IB Physics Electromagnetism

1 Electrostatic Forces
Electric charge is a property of protons (positive) and electrons (negative). Electrostatics is a study of the forces and energy of charges that are not moving. An electric charge is due to an unbalanced amount of protons and electrons. Like electric charges repel and unlike electric charges attract. A conductor is an object that will allow charges (usually electrons) to move freely: metals, graphite, salt water Because of their very small mass, usually the charge that moves is the electron. An insulator is an object that does not allow the free movement of charges (electrons): most organic materials, water A charge is most easily generated by friction between two materials that have a different attraction for electrons. One will develop an excess of electrons and be charged negatively. The other will have a deficit of electrons and be charged positively. The total charge is conserved. An electroscope is a simple devise that can detect charges.

IB Physics Electromagnetism An electroscope that has an unequal number of protons and electrons will show a charge. It is a charged electroscope. An electroscope with zero net charge can show a charge if the charges are not distributed evenly. This is an induced charge.

Example 1:
Show how a charged balloon can be attracted to a neutral wall, or how neutral sawdust will attract to a charged object.

A charged electroscope can be neutralized by grounding it (earthing). The earth is considered to be able to donate or accept any number of electrons to neutralize any charge. An induced charge can be used to generate a charge. This animation shows: Induced charge Grounding Equalization of charge What is actually occurring as the positive charge neutralizes?

IB Physics Electromagnetism

Example 2:
Explain why a Van de Graaf generator uses a sphere to store charge rather than a cube or an ellipsoid.

The quantitative relationship for the force between two point charges is Coulombs Law:
Fe = kQ1Q2 r
2

Q1Q2 4!" 0 r 2

F = force (N), Q = charge in coulombs (C), r = distance between point charges (m). k = 8.99 x 109 Nm2C-2 !0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2N-1m-2 The charges must be point charges (or non-point charges from a large distance). The sign convention: A positive electrostatic force is a repulsive force. A negative force is an attractive force.

Example 3:
Find the electrostatic force between two stationary electrons 8.0 !m apart. What is the instantaneous acceleration if one of the electrons is released?

IB Physics Electromagnetism

Example 4:
Three protons are placed on a line at 0 m, 0.40 m, 0.90 m. Find the force on each proton.

Example 5:
Three 35 !C charges are placed on the corners of an equilateral triangle with sides of 15 cm. What is the force on each charge?

Example 6:
180 !C charges are placed at the corners of a 0.50 m square. The charges alternate from positive to negative. What is the force on each charge?

pp. 558-560, 23, 27, 29,30, 33, 34, 42-44, 46, 48, 51, 55, 60, 61, 62

IB Physics Electromagnetism

2 Electric Fields
An electric field (E) represents the effects that electric charges would have on an external electric charge if it were placed at a specific point in space. To determine the electric field, a very small positive test charge (q) is placed at a point and the force on that test charge is measured. The electric field is measured in Newtons per coulomb (N/C). The direction of the electric field is the same direction as the force on the test charge. A very small test charge is used because a large test charge would alter the electric field that it is trying to measure. For a point charge, the electric field can be calculated from Coulombs Law:
E= F kQq ! 1 $ kQ Q = 2 # &= 2 = q r " q% r 4'( 0 r 2

E=

F q

The electric field depends on the size of the point charge and the distance from the charge. The direction will depend on the sign of the charge. Inside a conducting object there is no electric field. That is why the formula only works for point charges (or outside of conducting charged objects).

Here is the electric field for a positive and a negative point charge. It is a radial field. Larger charge:

IB Physics Electromagnetism Electric fields from multiple sources can be added as vectors. The field from each source is determined, and the net field found by vector addition.

This is the field from two equal positively charged point charges.

Example 1:
Draw the electric field lines for two equally charged negative charges.

Example 2: Draw the electric field lines for two charges of equal magnitude but opposite charge.

IB Physics Electromagnetism If the charges are not equal, the larger charge will have a larger affect on the net field. As a result, the field around the larger charge will be less distorted, and the field around the smaller charge will be more distorted. The larger charge should also have a greater density of field lines around it.

Example 3:
Draw field lines for: +q, +3q -q, -3q

+q, -3q

+3q, -q

Example 4:
Two 20 !C charges are 0.50 m apart on a horizontal line. Find the electric field: a) Between the two charges

b) 0.20 m above one of the charges.

IB Physics Electromagnetism

Example 5:
Find the acceleration of an electron in a 35 N/C electric field that is directed North..

The field between two parallel plates is nearly uniform between the plates (considered uniform). It is distorted at the plate edges. A uniform field makes many calculations easier.

Example 6:
Two parallel plates are 15 mm apart with a 200 N/C field between them. How much work would be required to move a proton from one plate to the other?

pp. 584-588, 43-48, 58, 66-69, 72-74, 107

IB Physics Electromagnetism

3 Electric Potential
Electric potential (or potential) is a measure of the potential energy change per coulomb of charge. It is measured in Volts (V) or J/C. If a charge q is moved its potential energy changes:

!V =

!PE q

Example 1:
Two parallel plates have an electric field of 135 N/C and are 4.5 cm apart. What is the potential difference between the plates?

Example 2:
An electron is accelerated in a T.V. tube by an 50,000 V potential difference. What is the speed of the electrons as they hit the screen of the T.V.?

To deal with very small amounts of energy the electron volt (eV) was invented. This is the energy an electron gains if it is moved through a one volt difference. "PE = q"V 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19J It is often easiest to convert eV to joules for work in calculations. In between two charged parallel plates, the electric field is uniform. The work to move a charge between the plates is: W = !PE W = q!V Fs = q!V Eqs = q!V E = !V/s The electric field can be expressed in Volts per meter (V/m) or N/C. 9

IB Physics Electromagnetism

Example 3:
A 0.0040 kg mass is held stationary by two horizontal plates with a "V of 10,000V. If the plates are 25 cm apart, what must be the charge on the mass to hold it stationary?

A simple cathode ray tube uses a voltage difference to accelerate electrons and a voltage difference to deflect electrons.

pp. 586-588, 76-81, 84, 90

4 - Circuit Basics
An electric circuit is a device that allows charged particles to move in a closed loop pathway. At the simplest level, the charges are given energy by an electromotive force (!mf). The energy of the charges is then dissipated through the circuit until they return.

!mf is measured in volts that are also joules per coulomb of charge.
Traditionally, electric current is considered the movement of positive charges. Most circuits are made with metal wires and involve the movement of electrons: electron flow. A metal has positive ions with free electrons that are able to move: the current. The physical movement of these electrons is called drift velocity. A battery has a positive and an negative terminal. These indicate the direction of the electric field that is created in the conducting wire. Positive charges (conventional current) will moved from + to -. Negative charges (electron flow) will move the opposite direction, from - to +. Cell: Battery:

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IB Physics Electromagnetism Current (I) is measured by the amount of charge that passes a point per unit of time. I = Q/t One ampere (Amp, A) is one coulomb per second: A = C/s The ampere is a fundamental unit in physics that we will define more precisely in the magnetism section. The voltage that is provided by the battery is lost as the current passes through the circuit. The amount of energy that is lost is described as the resistance of a material. R = V/I ohm (#) = V/A This can also be seen as the voltage difference required to force an amp of current to pass through the material. Resistance can be describe through a voltage/current graph. The resistance is the slope of this graph. A linear relationship is called an ohmic devise (a resistor). Many substances are non-ohmic devises. Ohms Law describes devises with a constant resistance (for a constant temperature).

Example 1:
What physical properties of a metal wire will affect its resistance?

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IB Physics Electromagnetism For any part of a circuit, the Power (gained or lost) is: P = IV.
! Coulomb $ ! Joule $ = watt # " sec ond & %# " Coulomb & %

Combining P = IV and V = IR

P = I 2R

P=

V2 R

Example 2:
A 100 W light bulb is connected to a 120 V supply. What is the current through the light and the resistance of the bulb?

Example 3:
An 1100 W microwave is operated for 5.5 minutes. How much power is consumed by the microwave? (Answer in Joules and kilowatt hours)

pp. 610-613, 44, 45, 48, 49 61-73 (odd), 77, 79, 80

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IB Physics Electromagnetism

5 - Resisters
Circuit analysis is determining the voltage, current, and power for each part of a circuit. There are two main laws governing circuit analysis. These are Kirchoffs Laws: 1. The current entering a junction is the same as the current leaving a junction. 2. The voltage in any loop must sum to zero. The current through each resister is the same. The Total voltage lost is the sum of the voltage lost over each resister. R1 R2 R3

VT = V1 + V2 + V3 IRT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 RT = R1 + R2 + R3 RS = R1 + R2 + ...

From A to B the voltage lost via any path must be the same. The total current must be the sum of the current in each resister. A R1 B R2 R3
IT = I1 + I 2 + I 3 VT V1 V2 V3 = + + RT R1 R2 R3 1 1 1 1 = + + RT R1 R2 R3

An important first step to circuit analysis is to determine the equivalent resistance of a network of resisters. If we can theoretically replace a network of resisters with a single equivalent resister it is than simple calculation to find the current leaving the battery. Unless told otherwise, assume wires have no resistance. Resister Handout

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IB Physics Electromagnetism

6 - Circuits
Circuit analysis can often be accomplished through several steps. The key concepts are: 1. Resisters in series have the same current pass through them. 2. Resisters in parallel must have the same voltage drop. 3. A network of resisters can be replaced by a single resister to simplify a calculation. These steps are often helpful to analyse a circuit: 1. Find the current leaving the battery. 2. Simplify complex circuits to simple series or parallel sections 3. Analyze the circuit in parts. If you replace groups of resisters with an equivalent resister, label carefully.

Example 1:

This handout has several circuits that become more complicated. The first pages have only the voltage of the battery and the resistance of the resisters. You need to learn how to find all the other values (I, V, P) for all the parts of the circuit. Check your work by using the second copy of the circuits that includes the answers. 14

IB Physics Electromagnetism

7 - Kirchoffs Laws
Kirchoffs Laws can be used to analyze circuits algebraically:

The circuit questions take practice to answer. The principals are based on Kirchoffs Laws. Most circuits can be analyzed with resister substitution. All circuits can be analyzed using Kirchoffs Laws. Use the method that makes the most sense to you. Circuits worksheet.

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IB Physics Electromagnetism

7 - Meters and Internal Resistance

A voltmeter finds a potential difference. It must be connected in parallel with a part of a circuit to determine the potential difference between two places. An ideal voltmeter has a very high resistance (infinite) to draw virtually no current and does not alter the circuit. An ideal voltmeter is not possible. An ideal ammeter measures current and is placed in the circuit at the point where the current is to be measured so all the current passes through the ammeter. An ideal ammeter has no resistance, so it does not alter the circuit that it is analyzing. An ideal ammeter also does not exist.

7 - Meters and Internal Resistance

Internal resistance is a resistance that is inside a cell or battery. A cell will generate an !mf. This voltage is lost throughout the circuit in devises or resisters. There is some resistance inside the cell itself. The terminal voltage of a cell or battery is the voltage that is left after the voltage that has been lost inside the cell or battery. VT = ! - Ir VT is terminal voltage (voltage measured at the terminals of the battery) ! is the !mf of the battery. r is the internal resistance of the cell or battery, so Ir is the voltage lost to the internal resistance.

Example 1:
Explain the relationship between current and terminal voltage. \

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IB Physics Electromagnetism

Example 2:
Find the terminal voltage if: a) !mf = 1.5 V, R = 10 #, r = 0.5 # b) The battery is short-circuited.

7 - Potentiometer A potentiometer is an example of a voltage divider. The substance between A and B is considered to dissipate the voltage of the cell. As the contact is moved from A to B, the voltage through the parallel branch changes.

For the following potential divider, derive an expression for Vout.

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IB Physics Electromagnetism

8 - Magnetic Fields
Magnetic Field Lines represent the effect of a magnet into the space around the magnet. The direction of the magnetic field is the direction that a small magnet (compass) will point at that place. Magnetic Field lines come out of the north end of a magnet and enter the south end. The north end of a magnet is defined as the end of the magnet that will point to the north of the earth if freely suspended. Magnetic field (B) is measured in Teslas (T)

Magnetic fields are created by moving electrons. Magnetic elements have electronic configurations that produce a magnetic field. Moving charges (currents) create circular magnetic fields. 8 - Magnetic Fields The direction of the magnetic field is determined by the right hand rule. With fingers curled, the thumb is placed in the direction of the current. The fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic field. (For negative charges the direction can be reversed, or use the left hand.) To draw three dimensional pictures on two dimensional paper we use some conventions: A dot represents a vector that is coming out of the paper (arrows point). An x represents a vector going into the paper (arrows feathers). Do not use up or down. Use top of page and bottom of page, into the page and out of the page.

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IB Physics Electromagnetism

Example 1:
Draw the magnetic field lines around a wire: a) With current moving left to right. b) With electron flow coming out of the page.

The magnetic field gets weaker farther from the wire. For a long straight wire (allows us to ignore the ends) the magnetic field is:

B=
I is the current in the wire. r is the distance from the wire. !0 is a constant

0 I 2! r

Example 2:
What is the magnetic field 25 cm to the right of a ling wire if the current is 0.40 A coming out of the page?

For a loop of wire the magnetic fields follow the loop.

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IB Physics Electromagnetism If the loops are repeated to form a solenoid, the result is much like a bar magnet. Magnetic field lines come out of the north end and into the south end. The magnetic field inside the solenoid is close to uniform. The magnetic field strength is:
B = 0 N I = 0 nI l

N is the number of turns in the solenoid l is the length of the solenoid I is the current in the solenoid n is the number of turns per meter (N/l) The diameter of the solenoid does not factor in. why?

An iron core inside the solenoid creates an electromagnet. The type of core will effect the strength of the magnetic field. A core with magnetic domains (soft iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium) will amplify the magnetic field. A permanent magnet can assist or counter the field from the solenoid. pp. 664-666, 34, 36, 39, 40, 58, 62, 64-66 Handout 58, 61, 64, 66, 67

9 - Magnetic Forces
Two objects that have magnetic fields can exert a force on each other. If the magnetic fields can combine the force is attractive. If they cannot combine they repel.

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IB Physics Electromagnetism For a current carrying wire in an external magnetic field, the magnetic field of the current and the external field create a force. The magnitude of the force is:

F = IlB sin !

B=

F Il sin !

l is the length of the wire in the field This is also a definition of magnetic field strength. To have a maximum force the magnetic field and the current must be perpendicular. If they are not perpendicular, the sin produces the perpendicular component. The angle must be between the direction of the current and the magnetic field. The direction of the force is determined by the right hand motor rule. Thumb is current (positive charge) direction. Fingers are field direction. Palm is force direction. Reverse direction or use left hand for electron flow (negative charge). A freely moving charge experiences similar forces as charges on a wire.

F = qvB sin !

B=

F qv sin !

The direction of the force is determined by the same right hand rule as before. Because the force is perpendicular to the velocity it can result in circular motion. Example 1: A proton is moving at 1500 m/s in a 135 T field as shown. What is the radius of its path?

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IB Physics Electromagnetism Two wires running parallel will experience a force. Draw the field lines below:

The magnetic field of the first wire is: The force on the second wire is: Combining these:

B=
F = IlB

0 I 2! r

F 0 I1 I 2 = l 2! r

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IB Physics Electromagnetism Example 2: Find the force between two wires 0.50 m apart with 3.5 A both flowing into the paper.

This is the precise definition of the ampere. For two infinitely long wires, an ampere is the current required to produce 2 x 10-7 N of force between two wires one meter apart. pp. 664-666, 44, 45, 54, 56, 72, 76, 80, 94 Handout 45-47, 53-55, 62, 63, 65, 68

10 - Applications of Magnetism
A velocity selector has an electric and magnetic field set so that FB=FE What velocity particle will travel directly through the devise shown here?

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IB Physics Electromagnetism The most common application is an electric motor. A direct current motor (DC) converts electric energy into mechanical energy.

A galvanometer is a devise to measure current. It is based on the same principal as a motor, but with no commutator. A spring resists the rotation of the armature. Greater current produces more rotation.

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