Question 1 1A. Given Engine weight = 800 lb, location = 2.

5 ft from nose Passenger/crew weight = 1500 lb, location = 10 ft from nose Baggage weight = 150 lb, location = 20 ft from nose Ignore the weight of wings; a simplified free body diagram of fuselage is constructed:

800lb.
1500lb.

Introduce location of CG, x ft from nose. ( ) ( ) ( )

1B. We assume the design aircraft has the same wing configuration as Pilatus PC-6 model

*assume rectangular un-tapered wing

Distance of tail from CG:

Tail Areas:
( ) ( )

1C. Given Textron Lycoming TIO/LTIO-540-V engine, HP = 350hp ( )

1D. Undercarriage section is designed by referring to solution 1A and 1B.

Using tricycle landing gear design, we set CG of aircraft in between main undercarriage and nose wheel for better stability. Setting location of main undercarriage slightly behind the CG:

Setting the nose wheel slightly behind engine to provide space for landing gear retraction:

Assume MTOW =6173lb

Question 2 Wing Design a) Wing aspect ratio Aspect ratio (AR) is defined as the ratio between the wing span (b) over wing area. Based on the figure (2.1), the AR is higher, aerodynamics parameter such as lift curve slope (cl alpha), maximum coefficient of lift and others for 3d will get nearer to airfoil value (2d value). This will increase the lift generated by the wing and also the stall speed. Therefore, a higher wing AR is preferred.

Figure 2.1: the effect of aspect ratio on CL versus angle of attack graph. As for the drag generated by the wing, induced drag is reduced as AR increases. Based on the formula below, induce drag is inversely proportional to AR. By having a higher wing AR, induced drag can be reduced.

Moreover, by having a higher wing aspect ratio, the aileron is situated further from the fuselage. This increases the moment arm of the aileron and thus increases the effectiveness of the aileron. Smaller deflection in aileron can generate a higher moment if counteract the instability due to external force.

However, the increased in wing aspect ratio will make the wing heavier. The bending moment of the wing is increased as the wing is longer. Wing root need to be strengthened by stiffeners and this increase weight and cost.

Moreover, for aircraft with fuel tank installed inside the wing, a higher wing aspect ratio means that the fuel is distributed further away from the engine. Stronger pump and more pipeline and cable are needed. This increases the weight of the wing and thus increases cost.

Higher wing aspect ratio means longer wing and this will cause to wing to has a higher sensitivity towards gust. Even small gust will cause instability to the aircraft when an aircraft has a high aspect ratio. Without autopilot, the pilot needs to correct the attitude of aircraft constantly.

b) Wing sweep

By using a swept-back wing, the induced drag generated by the wing at higher Mach number can be reduced. When the wing is swept back at a certain angle, from the airflow point of view, the airflow sees a thinner airfoil and this reduces the speed of air over and under the wing which mean that it has a lower local air velocity. By having a lower local air velocity, the aircraft can fly faster and still have subsonic flow over the wing. Thus, the critical Mach number of the wing also increases. Induced drag increase exponentially when the flow goes to supersonic due to shockwaves. Therefore, by sweeping the wing back, the onset of the drag is delayed to a higher Mach number. Moreover, by sweeping the wing back, it moves the wing tips towards the fuselage and thus keeps them from interfering with the Mach cone (shock) generated by the nose of aircraft. This will prevent any extra drag acting on the wing.

However, the tradeoff is that the lift generated by the wing will be lower compared to an unswept wing as the effective wing area is lower. Moreover, the wing tip will stall first compared to wing roots and this produces greater nose up pitch on stall. This causes the aircraft has a higher difficulty to recover from stall. The weight of the wing will be higher as more stiffeners are needed to strengthen the wing. The variable shape of ribs is also needed and this contributes to a higher manufacturing cost.

Based on the past design, swept-forward wing is only implemented in military aircraft but not in commercial aircraft. Swept-forward wing increases the controllability and maneuverability of the aircraft. Due for swept-forward effect, the wing root will stall first compared to the wing tip. Stalling at the wing tip will cause the aileron be useless, but swept-forward wing will enable the aileron to function in maneuvering the aircraft even at low speed. Moreover, it also enables the aircraft to fly at a higher angle of attack. For example, Grumman X-29b was found to be able to maneuver and not stall up to 67 degree angle of attack. By increasing the effectiveness of the ailerons, wing tip leading edge slots can be removed. This eliminates some of the drag causing devices and consequently reduces the weight of the aircraft. Besides that, swept-forward wing direct the airflow from the wing tip towards the body of aircraft and this enable a higher lift to drag ratio of the wing.

However, swept-forward wing will cause the aircraft has a tendency to Dutch roll and make the aircraft spirally unstable. Divergence will occur earlier compare to flutter on the swept-forward wing. Usually the velocity for divergence to occur is way lower than flutter. So, the aircraft can only fly at lower speed. In order to solve this problem, aeroelastic tailoring on composite material is used. However, the cost required is also very high. The weight of the wing will be higher as more stiffeners are needed to strengthen the wing. The variable shape of ribs is also needed and this contributes to a higher manufacturing cost.

c) Wing taper ratio Taper ratio is defined as the ratio of tip chord over root chord.

Figure 2.2: various taper ratio of wing. The wing is tapered to make the lift distribution on the wing to be as close to elliptical shape as possible. As the lift distribution close to elliptical shape, the Ostwald efficiency, e will be close to 1. This will affect a lot of parameter such as induced drag, lift to drag ratio, and other aerodynamic parameters. This will improve the performance of the wing. Other than that, by tapering the wing, the weight of the wing reduces and the center of gravity of each wing will move towards the roots and this will reduce the bending moment at the wing root.

However, due to taper, the wing ribs need be manufactured into different shapes and this will increase the cost. Moreover, a very low taper ratio does not necessary means the wing has better performance as it causes the local coefficient of lift to have a maximum near the tip. Thus, it will cause the tip to stall before the rest of the wing and this might cause sudden unexpected roll of the aircraft. Moreover, the chord length at wing tips will be smaller and so will be the Reynold number. This will reduce the maximum coefficient of lift that tip can achieve and worsen the tip stall problem.

d) Wing incidence angle Wing incidence angle or can be known as wing setting angle is the angle between the fuselage center line and wing chord line at the root.

Figure 2.3: Wing incidence angle. Wing incidence angle is design to be able to generate desired lift coefficient during cruising flight while maintaining 0 degree angle of attack on the fuselage during cruise. This is to reduce the drag generated by the fuselage. Wing incidence angle is usually set below 5 degree in order to reduce drag during cruise. A higher wing incidence angle will help in takeoff and landing but it will generate a higher drag during cruise which is not preferable. Therefore, the wing incidence angle is usually chose based on cruise requirements.

e) Wing dihedral Wing dihedral means that the wing is fixed on the fuselage with certain angle of deflection for the x-y plane as shown in figure below.

Figure 2.4: Dihedral and anhedral wing from aircraft front view. Dihedral angle provides dihedral effect which prevents spiral instability. However, too much dihedral effect will lower Dutch roll stability. Anhedral is complete opposite of dihedral. The design of dihedral or anhedral angle usually depends on wing vertical location. A high wing and swept wing will provide a better lateral stability but weak rolling control. Anhedral angle is introduced to provide the aircraft with more rolling controllability. As for dihedral, a low wing is deficient of lateral stability and dihedral angle is implemented. Sometimes, dihedral angle is implemented to low wing due to ground and water clearance. Therefore, wing dihedral is based on the tradeoff of lateral stability and rolling controllability.

f)

Wing vertical location Wing can be put into 4 positions relative to fuselage center line which are high wing, low wing, mid wing and parasol wing. The position of the wing on the fuselage is shown in the figure below.

High wing By using high wing, lift generated by the wing is higher compare to low and mid wing. Therefore, the aircraft will have a lower stall speed and a higher maximum lift coefficient. Other than that, high wing also increase the dihedral effect and thus increase the lateral stability. By putting the wing on top of the fuselage, there will be more space inside the fuselage for cargo, luggage and passenger. Moreover, if the engine is mounted on high wing, there will be more ground clearance and lower the possibility of human accident such as hitting the propeller or pulled into the engine inlet.

However, by using high wing, the ground effect is lower compared to low wing. This will increase the takeoff and landing distance. A longer landing gear is needed if it is connected to the wing and this makes the wing heaver and reduces the space inside the wing and this option is usually not preferable. Big having a high wing, a larger horizontal tail is needed to counter the moment produced by the wing and this increase the overall weight of the aircraft.

Low wing Using a low wing, the aircraft has a high ground effect and this increases its takeoff and landing performance. The landing gear can be put under the wing as the wing is nearer to the ground. The tail will be more effective as the wing has lesser downwash on the tail. Besides that, due to the lower position of wing drag line relative to aircraft center of gravity, the wing drag produce a nose down pitching moment which makes low wing is longitudinally stabilizing. However, low wing generates less lift compare to high wing because the wing has two separate sections. This will increase the stall speed of the aircraft and thus it has a lower airworthiness. The aircraft is laterally less stable than high wing. Therefore, sometimes dihedral angle is added to the wing to increase its lateral stability. This increases the cost of the wing as more stiffeners are needed to strengthen the wing.

Mid wing Mid wing is the optimum configuration of high wing and low wing. It has less interference drag than low wing and high wing. Therefore, it is preferable as the aircraft has the optimum characteristic of wing. However, the wing spar is cut into half to save the space inside the fuselage. Hence, the wing root needs to be reinforced to support the weight of the wing. This make mid wing more expansive than low wing and high wing.

Parasol wing Parasol wing is usually employed in hang gliders and some amphibian aircraft. Commercial aircraft cant use this wing configuration due to the weight of fuselage is too heavy for the structure to support it. Therefore, during wing design selection, parasol wing is usually left out.

g) Wing tips The introduction of winglet or wingtip devices is to reduce the life induced drag i.e. downwash due to vortex generated at wing tip. To generate lift, there is a pressure difference between the lower and upper surface of wing. At the wing tips, the flow tends to flow upwards and causes vortices at the wing tips. This will reduce the lift at the wing tip and it is called downwash. Thus, the efficiency of the wing can be improved.

However, by adding winglets, the weight of the wing is increased. More stiffeners are needed to strengthen the winglet. Consequently, the manufacturing and maintenance cost increases. Besides, the addition of winglet will also increase the tendency of flutter to occur. Hence, addition of winglets must be able to outweigh the cost and weight so that it is profitable to add winglet to wings.

Question 3 Tail design

Figure 3.1 Various Aircraft Tail Design. a) Conventional Tail Pros: It is relatively easier to maintenance as compared to the other tail configuration. Since the horizontal tail is located on the fuselage, this tail can be lighter compare to T-tail and cruciform tail.

Cons: The wing configuration has to be lower than the tail to avoid the propwash/jet thrust and wing wake effect on horizontal tail. This configuration is vulnerable to damage during rough field landing.

b) T-tail Pros: It provides space for rear-mounted engine. Besides that, aircraft with high wing mounted with turboprop engine is likely to use this tail configuration as it maintains horizontal tail effectiveness by avoiding the tail from wing wake and propwash. This clearance from wing wake and propwash also allows the aircraft has better pitch control and glider ratio, higher effective aspect ratio, less interaction drag than cruciform tail.

Cons: T-tail is heavier than a conventional tail due to the strengthening of vertical tail to support horizontal tail. Aircraft with T-tail is also susceptible to deep stall. In a deep stall, the airflow over the horizontal tail is blanketed by the disturbed airflow from the wings and fuselage. The recovery from stall is difficult since elevator control is diminished. This

configuration gives rise to maintenance concern due to the high tail. The elevator mechanism is more complex and it is hard to detect visually as the elevator is located high above.

c) Cruciform tail Pros: Cruciform tail avoids the wing wake and propwash (smaller effect than conventional tail) to sustain the effectiveness of horizontal tail while having lighter weight than T-tail. The maintenance of cruciform tail may be easier than T-tail since the horizontal tail is lower than that in T-tail. Cons: Vertical tail is still heavier than conventional tail in order to support the horizontal tail.

d) V-tail Pros: The wetted area in V-tail is reduced and hence, drag is reduced. The two tails serve as both horizontal and vertical tails as in conventional tail. V-tail provide more ground clearance than conventional tail.

Cons: The V-tail total surface area has to upsize about the same total area in conventional tail to obtain a desired stability and control. Control actuation is much more complex in V-tail because the surfaces in V-tail behave as both elevator and rudder. There is a tendency of adverse roll-yaw coupling due to the combine of elevator and rudder functions.

e) H-tail Pros: It is intended to put the vertical tail in undisturbed air during high angle of attack conditions or to improve the engine-out control by locating the rudders in the propwash. For military aircraft, h-tail can be used to hide the hot engine nozzle from heat seeking missile. The total surface area of two rudders are larger than tail with one rudder, providing a high degree of control and stability. If one of the rudders fails, the aircraft still able to be controlled with less effective but it wont be completely destabilized.

Cons: H-tail is heavier than conventional tail. Rudder is located far from fuselage, this may impact the coupling of roll and yaw control.

Question 4 Fuselage Configuration The design of the fuselage is based on payload requirements, aerodynamics, and structures. Fuselage with difference dimensions will affect the drag through several factors. Size should be small enough to reduce the drag and reduce weight but big enough to provide passenger comfort. Figure below shows a general fuselage shape for a transport aircraft. The geometry is divided into three parts which are nose, cabin and tail cone.

Figure 3.1: Fuselage shape.

Fuselages with smaller fineness ratio shave less wetted area to enclose a given volume, but more wetted area when the diameter and length of the cabin are fixed. The higher Reynolds number and increased tail length generally lead to improved aerodynamics for long, thin fuselages, at the expense of structural weight. Selecting a layout value requires a detail study of these trade-offs and not too different from existing aircraft with similar requirements, for which such a detailed study has presumably been done. Apart for that, mostly design considerations for fuselage based on market analysis or passengers experience than determined by the regulations.

Primary considerations when designing the airplane's fuselage are as follows: Low aerodynamic drag. Minimum aerodynamic instability. Comfort and attractiveness in terms of seat design, placement, and storage space Safety during emergencies such as fires, cabin depressurization, ditching, and proper placement of emergency exits, oxygen systems, etc. Ease of cargo handling in loading and unloading, safe and robust cargo hatches and doors Structural support for wing and tail forces acting in flight, as well as for landing and ground operation forces.

 Structural optimization to save weight while incorporating protection against corrosion and fatigue. Flight deck optimization to reduce pilot workload and protect against crew fatigue and intrusion by passengers. Convenience, size, and placement of galleys, lavatories, and coat racks. Minimization of noise and control of all sounds so as to provide a comfortable, secure environment. Climate control within the fuselage including air conditioning, heating, and ventilation. Provision for housing a number of different sub-systems required by the aircraft, including auxiliary power units, hydraulic system, air conditioning system, etc.

Passenger compartment Cross-Section Shape: Most fuselage cross-sections are relatively circular in shape. This is done for two reasons: 1. By eliminating corners, the flow will not separate at moderate angles of attack or sideslip. 2. Circular fuselage can resist the loads with tension stresses, rather than the more severe bending loads that arise on non-circular shapes when the fuselage is pressurized.

Figure 3.2: Commercial passenger allowances. Figure 3.2 defines the specific term used in fuselage cabin. Seat pitch is defined as the distance from the back one seat to the back of the next seat, where includes the fore, aft seat length, and leg room. Headroom is the height from the roof to the floor of the fuselage, sometimes constrains shape and moves seat position inwards from edge of floor. There are many seating possibilities but

passenger should be no more than 2 seats away from aisle. The table below provides typical dimensions of passenger data for the three class seating. The thickness of the fuselage structure is approximately 1 inch for small business or utility transport to about 4 inch for a jumbo jet.

Passenger compartment data: High Density/ First Class Seat pitch (inch) Seat width (inch) Headroom (inch) Aisle width (inch) Aisle height (inch) Passengers per cabin staff (International-domestic) Passengers per lavatory (40 x 40) Galley volume per Passenger (ft3/passenger) 10-20 5-8 40-60 1-2 40-60 0-1 38-40 20-28 >65 20-28 >76 16-20 Economy 34-36 17-22 >65 18-20 >76 31-36 Small Aircraft 30-32 16-18 12 >60 50

Design of fuselage must taking into the account of sufficient space of aisle to allow the safe evacuation was shown in Table below. The passenger aisle width at any point between seats must equal to or exceed the values in the following table. There should be no more than three seats accessed from one aisle. Two aisles require if an aircraft has more than six seats abreast. Width of Aisle Passenger seating capacity 10 or less 11 to 19 20 or more Minimum passenger aisle width (inch) Less than 25 from floor 12 12 15 25 and more from floor 15 20 20

For approximately every 10 to 20 rows of seats require doors and entry aisles which include closest space, and occupy 40 to 60 inch of cabin length each. Each passenger assumed to weight an average of 180 lb includes dressed and carry-on bags, and can only bring about 40 to 60 inch of checked luggage.

Table below is the cabin parameters according to Airbus: Parameter Sidewall clearance (at shoulder) Value 0.02 m

Sum of these parameters gives the floor thickness Floor beam height Floor panel Seat rail height Cargo hold ceiling Floor thickness 80-250 mm 10 mm 5-65 mm 10 mm 100-300 mm

Sum of these parameters gives distance from the outer contour to the cabin lining Skin thickness Stringer height Frame height Isolation Lining panel Outer contour to cabin lining Seat width (double) 2-4 mm 30-40 mm 50-100 mm 25-35 mm 5-10 mm 100-200 mm 44 inch (Economy) 54 inch (Business) 58 inch (First) Seat Width (cushion) Armrest width 19 inch 2 inch

Table below is the typical aircraft fuselage dimensions for regional turboprops: Aircraft Overall Length (inch) An-32 BAE Jetstream 41 Embraer EMB 120 SAAB 340B Shorts 330-200 937.0 718.5 737.4 776.8 696.5 Fuselage Width (inch) 114.2 78.0 89.8 90.9 88.2 8.21 9.22 8.2 8.54 7.89 Length/Width

Cockpit Compartment Requirements for unobstructed outside vision for the pilot affect the conceptual design of the crew station. The nose of the aircraft must slope away from the pilots eye at some specified angle in order to see the runway while on final approach. This results more drag produced than a more streamlined nose. The first necessary to decide what range of pilot sizes to accommodate when coming into the laying out an aircrafts cockpit. Typically commercial-airliner cockpit is designed in a range of pilot height range of 65.2 inch to 73.1 inch similar to those of military aircraft.

The two key reference points for cockpit layout are shown. The reference point, where the seat pan meets the back, is the reference for the floor height and the legroom requirement. The pilots eye point is used for defining the overnose angle, transparency grazing angle, and pilots head clearance of 10 inch radius.

When designing a reclined-seat cockpit, the overnose vision can be checked by determine the new position of the pilots eye from rotating both the seat and the pilots eye point about the seat reference point. It is important to ensure safety especially during landing. For a general aviation aircraft land in a fairly level altitude, the overnose vision angles of only about 5deg to 10 deg. To calculate the angles of overnose vision, its depends upon the ability of the pilot to see and react to the approach lights at decision height (100 ft) during minimum weather conditions such as 1200 ft run way visual range. The overnose vision angle also depends on the approach speed of an aircraft. The higher the approach speed, the greater the overnose vision angle must be. For initial layout, based upon the aircraft angle of attack during approach and the approach speed:

where,

is in knots.

A minimum grazing angle of 30 deg is recommended in order to see a reflection of the top of the instrument panel in front of the aircraft. The transparency grazing angle is the smallest angle between the pilots line of vision and the cockpit windscreen.

The cockpit of a transport aircraft must contain anywhere from two to four crew members as well as provisions for radios, instruments, and stowage of map cases and overnight bags. The overall cockpit length for four-crewmember of about 150 inch, 130 inch for three crewmembers, and 100 inch for a two crewmember cockpit. The cockpit dimensions below will provide enough room for the military ejection seat, where its required for safe escape when flaying at a speed which gives a dynamic pressure about 230 pounds per square feet.

Figure3.3: An example of cockpit configuration for fighter aircraft.

Cargo Compartment Commercial aircraft usually use standard cargo containers that are pre-loaded with cargo and luggage and then placed into the belly of the aircraft. It is require ensuring that the cargo must be in a secure fashion to prevent shifting while in flight.

Figure3.4: Cargo containers.

Figure above shown two widely used cargo containers. The 727 container is available at virtually every commercial airport while the LD-3 container is used by all of the wide body transport. To accommodate these containers, the belly cargo compartments require doors measuring approximately 70 inch on a side. The cargo volume per passenger of a commercial transport ranges from about 8.6 to 15.6 ft3 per passenger. For a small transport aircraft, rely upon hand-loading of the cargo compartment rather than cargo containers. For such aircraft a cargo provision of 6 to 8 ft3 per passenger is reasonable.

REFERENCES Forward-Swept Wings. Retrieved on 22 Nov 2013, from : http://courses.ae.utexas.edu/ase333t/past_projects/04spring/FSW%20Airfoils%20Inc/fsw.htm Swept Wing Design and Function. Retrieved on 22 Nov 2013, from : http://www.sciences360.com/index.php/swept-wing-design-and-function-19961/ Chapter 5 Wing Design. Retrieved on 22 Nov 2013, from: http://faculty.dwc.edu/sadraey/Chapter%205.%20Wing%20Design.pdf Wing Taper Consideration. Retrieved on 22 Nov 2013, from: http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics and-astronautics/16-01-unified-engineering-i-ii-iii-iv-fall-2005-spring-2006/systems-labs 06/spl8a.pdf Multi-disciplinary Design Exploration For Winglet. Retrieved 23 Nov 2013, from: http://www.icas.org/ICAS_ARCHIVE/ICAS2008/PAPERS/246.PDF Wisegeek (n.d.). What Is a Twin Tail?. Retrieved from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-twin-tail.htm on 20th November 2013. Iron-Georges, T., F.Marchman III, J., Williams, H. S. (2002). Encyclopedia of Flight. Tail Design (pp.651). California, United States of America: Salem Press, inc. Raymer, D. P. (1992). Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach. Tail Arrangement (pp. 68 71). California, United States of America: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. M. Nita, D. Scholz (2010). From Preliminary Aircraft Cabin Design to Cabin Optimization. Hamburg University of Applied Sciences. Retrieved on 24th November from http://www.fzt.haw hamburg.de/pers/Scholz/OPerA/OPerA_PUB_DLRK_10-08-31.pdf Bento S. de Mattos (2009). Fuselage Design. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved on 24th November 2013 from http://www.aer.ita.br/~bmattos/download/fuselagem-design.pdf I. Toshihiro (March 2006). Aerodynamic Analysis of a Blended Wing Body Aircraft Configuration. RMIT University. Retrieved on 24th November 2013 from http://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/eserv/rmit:6232/Ikeda.pdf

UNIVERSITY PUTRA MALAYSIA DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

AIRCRAFT DESIGN 1 EAS 3703 29 NOVEMBER 2013

LAB 4: OVERALL DESIGN CONCEPT & STABILITY CHARACTERISTICS