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1 Introdu tion
1.1
Chaos
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
9
10
2.1
12
2.2
16
2.3
Universality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
23
30
4.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
4.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
CONTENTS
43
48
Chapter 1
Introdu
tion
Classi
al me
hani
s deals with how deterministi
systems, su
h as swinging
pendulums and orbiting planets,
hange with time. The dynami
s of su
h a
system are des
ribed by its state, whi
h
aptures the values of all the variables
that is needed to predi
t the future of the system, and a set of rules, often
in the form of dierential equations, whi
h say how the state
hanges with
time. In a dynami
al system we observe the world as a fun
tion of time. We
express our observations as numbers and re
ord how they
hange with time;
given su
iently detailed information and understanding of the underlying
natural laws, we see the future in the present as in a mirror.
Systems may be
lassied into two main
ategories:
1. Linear
2. Nonlinear
Dynami al
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
In general, all real systems are nonlinear, However, very often it is the
ase
that, as a rst approximation to the dynami
s of a parti
ular system, a linear model may be used. Linear models are preferable from a s
ientist's point
of view as typi
ally they are mu
h more amenable to mathemati
al analysis. (Hen
e the disproportionate number of linear systems studied in s
ien
e.)
Nonlinear systems, in
ontrast, are mu
h more di
ult to analyse mathemati
ally, and, apart from a few ex
eptions, analyti
al solutions are not possible
for the nonlinear dierential equations used to des
ribe their temporal evolution. In addition, only nonlinear systems are
apable of a most fas
inating
behaviour known as
haoti
motion, or simply
haos, whereby even simple
nonlinear systems
an, under
ertain operating
onditions, behave in a seemingly unpredi
table manner. Two things might seem to be su
ient for the
( ).
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
Nonlinear dynami
s is one of the glorious su
esses of
omputational s
ien
e. It has been explored by mathemati
ians, s
ientists and engineers, and
usually with
omputers as an essential tool.
In addition, be-
ause biologi
al systems often have
omplex intera
tions, and may not be in
thermodynami
equilibrium states, models of them are often nonlinear, with
properties similar to other
omplex systems. The intriguing properties and
tantalising possibilities of
haos have thus
reated
onsiderable interest in the
mathemati
s world, thus leading to a mass of new denitions and results in
the general eld of nonlinear dynami
s whi
h en
ompasses
haos and systems
theory.
In 1963 Edward Lorenz published his work entitled 'Deterministi
nonperiodi
ow' whi
h detailed the behaviour of a simplied mathemati
al model
representing the workings of the atmosphere. Lorenz showed how a relatively
simple, deterministi
mathemati
al model (that is, one with no randomness
asso
iated with it)
ould produ
e apparently unpredi
table behaviour, later
named
haos.
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Chaos
The study of dynami
al systems a
tually dates ba
k many years but the last
three de
ades have seen intensive studies whi
h have been prompted by the
dis
overy of
haos.
riosity. Although irregular or unpredi
table behaviour may have been noted,
this was often attributed to random external inuen
es. Correspondingly in
engineering, and in parti
ular in ele
tri
al systems, the appearan
e of
haos
was usually regarded as a nuisan
e and thus designed out where possible.
Changes
ame about with publi
ation of seminal works by Lorenz, Feigenbaum, Smale, and May,
oupled with numeri
al simulations by a host of
resear
hers, notably early work by Ueda in ele
tri
al engineering, so that
modern studies have now
onrmed that
haoti
phenomena are
ompletely
deterministi
, o
urring in a variety of nonlinear problems in physi
al and
natural systems. Mathemati
ally, the study of
haoti
systems has proved extremely useful sin
e the latter form ar
hetypal dynami
al systems exhibiting
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
For a
sto
hasti
system, the present states ree
ts the past initial
onditions plus
the parti
ular realization of the noise en
ountered along the way. It would
be natural to think that if a system is deterministi
, its behaviour should
be easily predi
ted. But there are systems where their behaviour turns out
to be non-predi
table: not be
ause of la
k of determinism, but be
ause the
omplexity of the dynami
s require a pre
ision that is unable to be
omputed.
This
an be seen in systems where very similar initial
onditions yield very
dierent behaviours. Thus, let's say if we have the initial states 2.1234567890
and 2.1234567891, after some time the system will be for the rst
ase in
3.5 and in the other in - 1.7.
the most minimal dieren
es will tend in the long time to very dierent
results. This is be
ause there is an exponential divergen
e of the traje
tories
of the system (This
an formally be measured with Lyapunov exponents).
Another interesting property of
haoti
systems are strange attra
tors If one
1 An
attra tor is a part of the state-spa e (whi h is the set of all possible states of a
system) whi
h `pulls' the dynami
s into it. For example, a simple pendulum with fri
tion
has a stable attra
tor in the bottom of the verti
al axis, be
ause wherever the pendulum
is, it will end at some time in that point.
of the verti al axis, be ause if that is the initial ondition, in theory the pendulum would
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
in su
h a way that the states will not repeat themselves, but will be in a
determined area of the state-spa
e.
dynami
al systems; both mathemati
al models and, perhaps more importantly, natural systems. Chaoti
motion has been observed in all of the 'real'
os
illatory systems.
tive features
an be dis
erned in the
haoti
motion of these systems. This
ubiquitous nature of
haos is often referred to as the universality of
haos.
stay up there, but the most minimal perturbation would move the pendulum out of the
unstable attra
tor. The unstable attra
tor repels the dynami
s of the system.
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
In the se
ond
hapter, we dis
uss a simple model for population growth
known as the Verhulst model, whi
h is a nonlinear model. The famous logisti
map is
losely related to this. We dis
uss the periodi
doubling bifur
ation
route to
haos in this model. The universal features of this route to
haos is
noted.
In the third
hapeter, we dis
uss the Dung Os
illator. We des
ribe the
method to numeri
ally solve this equation. The Time Series Plots and Phase
Plots are presented.
The fourth
hapter is devoted to the bifur
ation sequen
e and the Lyapunov exponents for this problem when the
ontrol parameter is varied. We
have not used any standard pa
kage to obtain the bifur
ation diagram. We
have written a simple
ode to obtain it. We have studied the periodi
window in the
haoti
domain, as well as the transition from
hoas to periodi
behaviour, when the parameter is in
reased.
method due to Wolf, etal for obtaining the Lyapunov Spe
trum. We
ompare
the bifur
ation pattern and the maximal lyapunov exponent. The results are
onsistent. This
hapter is the
ore of the thesis.
Chapter ve is on Poi
ar se
tions for the Dung Os
illator. We noti
e
a
lear distin
tion between Poin
ar se
tions in the periodi
and
haoti
domains.
Chapter 2
Population Growth and the
Verhulst Model
The simplest model of population growth assumes a
onstant growth rate
whereby the population in
reases in size by a xed proportion in ea
h time
interval.
where
time
Pn+1
n, r
n + 1, Pn
al ulations), and
10
= 1 + r.
CHAPTER 2.
that
where
P0
Pn = (1 + r )n P0 = r n P0
(2.1)
t = 0.
model (with
P.
as n
for real populations, whi
h are limited in their growth by external fa
tors
su
h as food, spa
e, disease, et
.
possible population size
Pmax .
r,
is used, whi h is
Pmax ,
expressed as follows:
r = a(Pmax Pn )
where
is a onstant.
Now, when
Pn = Pmax ,
n (i.e. Pn )
(2.2)
it follows that
r = 0
and
no further growth takes pla
e. Substituting equation (2.2) into equation (2)
leads to
(2.3)
CHAPTER 2.
(2.4)
and we see that the last term provides a negative nonlinear feedba
k to the
equation.
pn+1 = pn + apn (1 pn )
(2.5)
where
pn+1 =
pn =
pmax =
Pn+1
Pmax
Pn
Pmax
Pmax
=1
Pmax
To obtain this map, we simply remove the rst term from equation
CHAPTER 2.
(2.5). In its more usual form, in terms of x instead of p, the logisti
map is
written as
xn+1 = axn (1 xn )
where the
urrent value of the variable
value, i.e.
xn+l .The
x,
i.e.
(2.6)
xn ,
Non-invertible
means that although we may iterate the map forward in time with ea h
xn leading
xn+1 ,
xn+1 .
xn
for ea h value of
a,
and
the initial
ondition (or starting point) used for the iterations. The fun
tion
orresponding to the logisti
map (equation (2.7)), known as the logisti
fun
tion or the logisti
urve, is the paraboli
urve.
f (x) = ax(1 x)
(2.7)
When iterating the logisti
map, the iterated solutions eventually settle down
to a nal behaviour type.
the initial iterations is known as the transient orbit of the system. The nal sequen
e of iterated values that the iterations tend to is known as the
post-transient orbit. Transient behaviour is obvious in gure
2.1(a)
where
CHAPTER 2.
0.16
0.65
0.14
0.6
0.12
0.55
x_n
x_n
0.1
0.08
0.5
0.06
0.04
0.45
0.02
0.4
0
10
15
20
n
25
30
35
40
10
15
25
30
35
40
a=3.20 Period 2
a=3.52 Period 4
0.8
0.9
0.75
0.8
0.7
0.7
x_n
x_n
20
n
0.65
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.55
0.4
0.5
0.3
0
10
15
20
n
25
30
35
40
( ) a=3.20 (period 2)
10
15
20
n
25
30
35
40
a=4.00 Choatic
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
x_n
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
10
15
20
n
25
30
35
40
Figure 2.1: Interated solutions of the Logisti
Equation plotted for sele
ted
values of the
ontrol parameter
CHAPTER 2.
the orbit tends asymptoti
ally to zero. The transient orbit is also noti
eable
in gure
2.1(b),
2.1(c),
0.6153....
In gure
the transient behaviour seems to disappear rather fast with only the
2.1(d),
a post-transient period
tablished by the tenth iteration. Transient behaviour is not at all noti
eable
in gure
2.1(e)
This is quite often the
ase for
haoti
motion where the
omplex stru
ture
of the post-transient behaviour may make it di
ult to observe the initial
transient behaviour.
asymptoti ally by the iterates of the logisti map. In pra ti e, a nite resolution (i.e.
2.1(b)
for the
a = 2.6
ase.
n.
0.6153...
xn+1 = xn
for
If the solutions to the logisti map repeat every se ond value, i.e.
xn+2 = xn .
orbit is shown
CHAPTER 2.
2.1(c)
n.
The attra
tor is the set of points approa
hed by the orbit as the number
of iterations in
reases to innity.
periodi
orbit, then the system is said to have a periodi
attra
tor, e.g. a
period
4attra tor
on the other hand, the system behaves
haoti
ally with an aperiodi
orbit,
then the system is said to have a
haoti
attra
tor, more
ommonly referred
to as a strange attra
tor.
a = 4.0
has a strange
attra tor.
a.
parameter a on the behaviour of the logisti
map it is useful to plot the posttransient solutions of the logisti
map against a. Su
h a plot is given in Fig.
2.2. As we already know, the orbits de
ay to zero for values of a between 0.0
and 1.0. Values of a between 1.0 and 3.0 produ
e post-transient solutions to
the logisti
map whi
h are period 1 xed points. These period 1 xed points
in
rease in value as
CHAPTER 2.
x max
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2.8
3.2
3.4
a
3.6
3.8
rising from the a axis at a = 1.0 to the rst period doubling bifur
ation at a
= 3.0. For values of the
ontrol parameter between 3.0 and 3.449490 . . . a
period 2 attra
tor exists (see Fig. 2.3). Between 3.449490 . . . and 3.544 090
. . . a period 4 attra
tor exists, followed in sequen
e by attra
tors of period
8 (between 3.544 090 . . . and 3.564407 . . . ), period 16, period 32 and so
on. This sequen
e
arries on, doubling in period ea
h time, until an innite
period is rea
hed at a nite value of the
ontrol parameter of a = 3.569 945
. . ., at whi
h point the behaviour is
haoti
and a strange attra
tor exists.
This sequen
e is known as the period doubling route to
haos.
The rst
few period doubling bifur
ations may be seen in Fig. 2.3, whi
h
ontains a
blow-up of the diagram of Fig. 2.2 in the region of the
ontrol parameter
CHAPTER 2.
period 4
period 2
period 1
between 3.0 and 4.0. The period doubling sequen
e outlined above o
urs
through the bifur
ation (splitting into two parts) of the previous xed points
when they be
ome unstable. This splitting is sometimes known as a pit
hfork
bifur
ation due to its shape (although this term is not used here in its standard mathemati
al sense). This is shown s
hemati
ally in Fig. 2.3. At ea
h
period doubling bifur
ation point, the previously stable attra
ting periodi
xed point be
omes unstable, that is, it begins to repel iterated solutions in
its vi
inity, and two new stable xed points emerge. Unstable xed points
are shown dashed in Fig. 2.3. These period doubling bifur
ations give their
name to the bifur
ation diagram of Fig. 2.2. Fixed points whi
h attra
t the
solutions to a map are known as stable; those whi
h repel nearby solutions
are unstable; and those whi
h neither attra
t nor repel nearby solutions are
said to be neutrally stable, or indierent.
CHAPTER 2.
absolute value of the slope of the map fun tion at the xed point, i.e.
stable
|f (xn )| < 1
neutrally stable
|f (xn )| = 1
unstable
|f (xn )| > 1
2.3 Universality
Around O
tober, 1975, Mit
h Feigenbaum was studying the properties of
the logisti
map with a programmable po
ket
al
ulator. As he saw that it
took lots of strength to try to nd the bifur
ation points
al
ulating every
possible value of a (there were not so fast and not so many
omputers...),
he studied the geometri
al
onvergen
e of the doubling of periods, sin
e it
seemed to be some regularity. So, we
an
all the rst bifur
ation point
whi
h for the logisti
map is
so,
1.
lim
And
an an1
an+1 an
an an1
= = 4.6692016091029..
an
n an+1
a1 = 3.
a0 ,
CHAPTER 2.
sin(x)),
set. But Feigenbaum also found another universal
onstant. If you
al
ulate
the limit of the ratios of the distan
e from
x = 0.5
point in the logisti
map), to the nearest point of the attra
tor
y
le, it will
also be an universal
onstant,
alled Feigenbaum's
attra
tor
y
le equals
0.5,
an
= = 2.502907876...
n an+1
lim
Chapter 3
The Dung Os
illator Numeri
al
Solutions
Many systems in nature have several stable states separated by energy barriers. When the system
an move among the stable states, the dynami
s
an
be
ome quite
omplex.
tures is the Dung double-well os
illator. This model was rst introdu
ed
to understand for
ed vibrations of industrial ma
hinery [Dung, 1918. In
this model, a parti
le is
onstrained to move in one spatial dimension. An
external for
e a
ts on the parti
le. The for
e is des
ribed by
F = kx x3
21
(3.1)
CHAPTER 3.
V(x)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
x
0.5
1.5
Figure 3.1: plot of the potential energy fun tion for dung os illator
1
1
U(x) = kx2 + x4
2
4
Figure above shows a plot of the potential energy fun
tion.
there are two stable equilibrium states at
q
x = k .
(3.2)
We see that
CHAPTER 3.
x + x kx + x3 = F cos(wt)
(3.3)
we an rewrite equation(3.3) as
(3.4)
The equations des ribing the dynami s in state spa e are usually written as
x = hf (y)
(3.5)
y = hf (kx x3 y + F cos(wt))
where the
parti
le. The motion of the parti
le in this situation is relatively simple. If
started o with a
ertain amount of kineti
energy, the parti
le os
illates
ba
k and forth, gradually losing energy via damping and nally
omes to
rest at the bottom of one of the wells.
4thorder
In order to study the dynami s of Dung Os illator represented by the se ond order dierential equation(3.3), we have to integrate out the equation(3.3).
CHAPTER 3.
We use the fourth order Runge-Kutta method for intergration, where the solution of a dieretial equation
xn+1 = xn +
dx
= f (t, x)
dt
is given by
k1 k2 k3 k4
+
+
+
+ (h5 )
6
3
3
6
(3.6)
where,
k1 = hf (tn , xn )
h
k2 = hf (tn + , xn +
2
h
k3 = hf (tn + , xn +
2
k1
)
2
k2
)
2
(3.7)
k4 = hf (tn + h, xn + k3 )
.dat
77
t x y.
simulate the system using Gnuplot - a plotting tool for s
ienti
work. we
x out parameters at
k = 1, = 1, = 0.5
for
e F, we plot the time-series x(t) against t, and the phase plots
x for various values of F in Fig. 3.2 - 3.6
versus
CHAPTER 3.
1.4
0.8
p34
p34 u 2:3
0.6
1.2
0.4
1
Velocity
Displacement
0.2
0.8
0.6
-0.2
0.4
-0.4
0.2
-0.6
0
100
-0.8
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Displacement
Time
1.2
1.4
1.4
0.8
p35
p35.dat u 2:3
0.6
1.2
0.4
1
Velocity
Displacement
0.2
0.8
0.6
-0.2
0.4
-0.4
0.2
-0.6
0
100
-0.8
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Displacement
Time
1.2
1.4
1.4
p357.dat u 2:3
0.6
1.2
0.4
1
Velocity
Displacement
0.2
0.8
0.6
-0.2
0.4
-0.4
0.2
-0.6
-0.8
100
120
140
160
Time
180
200
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Displacement
1.2
1.4
1.6
CHAPTER 3.
1.4
p365.dat u 2:3
0.6
1.2
0.4
1
Velocity
Displacement
0.2
0.8
0.6
-0.2
0.4
-0.4
0.2
-0.6
-0.8
100
120
140
160
180
200
0.2
0.4
0.6
Time
0.8
Displacement
1.2
1.4
1.6
p42_chaos
p42_chaos u 2:3
0.6
1
0.4
0.5
Velocity
Displacement
0.2
-0.2
-0.5
-0.4
-1
-0.6
150
200
250
300
Time
350
400
-0.8
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
Displacement
0.5
1.5
Chapter 4
Dung Os
illator: Bifur
ation
Diagrams, Lyapunov Exponents
and Chaos
Bifur
ation means a splitting into two parts. The term bifur
ation is
ommonly used in the study of nonlinear dynami
s to des
ribe any sudden
hange
in the behavior of the system as some parameter is varied. The bifur
ation
then refers to the splitting of the behavior of the system into two regions: one
above, the other below the parti
ular parameter value at whi
h the
hange
o
urs.
We wrote an algorithm to plot bifur
ation diagram for various parameters
of the system. In general, bifur
ation diagram is plotted with the maxima
in x(t) against
ontrol parameter of the system. Sin
e we are only interested
27
CHAPTER 4.
Algorithm 1
Taking
Xmax
K = 0
NMAX = 50
WHILE K < NMAX DO
CALL RK4
T,X,Y
X1 = X2
Y1 = Y2
X2 = X3
Y2 = Y3
X3 = X
Y3 = Y
IF X1 > X2 AND X2 < X3
PRINT T-H,X2
J = J+1
END
END
in the long term behaviour of the system, one has to allow the system to
settle down and then the solutions of the system has to be taken. From all
the solutions that we got by integrate out the equation using Fourth order
Runge-Kutta method. Inorder to get the x maximas for a parti
ular
ontrol
parmeter, we take three
onse
utive solutions of the system
and
we he ked whether the middle one 'xn ' is bigger than the other two
xn = xmax .
(4.1)
One an he k this easily by plotting both the 'x t' data le
xmax
for
CHAPTER 4.
1.2
Displacement
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1260
1270
1280
Time
1290
1300
Displacement
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
1250
1300
1350
1400
Time
Figure 4.1:
Xmax
1450
1500
CHAPTER 4.
ampf = 0.34,
xmax
the values needed for bifur
ation diagram. For Dung Os
illator we have
two
ontrol paratmeters Amplitude of the For
e(ampf ) Coe
ient of the
Nonlinear term( )
??
??
gives the
plot for F in the range 0.34 - 0.375 we
learly have the same period-doubling
route to
haos as was observed in the logisti
map. Fig. 4.2 amd Fig. 4.3
feature large ranges of F where there are large periodi
regimes between
haoti
regions. When a small part is enlarged as in Fig. 4.4, we
an noti
e
self-similarity. The transition from
haos to period 1 orbit is seen in Fig. 4.6
CHAPTER 4.
1.4
1.35
x max
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
0.34
0.345
0.35
0.355
0.36
0.365
0.37
0.375
ampf
(a) F as Control Parameter (range
0.1
1)
1.6
x max
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
11.95
12
12.05
12.1
ampf
12.15
12.2
CHAPTER 4.
-1
-2
0
0.1
8
:
1)
0.1
10)
7.75
and upto 100. Fig. 4.10 is parti
ularly noteworthy. It displays the transition
from
haos to periodi
ity and self-similarity.
10
11
CHAPTER 4.
x max
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
20
25
30
35
ampf
40
45
50
20
50)
2.4
x max
2.2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
36.5
37
37.5
38
38.5
ampf
39
39.5
40
40.5
Figure 4.4: Control Parameter as Amplitude of the For e: Magnied, showing self similarity
CHAPTER 4.
x max
-1
-2
5
10
15
20
25
30
ampf
25)
0.1_10
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
2
0.5
CHAPTER 4.
x max
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
1.9
2.1
2.2
2.3
beta
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.7
-0.4
-0.41
-0.42
x max
-0.43
-0.44
-0.45
-0.46
-0.47
-0.48
2.5
2.505
2.51
2.515
beta
2.52
2.525
2.53
2.535
CHAPTER 4.
0.6
x max
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
2.47
2.48
2.49
2.5
2.51
beta
2.52
2.53
2.54
2.55
CHAPTER 4.
x0 = 0, y0 = 1
One os-
x0 = 0, y0 = 1.1.
As
an be seen from the gure, the two solutions initially appear to follow an
identi
al path (g(4.11)).
CHAPTER 4.
Varying initial Values x=0, y= 1,1.1 freqos = -1 damp = 0.5 beta = 1 w = 1 ampf=0.365
1.6
x=0,y=1
x=0,y=1.1
1.4
1.2
Displacement
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time
Let
t .
t,
we may write
t = 0 et
where
(4.2)
??
), we obtain
t
1
= ln
t
0
Nearby traje
tories on strange attra
tors diverge, while still remaining in
CHAPTER 4.
Initial Trajectory
Seperation
Trajectory 1
Final Trajectory
Seperation
Trajectory 2
time delay t
In addition,
traje
tories near to the attra
tor (but not on it) are attra
ted to it, i.e. they
onverge on to it. We have divergen
e in some dire
tions and
onvergen
e
in others.
of an attra
tor we require a set of Lyapunov exponents, one for ea
h orthogonal dire
tion of divergen
e/
onvergen
e in phase spa
e. The number of
Lyapunov exponents required to dene the attra
tor is equal to the dimension of its phase spa
e. Chaoti
attra
tors have at least one nite positive
Lyapunov exponent. On the other hand, random (noisy) attra
tors have an
innite positive Lyapunov exponent, as no
orrelation exists between one
point on the traje
tory and the next (no matter how
lose they are), i.e. the
divergen
e is instantaneous.
negative values of
whi h may be used to ategorize haoti attra tors. If we al ulate the Lya-
CHAPTER 4.
is
the dimension of the phase spa
e. This set of Lyapunov exponents is known
as the Lyapunov spe
trum and is usually ordered from the largest positive
Lyapunov exponent,
i.e. max-
s)
rates of divergen
e or
onvergen
e of the prin
ipal axes of this ellipsoid give
the spe
trum of Lyapunov exponents.
CHAPTER 4.
0.2
lambda
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
ampf
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.1
0.9
1)
CHAPTER 4.
0.2
lambda
0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
0
10
ampf
Lyapunov Spectrum control parameter = ampf
0.3
0.2
lambda
0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
10
15
20
25
30
ampf
35
40
45
50
lambda
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
-0.3
-0.35
-0.4
50
60
70
80
90
100
ampf
10
100)
Chapter 5
Poin
ar's Se
tion
As the name indi
ates, Poin
ar's se
tion is a se
tional view of the traje
tories
of the system.
1912)
for
The
Poin
ar map maps the points of the Poin
ar se
tion onto itself. It relates
two
onse
utive interse
tion points. Note, that only those interse
tion points
ounts whi
h
ome from the same side of the plane. A Poin
ar map turns
a
ontinuous dynami
al system into a dis
rete one. For a Nonlinear System,
depending on the strength of nonlinearity, the system shows periodi
or quasi
periodi
or
haoti
behavior. We expe
t that in the periodi
regime the period
of system should be related to the period of external for
e. If
of external for
e then system period will be
the
haoti
regime
tends to innity.
43
nT ,
where
is the period
is an integer. In
CHAPTER 5.
POINCAR'S SECTION
44
long period of time) plotted on Poin
are map indi
ates the period of the
system. Hen
e in
haoti
regime the Poin
are map tries to ll a subset of
phase spa
e. After integrating out the equation(3.4), as we know the period
of the system is hightly dependent on the period of the external for
e. Now
the Dung os
illator
an be
onsidered as an autonomous three dimensional
systems with the time
Z = t.
dZ
= 1.
dt
Hen
e in order to get the poin
are se
tion, we sampled the solution at every
t=
where
(5.1)
is the time period of the for e. We have plotted poi are se tion of
various regions of the bifur ation diagrams and results are quite well satised.
CHAPTER 5.
45
POINCAR'S SECTION
2.5
2
-2
1.5
-4
1
-4
-2
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
(a)
(b)
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
-0.1
-0.05
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
( )
0.5
1.5
CHAPTER 5.
46
POINCAR'S SECTION
ampf = 8.5
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
Figure 5.2:
0.5
CHAPTER 5.
47
POINCAR'S SECTION
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
Figure 5.3:
t=
2
n, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
w
(5.2)
t=
t =
t=
2
,
w
2
and
w
4
, and so on. In Fig. 5.2 and Fig. 5.3 we dont
w
observe the phase point returning to itself at all, even after large t.
This
indi
ates that when we keep in
reasing t, the number of points would to to
innity, indi
ating total la
k of periodi
ity, or
haos in the system.
Chapter 6
Summary and Con
lusion
The aim of this dissertation was to learn about
haos dire
tly through numeri
al studies of a nonlinear system exhibiting
haos. Towards this end, we
hose the Dung Os
illator. We solved the system numeri
ally, using a
4th
48
Bibliography
[1 Steven H.Strogatz,
[2 Robert C.Hilborn,
Fra tals and Choas, An Illustrated Course, IOP Publishing, Bristol and
Philadelphia.
49