an "optimum" data sampling rate. This "optimum" sampling rate ideally provides data that is at least within 1% of the raw signal at all times. This means that the captured data would never be different from the actual signal by any more than 1%. ASTM Standard Guide E1942 states that this rate is on the order of 50 times the speed of the event you are trying to capture, such that the error purely from sampling is less than 0.2%. This leaves room for error elsewhere in the system while maintaining an overall accuracy of 1%. Sampling at more than roughly 50 times the speed of the event provides no additional information just more data points and a larger data file. Sampling at less than the optimum rate, however, can result in severe loss of information due to missed peaks or events.

Let's imagine your eyes are closed, and in front of you is an event. The rate at which you open/close your eyes to see the event would be the sampling rate. For a slow event, like grass growing, it is clear that you would not have to open your eyes very often to get a clear record of progress for this event. On the other hand, if the event was someone doing jumping jacks, you would have to open your eyes often to capture this event. For this example, let's say that each jump lasts 0.5 seconds, or 2 Hz (2 jumps per second). In order to get a clear idea of each jumping jack, the optimum rate would be about 100 Hz, or 50 times the speed of the jumping. Sampling at 500 or 1,000 Hz would provide a smoother image, but would not significantly improve the accuracy of the image, like how high the jumps are. It is easy to default to a high data rate and deal with large data files. However, this leads to downstream data management issues and the need for very large memory storage devices. So it is a healthy exercise to think about what events you are trying to record and ensure that the data rate selected is sufficient to capture the event within acceptable tolerances. Higher-end testing systems allow users to adjust not only the data rate, but also the bandwidth of the signal conditioner, which has a large effect on data acquisition. *NOTE: The test data rate should not be confused with the internal sampling rate of digital signal processing system which has nothing to do with the data that is gathered during a test and used to calculate results.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

106

Errors in Testing
Q: What is the Relationship between Accuracy and Resolution?
A: Simply stated, accuracy is the difference between the measured and the "actual" value of a signal. It is a statement of the error or uncertainty in the measurement as compared to an absolute standard. For example, suppose your test machine has a load accuracy of 1% of reading* and you run a test which results in a reported peak load of 100 N. Then the error or uncertainty is 1 N and the actual peak load could have been anywhere between 99 N and 101 N.

Resolution is the smallest detectable change of a measured parameter. For example, if your test machine has a resolution of 0.1 N and you ran the above test, the second highest load value could be 99.9 N. There cannot be any load readings between 100 N and 99.9 N. The resolution is determined by the capability of the transducer and its electronics, not by the number of decimal places in the data display. In the example system, even if the load display reads 100.00 N, the resolution is still the same: 0.1 N. For mechanical testing, it is important to make sure that both the accuracy and the resolution are scaled to provide meaningful data from your tests. *Many instruments state accuracy as a percent of capacity. This is very different from accuracy as a percent of reading. Accuracy as a percent of capacity is much looser and easier to achieve. All Instron accuracy statements are percent of reading, not capacity. Example: If the 100 N peak load example was made with a 1,000 N load cell with an accuracy of 1% of capacity, the error would have been 10 N. However, since the accuracy is 1% of reading, the error is 1 N, ten times better.

107

Subscribe to TechNotes

Errors in Testing
When You Shouldn't Balance the Load Cell
We are often asked how many times and when an operator should balance the load cell during testing. It is most common for lab managers to create a test procedure that requires the operator to balance a load cell before the start of a new sample, but others insist on balancing the load cell before every specimen. We believe that either procedure is acceptable, as long as one rule is followed: never balance the load cell when there is a specimen in the grips. Instron load cells are very sensitive and can detect a change in load as a result of gripping the specimen. If the load is balanced after a specimen is gripped, you risk balancing a "real load". This real load will be subtracted from (or added to) reported results and can falsely increase or decrease actual values (depending on whether or not there was a compressive or tensile load on the specimen before the load cell was balanced). If you notice this change on the load channel display after gripping, operators have the option of using automated software features, such as preload or specimen protect (see the software help files for more information) or they can manually adjust the position of the crosshead.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

108

Errors in Testing
Test Specimen Cutting and Stamping
It's no secret that careful test specimen preparation is vital to achieving consistent and accurate test results. Cutting or stamping rubber and elastomeric test specimens from sheet stock is a very common technique for producing a wide variety of specimen shapes. However, despite the best of intentions, its very commonality can result in lowered inspection standards over time and a consequent reduction in the quality of specimens. It is vital that you keep the stamp die or cutter very sharp. Rubber will always deform under the pressure of the stamp die and even the sharpest die can cause the cut edge to be slightly concave. As the die edge becomes blunter, this dishing effect becomes more pronounced, reducing the cross-sectional area of the specimen. It is just as important to keep the edge free from any nicks, notches, or curled edges. Any imperfections of the cutter edge, particularly in the area of the parallel length of the specimen, will undoubtedly result in premature failure. The risk of damaging the edge is highest where there is no ejection system for the specimen and you have to remove it manually from the stamp die with a pointed tool such as a screwdriver. Get into the habit of regularly checking the specimen edges for dishing and the stamp die blades for wear and damage. You will be rewarded with greater consistency of specimen dimensions and greater accuracy of results.

109

Subscribe to TechNotes

Testing Standards

Testing Standards

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

110

Testing Standards
Q: What types of international testing standards are used in the medical device industry?
A: The standards committees around the world are active in a variety of different biomedical-related application areas, including medical devices, such as needles, syringes, stents, and disposable device packaging; orthopeadics, such as artificial spinal implants and discs, and hip and knee replacements; and dental applications that include shear and tensile testing. The goal of these standards committees is to: 1. Understand how certain tests are typically being performed in industry and academia, 2. Come to agreement on the most accurate methodology for evaluating a material or product, and 3. Document that methodology into a test method that would allow for repeatable and reproducible results. Having standardized test methods allows for comparison of test results between similar products that differ in design or manufacture, and provides guidance to accepted industry practices for newcomers in the field. View a list of commonly used and active standards *Other standards may apply depending on your product or industry

111

Subscribe to TechNotes

Testing Standards
Q: What is 21 CFR Part 11 and how does it affect me?
A: 21 CFR Part 11 is a set of compliance requirements that allow for safe and secure storage and submission of electronic records for industries regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In other words, this is the FDA's procedure for quality control of electronic data. Any company storing electronic data which could be audited by the FDA must comply with this set of requirements. Although the FDA still permits paperbased data storage and submission, this approach can lead to higher costs, increased time to market, decreased quality, and challenges with information storage availability, retrieval and portability, as compared with electronic methods. There are two electronic approaches: 1. Partial Electronic This approach stores the electronic records as equivalent to paper records with handwritten signatures. It still requires a large amount of printed documentation that carries the same risks and challenges as a full-paper approach. 2. Electronic This approach uses all electronic records and electronic signatures, so no paper documentation is necessary. This approach is less subject to human error and can save significant time and money with automation of processes. Further, a completely electronic approach allows for electronic submission of data and reports to the FDA, which can save additional time and costs to the organization.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

112

Testing Standards
Q: I've been testing to ASTM test standards and now I've been asked to do the ISO equivalent. What is the difference between ASTM and ISO? Can I use my existing test fixtures?
A: While testing requests are still significant for ASTM evaluations, ISO is predominant in many parts of the world and many organizations are moving to ISO test procedures. There can be significant differences between the two standards, including specimen preparation, size, test conditions, fixturing and reporting. It's important that users closely read the standards. For example, an ASTM user testing plastics would follow ASTM D 638, while an ISO user would follow ISO 527 (see chart for the type of differences to expect). However, Instron systems can easily test according to both ASTM and ISO standards. Many of our test fixtures (but not all) are designed to accommodate both standards and the software can easily change settings, units, and results with a click of the mouse.

113

Subscribe to TechNotes

Testing Standards
Q: What testing standards serve as guidelines and requirements for the development and manufacture of hip implants?
A: Research and development of modular hip implants requires a substantial investment in testing the materials and the device itself. New materials and designs are constantly being evaluated. Standardization committees have established a variety of test protocols and procedures that ensure safe and effective development of these medical devices. The test standards that you should consider in the development of hip replacements includes: ISO 7206 Implants for surgery Partial and total hip joint prostheses Part 4: Determination of endurance properties and performance of stemmed femoral components Part 6: Determination of endurance properties of head and neck region of stemmed femoral components Part 8: Endurance performance of stemmed femoral components with application of torsion Part 9: Determination of resistance to torque of head fixation of stemmed femoral components Part 10: Determination of resistance to static load of modular femoral heads ASTM F 1612 95 (2005) Standard Practice for Cyclic Fatigue Testing of Metallic Stemmed Hip Arthroplasty Femoral Components with Torsion ASTM F 1714 96 (2008) Standard Guide for Gravimetric Wear Assessment of Prosthetic Hip-Designs in Simulator Devices ASTM F 1875 98 (2009) Standard Practice for Fretting Corrosion Testing of Modular Implant Interfaces: Hip Femoral Head-Bore and Cone Taper Interface ASTM F 2345 03(2008) Standard Test Methods for Determination of Static and Cyclic Fatigue Strength of Ceramic Modular Femoral Heads ISO 14242 1 (2002-03) Implants for Surgery Wear of Total Hip Prostheses Part 1: Loading and displacement parameters for wear-testing machines and corresponding environmental conditions for tests

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

114

Customer Stories

Customer Stories

115

Subscribe to TechNotes

Customer Stories
Research Institute Partners with Private Steel Company
The recently formed Institute of Research of Iron and Steel (IRIS) in Jiangsu province is unique in China. It is the first Chinese research institute that is integrated with a private steel company, Sha-Steel. Sha-Steel is the largest private steel company in China. It forms part of the Jiangsu Shangang Group, one of the ten largest steel producers in the world. IRIS was co-founded about three years ago by Sha-Steel and the provincial government of Jiangsu province. Recently, Instron had the opportunity to interview Professor Toshihiko Emi, the inaugural director of IRIS. Dr. Emi, formerly a board member of Kawasaki Steel (now JFE Steel) and professor at Tohoku University, Japan, is an eminent figure in international societies related to iron and steel with major awards from ISIJ, AIST (formerly ISSAIME), and the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences. Instron: Would you give us a brief overview of the institute? Prof. Emi: Most major steel industries in China have integrated iron and steel institutes, but this is the first time that a private steel company in China has developed a research institute. IRIS researches mainly on behalf of the Sha-Steel group but with a minor fraction for the other steel companies, both private and state-owned, in Jiangsu province. Instron: What successes have you had so far? Prof. Emi: The institute is still in its infancy. We started about three years ago and its taken two years to build, equip, and recruit for the institute. So we have had just one year in operation, much of which has concentrated on staff training and education. However, we have already developed quite a number of new materials as a result of our research. IRIS has installed extensive mechanical materials testing facilities; static and dynamic test frames, hardness testers, impact testers, and test accessories. Instron: You have equipped your materials testing facilities with a wide range of Instron, Satec, Wilson, and Dynatup equipment? Why did you make this choice? Prof. Emi: The equipment supplied from Instron is very integrated and convenient to use. And we particularly appreciate the after sales support. Instron: Do any of your research goals involve the development of new testing processes? Prof. Emi: Im sure you appreciate that much of our research is confidential. But I can say that some research programs require novel test processes and procedures outside of conventional use. For example, we are investigating new techniques in existing areas of mechanical testing such as crack tip opening displacement tests. IRIS has two stated objectives; to develop advanced steel materials and processes for the sustainable progress of Sha-Steel and the steel industry of Jiangsu Province, and to reduce the emission of pollutants and the consumption of coal and iron ore.
Photo courtesy of Prof. Emi

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

116

Customer Stories
Instron: The central government of China has requested the steel industry to reduce overall steel output and eliminate outdated production facilities. What are your thoughts about this initiative? Prof. Emi: This is a very positive move. It will help our efforts to reduce global warming and the waste of raw materials. This is the right direction to go. Instron: One of your stated research goals for IRIS is to actively research ways to reduce energy consumption and emissions of greenhouse gasses. What are you doing toward this goal? Prof. Emi: A large part of the energy consumption and the emission comes from the upstream operations of the steel industry - sintering, coking and iron making. It is most important that we reduce coal consumption to reduce pollutants in the atmosphere and we have started working specifically in this area. Instron: Products and materials manufactured in China have a reputation for variable quality standards. Is this being overcome in the iron and steel industry and what role does the institute play in reducing this perception? Prof. Emi: For the large steel companies in general, the variations in products are still greater than in other industrially advanced countries. Efforts are ongoing for standardization advanced production and testing equipment, improved maintenance, improved control and automation with sensors, and improved operations. Program control and automation is an important activity of IRIS to improve standardization of the production plant. Instron: Dr. Emi, thank you very much.

117

Subscribe to TechNotes

Customer Stories
Materials Science for Young Minds
Schuyler Patton, a teacher at Central High School, Philadelphia, PA, has a passion for materials science. He spent six weeks at University of Pennsylvania working with three professors to develop a senior materials science elective course the very first materials science course at Central High School. As the second oldest public high school in the USA, Central offers a curriculum aimed at students with a high grade point average and even higher career aspirations. Using an Instron 5565, Pattons students perform a range of analysis from standard stress-strain testing to comparative studies of different materials. This class is very similar to an introductory college class, Patton said. Its focused on my students becoming familiar with different properties elasticity, toughness, and strength, as well as the stress-strain curve and what it means. And the students are enjoying this class. Were doing a fun project to see who in the class has the strongest hair.
Photo courtesy of Schuyler Patton

Not all the materials testing lessons are done during class time. Patton has set up independent research opportunities for students ranging from freshmen to seniors. Through compression testing, one freshman is researching methods to make concrete stronger, while a senior biology class is performing tensile tests with cow ligaments at various temperatures with different treatments to compare them with synthetic fibers. Additionally, a few groups analyzed possibilities of synthetic replacement materials for cow ligaments. This collaboration with Central High School is an exciting opportunity for us to build soli d engineering principles into these special young minds, says Jim Ritchey, Director of Medical Markets.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

118

Customer Stories
The Sound of Quality
In the early 1990s, the Los Alamos National Laboratory had a problem. Scientists were studying superconductors a material that exhibits zero resistance to the flow of electricity. But how could they determine a material's elastic properties (including Young's Modulus and Poisson's ratio) at really cold temperatures? The materials they were studying were high-temperature superconductors, which meant they needed to understand their material properties at - 300F (-185C), a temperature that is cold enough to make rubber shatter. Why was this important? If the elastic properties of hightemperature superconductors could be better understood, scientists might be able to raise the temperature range at which materials become superconductors. This would make it possible to conduct very high current electricity with essentially no energy loss. Magnetic Levitation (Mag Lev) trains that "float" resistance-free on a magnetic field might become practical and cost effective. With that need in mind, Magnaflux Quasar commercialized the technology required to allow laboratories to measure elastic constants at very low temperatures. Their RUSpec system works by exciting and listening to a material's natural resonances over a wide frequency range. Bells resonate at many different frequencies simultaneously, most of which are at a much higher frequency than the human ear can hear. These resonant frequencies, along with the shape of the sample, can be used to characterize a number of material properties, such as elastic modulus. This capability complements Instron equipment that measures mechanical and some elastic properties. It also provides added information with very high accuracy (up to 0.01%) and can be used over an extensive temperature range.
Photo courtesy of Magnaflux Quasar

When using the RUSpec, researchers discovered that some samples sang a different tune or had a different resonance pattern. The implications of this behavior were later understood when automotive production parts were tested and the patterns of known good and known bad parts were compared. This research confirmed that the resonance of a part can be used to determine its quality. Over the last several years, Quasar has proven that resonance testing is far more accurate at predicting structural performance than other nondestructive testing (NDT) methods. Quasar was acquired in March 2007, making Quasar a sister company to Instron. Visit Quasar to find out more information on the technology behind their products.

119

Subscribe to TechNotes

Customer Stories
The Science Behind Superhuman Strength
Competition wondering how a single man can pull a vehicle 100 feet by hand or squat heavy weights of up to 900 pounds and thought "how did he do that?" There is no doubt these individuals are extremely strong, but what's the science behind their "superhuman strengths"? National Geographic has teamed with Instron to simulate strong man stunts. Instron's Engineered Solutions Group took on the exciting challenge of designing custom fixtures and grips to tear apart a thick book; break a padlock and handcuffs; bend a steel bar and a crescent wrench; roll a frying pan; break a stack of concrete blocks; and drive a nail (with bare hands) through a frying pan and a block of wood. Chris Lofft, who films for National Geographic, brought the excitement of Hollywood to Instron and quickly gave our lab a movie set look. Lorenzo Majno, manager of our Engineering Solutions Group, became the lead man for the production. Working with his team to perform the tests, he provided interesting analogies to explain the test results in layman's terms. Lofft has high expectations for the show, which is to air this fall. Fight Science, a similar National Geographic production, was ranked #1 by viewers between the ages of 18 to 35 and ranked #8 of all times on the National Geographic channel. Lofft is expecting the superhuman strength show to appeal to the same demographics. "The force to mimic these feats was enormous," said Lofft. "This is what reassures me that our strong men are in large part extraordinarily strong."

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

120

Customer Stories
Formula 1 Racer Gears Up With Carbon Fiber
By: Sara Black, Technical Editor, High-Performance Composites Ray Publishing

Of the numerous forms of motor sports, Formula 1 auto racing is the most advanced in terms of both technology and money. One recent innovation is a composite gearbox developed by the B.A.R. Honda Formula 1 design team, now the Honda Racing F1 Team. The gearbox encases the car's high-grade steel gears that are responsible for transmitting the engine's rotational power to the rear wheels. The composite solution came about because of the lackluster performance of previous aluminum versions. Because weight and low inertia are so critical at this level of racing, aluminum castings for the gearbox had to be extremely thin and, as a result, rapidly developed fatigue cracks due to imposed vibrational and torsional stresses. Honda tested the new gearbox using Instron's 5582 (100kN) and 5584 (200kN) floor-standing universal test machines fitted with hydraulic grips and an Instron environmental chamber. The results showed improved tensile and shear strength, along with increased fracture toughness. Honda was convinced the new composite material from Cytec Engineered Materials Inc. delivered the necessary strength and toughness for this demanding application and as a result, it specified the new composite formula for not only the gearbox, but other composite parts on the car as well.
Photo courtesy of B.A.R Honda Formula 1

"We consider the composite gearbox to be the 'jewel in the crown' in terms of our race car design," says Honda Racing F1 Team's deputy technical director Gary Savage, who holds a PhD in mechanical engineering and is a 16-year veteran of Formula 1 car design. The gearbox's design has continued to evolve from the first 2004 version and is now even lighter and easier to manufacture, he asserts. In the last year, the composite formula has been improved to withstand higher temperatures. When compared to the original aluminum version, the current 2006 composite gearbox is 30 percent lighter, has 14 percent more torsional rigidity and 19 percent greater lateral stiffness, which ultimately leads to better racing performance.

121

Subscribe to TechNotes

Customer Stories
Materials Testing Explored in High School
When you think of vocational classes in high school, what usually comes to mind? Shop, auto-mechanics or construction classes? Maybe even home economics? That's not the case in Texas. Beginning in September, Skyline High School in Dallas will be teaching materials testing to vocational students in the Plastics Technology Program. Anne Bernhardt, teacher and engineer, will teach material behavior and quality control testing on plastics to her students, ranging in age from 15 to 19 years old. The lessons are at different levels, with the freshmen running very simple, organized tests and the upper classmen devising more complex testing protocols that will encompass the effects of statistical variations.
Photo courtesy of Anne Bernhardt "I'd like to expose my students to material properties and how it affects things around them in the consumer world," says Bernhardt. "I'd like for them to explore the world around them and know the difference between failure and yield. This gives them the chance to test and learn why and how materials and designs are selected."

Bernhardt's emphasis is on making this fun and informative by using more sophisticated equipment for discovery in understanding material properties. The students will perform a range of plastic tests using Instron's model 3365 with Bluehill 2 software. Bernhardt's request for federal funding to set up a materials testing lab is through the Perkins Grant program for vocational education. "Teaching my students this trade allows them to prep to get into professions that are beyond plant floor work and includes more college bound opportunities. It opens another job opportunity for them. I'm encouraging them to look into engineering," says Bernhardt.

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

122

Index by Material

Adhesives

3M Ensures Quality under Different Test Conditions How does the mechanical testing of solar cells contribute to the "green energy" initiative? Volvo Meets the Challenges of High Strain Rate Testing

70 88 73 45 42

Asphalt/Rock/Concrete Biomaterials

From CO2 to Solid Rock The Tower of Babel: Testing the Possibilities

A New Hip Material 43 Characterizing Spinal Range of Motion for Development of Improved Devices 74 How Can Testing Strengthen Your Smile? 55 Lab-grown Tissue 71 MacGyver-style Leg Brace May Reduce Amputations 72 Patients Own Tissue Repairs Torn Ligaments 75 Simulating Physiological Conditions of Implants 76 Study Shows Differences in Mesh Materials for Hernia Repair 7 What testing standards serve as guidelines and requirements for the development and manufacture of hip implants? 114 What's Inside Your Arteries? Testing Could Reveal Your Risk of Stroke 12 Challenges in Testing Biomedical Components 86 How does side loading and specimen/component misalignment of varying geometries of medical devices and implants affect my test results? How should I best address these challenges? 87 The Best Solution for Gripping Low-Force Specimens 32 What types of international testing standards are used in the medical device industry? 111 A New Hip Material Hidden Sensors Provide Extra Safety How Can Testing Strengthen Your Smile? How does the mechanical testing of solar cells contribute to the "green energy" initiative? The Sound of Quality A New Hip Material What is 21 CFR Part 11 and how does it affect me? A New Hip Material ASTM E18-07: New Changes will Affect Your Rockwell Hardness Indenters Best Practices: Which Rockwell Scale to Use Formula 1 Racer Gears Up With Carbon Fiber Hardness Testing on Cylindrical Specimens How can I get better r-value results when using clip-on extensometers? How can I measure the torsional properties of a pipe or cylinder? How far apart should I space each Rockwell hardness test Increasing Efficiency in Knoop and Vickers Testing Recent Testing Uncovers Titanics Mystery Research Institute Partners with Private Steel Company Select Jaw Faces Based on the Hardness of Your Specimens Testing of High Strength Rebar 43 10 55 88 119 43 112 43 56 48 121 50 23 81 49 47 44 116 59 9

Biomedical

Composites

Foam Food

Metals

123

Subscribe to TechNotes

Index by Material
The Bridge to Safety The Invisible Rebar: Microscopic Nanotubes Dramatically Increase Material Strength Volvo Meets the Challenges of High Strain Rate Testing What is a Jominy test? When testing some specimens, the strain values appear to go backwards when the specimen is yielding. Could extensometer slippage be causing this effect? Which grips are best for testing thin metal specimens? 11 40 73 54 16 17 18

Plastics

Can clip-on extensometers affect my strain results when testing thermoplastics? Green Plastic

How do I select an extensometer when determining a yield stress? 26 Protecting Our Environment: Reducing Waste in Landfills 39 Test Specimen Cutting and Stamping 109 Volvo Meets the Challenges of High Strain Rate Testing 73 We take great care to ensure our test setup is consistent and our test equipment is as good as it can be, but our Poissons ratio values still show too much variability. Is there anything else we can do? 13 What to Consider When Measuring Plastics 30

The Garbage Dump Killer?

Rubber/Elastomers

How do I select an extensometer when determining a yield stress? Different Rubber Hardness Scales for Your Testing Needs Test Specimen Cutting and Stamping Why do I see a negative load after clamping my tensile specimen? The Impenetrable Ship

26 58 109 33 79

Rubbers/Elastomers Wood

Http://www.instron.com/subscribe

124

Index by Industry
Academic
From CO2 to Solid Rock How Can Testing Strengthen Your Smile? Materials Science for Young Minds Materials Testing Explored in High School Research Institute Partners with Private Steel Company The Tower of Babel - Testing the Possibilities 45 55 118 122 116 42 99 10 121 44 79 119 73

Aerospace

Are You Always "Investigation-Ready?" Hidden Sensors Provide Extra Safety

Aerospace and Suppliers Automotive/Truck/Rail/Shipbuilding


Formula 1 Racer Gears Up With Carbon Fiber Recent Testing Uncovers Titanics Mystery The Impenetrable Ship The Sound of Quality Volvo Meets the Challenges of High Strain Rate Testing

Biomedical/Medical/Healthcare

A New Hip Material 43 Challenges in Testing Biomedical Components 86 Characterizing Spinal Range of Motion for Development of Improved Devices 74 How Can Testing Strengthen Your Smile? 55 How does side loading and specimen/component misalignment of varying geometries of medical devices and implants affect my test results? How should I best address these challenges? 87 Lab-grown Tissue 71 MacGyver-style Leg Brace May Reduce Amputations 72 Patients Own Tissue Repairs Torn Ligaments 75 Simulating Physiological Conditions of Implants 76 Study Shows Differences in Mesh Materials for Hernia Repair 7 The Best Solution for Gripping Low-Force Specimens 32 What testing standards serve as guidelines and requirements for the development and manufacture of hip implants? 114 What types of international testing standards are used in the medical device industry? 111 What's Inside Your Arteries? Testing Could Reveal Your Risk of Stroke 12 3M Ensures Quality under Different Test Conditions Green Plastic The Garbage Dump Killer? Hidden Sensors Provide Extra Safety How does the mechanical testing of solar cells contribute to the "green energy" initiative? Protecting Our Environment - Reducing Waste in Landfills Are You Always "Investigation-Ready?" Testing of High Strength Rebar The Bridge to Safety 70 5 10 88 39 99 9 11 112

Consumer/Industrial Products

Department of Transportation Government/Defense

What is 21 CFR Part 11 and how does it affect me?

125

Subscribe to TechNotes

You might also like