Vegetables production Tecnolgy by Akash Tahir Aims:

understanding and development of class room teaching (formal education) and learning activity plays a pivotal role in the education system Unfortunately we could not develop the tradition of utilizing this powerful sourse of understanding classroom dynamics in our acadmic culture. Thus we lost the oppertunity to learn from first hand experiences of teachers This course will create awareness of the potential role of research in professional development through the improvement of learning activity in the class. In addition this course will equip students with pre requisite knowledge and skills necessary to ecome a good research! wich will e turn develop the research mindeness and apitude among the graduate to infuse class research in their routine practice.

Objective:
"t The #ompletia les crops on of the course student will e a le to. $ Understanding the importance of cultivation of vegeta le crops % Understanding the manegement practices for vegeta les crops & Improve the quality and quantity of vegeta les crops yield ' will e a le to identify reseacha le pro lems of vegeta les ( Identify)locate the site for cultivation of various types of vegeta les.

Vegetables:
in culinary terms! a vegeta le is an edi le plant or its part! intended for cooking or eating raw. In iological terms! *vegeta le* designates mem ers of the plant kingdom

Importance of vegetables :

Nutrition:
+egeta les are rich and comparatively cheaper source of vitamins. Their consumption in plenty fair amount of protein.They also play key role in neutralizing the acids produced during digestion of pretentious and fatty foods and which help in movement of food in intestine. ,ome of the vegeta les are good sources of car ohydrates vitamin " - carrot! tomato! leafy vegeta les +itamin .- peas! garlic and tomato +itamin # - green chillies!#ole crops! leafy vegeta les and radish leaves.

Daily e!uirement of Vegetables:

/( 0 $%( g of green leafy vegeta les! 1( g of other vegeta les and 1( g of roots and tu ers with other food. Importance as "ood: 2ood production is increasing. Then our economic is also strength If is essential to sustain increased production esides nutritional standard of people. It can e increased y increasing production of vegeta les which will help to solve food pro lem as yield of vegeta le crops is ' to $3 times more than cereals. Thus! vegeta les play a vital role on food front as they are cheapest0sources of natural foods and can admira ly supplement the main cereals of the country. Importance to a gro#er4ature is in providing us0with all kinds of vegeta le crops that can e grown in different seasons of the year in 5akistan provinces. 6ifferent kinds of! vegeta les provide leaf! stem! flower! fruit or seed for consumption. 2armers can grow vegeta le crops throughout the year for earning regular and steady income to meet the daily expenditure. There are vegeta les of very short duration that can e grown as rained and intercrops in either agronomical crops or vegeta le crops. There 7are vegeta les which will improve soil and

also provide fodder to catties. Thus farmer has wide choice to select suita le crop to ad8ust in his cropping pattern in given situation. #limate and soil conditions of this region are conducive to grow different vegeta les. $mployment: ,ince cultivation of vegeta le crops involves intensive cultural operations starting from sowing to marketing! it provides more and regular employment opportunities in rural areas. Industrial importance: Industry as a commercial proposition largely depends on mainly allied enterprises like storage! processing marketing and maintenance and service enterprises to encourage vegeta le growing. The value of vegeta les as an important article of daily human diet has come to e recognized all over the world in recent years .

Vegetables contribute vital ole to Improve our $cnomic:

$. They are rich sources of 75rotective7 elements like minerals! salts! vitamins and other chemical su stances! which the human ody seeds to maintain good health and cheer. %. 5er acre yield of vegeta les is very high. &. They are an important source of farm income. '. They have high aesthetic value. (. 9ore vegeta le crops can e raised in one year. :. Importance of vegeta les in farmer7s economy. /. +egeta les are important .source of farm income1. +egeta les are sold at a higher rate than other crops. It provides regular as well as good source of income in addition to the income from the agronomic crops. ;. It provides regular work throughout the year to the year to the fanners and

his family la ours. $3. 5er acre yielded vegeta les is very high- +egeta les give very high quantity of food per acre and they grow quickly. It is found that vegeta les give higher yields in comparison to other crop

%roduction for medicinal properties:

9any of the vegeta le crops posses high medical value for curing certain diseases. 2or instance! onion and garlic are found to possess anti acterial property (,harma et. al. $;/:). 9any solanaceous and cucur itaceous vegeta les are found to possess +itamin 6. +egeta le seed production+egeta les offer good value in terms of nutrients and therefore! less developed countries! especially ,outh "sian ,tates have vegeta le 6ietary ha its. <ence these poor countries grow and consume 9uch more vegeta les for their main food requirements. 5akistan has greater opportunities! eing a centre for vegeta le production "nd can export fresh and canned vegeta les in most of the "sian countries to earn foreign exchange. "t present! mostly the growers depends on imported seeds! ut it is true that many 8o s farm of la ourers! could e created y growing vegeta les for seed production! seed trade and export usiness may also increase! which reduce annual import costs on vegeta le ,eeds. 6ue to the fact that this sector has not een explored To earn more income through exports to other countries. 2armers prefer to grow vegeta les due to short plantation duration and it is #onsidered as the low delta crop. The vegeta les can play great role in the economy of the country

%A&I'TAN (O TI)*+T* $ D$V$+O%,$NT - $.%O T /OA D Onion ,arketing %lan /ackground Information
5akistan is lessed with vast agricultural resources on account of its fertile land! well0irrigated plains! extremes of weather! and centuries old tradition of farming. It is ecause of its central importance in the economy that the

=overnment has identified agriculture as one of the four ma8or drivers of growth. "ccording to an estimate! the total value of agriculture crops at current factor cost is estimated at >s.((3.%:1 illion! divided into ma8or crops. 5akistan has unique ut unsophisticated network of up to six or seven intermediaries etween the primary source (producer and growers) and the end user. .ecause of the presence of so many layers and the lack of adequate marketing infrastructure facilities! &3 to '3? of the perisha le produce gets spoiled efore reaching the ultimate consumer. @nion is one of the main cash crops for the farmers as well as among the main exporta le horticulture commodities from the country. Therefore! development of onion crop will improve farm incomes and foreign exchange earnings %.3 @nion 5roduction Aorld @nion 5roduction It is estimated that annually a out (( million tons of onions are produced all over the world. In many parts of the world it is staple food of the people. #hina and India contri ute almost half of world onion production. The world market for onion is expanding with the increase in glo al population. The statistics reveal that exporting countries are almost maintaining their share with of course some ad years due to ad crop. 5akistan @nion 5roduction- 5akistan annually produces a out $.( million tons of onion. Though su 8ected to annual variations! overall area and production of onions in 5akistan have shown an increasing trend during the past ( years (Ta le %)- Ta le %- "rea and 5roduction of @nions for the 5eriod from $;;;)33 to %33&)3' in 5akistan Bear "rea (C333D ha) 5roduction (C333D tons) $;;;)33 $3;.1 $:'1.3 %333)3$ $3(.: $(:&.& %33$)3% $3&.1 $&1(.3 %33%)3& $31.3 $'%/.( %33&)3' $3;.3 $'';.3 "verage ($;;;0%33') $3/.% $';'.( ,indh is the leading onion producing province in 5akistan followed y .alochistan! 5un8a and 4A25. 5rovince0wise area and production of onion are presented in Ta le &- @nion in 5un8a is mainly produced in ,outhern part comprising of Ehanewal! +ehari! @kara! 6. =. Ehan! .ahawalpur and >. B. Ehan districts. =hotki! 4ausherhro 2eroze! 4awa shah! ,hikarpur! ,anghar! 9irpur Ehas and <ydera ad are main onion producing district in ,indh. ,imilarly ,wat and 6ir in 5rovince0wise 5roduction of @nions in 5akistan (%33$)3' "ve) 5rovince "rea (333 <a) 5roduction(333 Tons) ? ,hare 5un8a %(.(

%'/./ $/.3 ,indh ($.' :':.$ ''.' 4A25 $3.$ $;%.: $&.% .alochistan %3.3 &:;.1 %(.' 5akistan $3/.3 $'(:.' 4A25 and 9astung! kalat and #hagai are main onion producing districts in .alochistan.

<arvest ,easons of @nionThe agro0ecological diversity o tained in the country ena les production of onions almost around the year. <owever! production volumes greatly differ from crop to crop as follows- F Gune0Guly 5un8a H 4A25 5lains ($&?) F "ugust0,eptem er 4A25 Uplands ($:?) F "ugust0@cto er .alochistan (%:?) F 4ovem er09ay ,indh ('(?) It is apparent from the a ove that ulk of the onion crop is harvested from "ugust thru to 9ay. The augmented supplies tend to keep prices in the domestic market low there y offering an opportunity for export. Therefore! onion exports are mainly undertaken during this period! predominantly from ,indh crop. 6ue to limited shelf life and a sence of suita le cold storage facilities in the country! onions can not e held over an extended period and have to e disposed in the domestic and international market as fresh harvest.

%rominent Onion Varieties:

There are two commercially grown varieties i.e. 5ulkara and >ed ,indh. In .alochistan! ,aria >ed is also commercially grown. 9arketing ,ystem@nion trade is in private hands. The =overnmentDs role is confined to physical infrastructure development especially wholesale marketsHcommunication! market intelligence! market promotion and regulatory measures for smooth usiness operations. $conomic Value after 0ro#ing at a 'teady ate in the +ast Decade In %akistan Vegetable e1portsThe vegeta les have suffered volumetric year0on0year 6ecrease of '3.'? in %3$$0$%. The drop in vegeta le exports is a consequence of natural disasters! unfair profiteering y middlemen and a change in supply and demand dynamics in the foreign markets. The significant drop in vegeta le exportsis

mainly ecause the onion crop was destroyed y floods. The major items e1ports of vegetables from %akistan5akistan is potato exported $%(!333 tonnes of 5otato to >ussia in %3$30$$. The figure dropped to $(!333 tonnes in %3$$0$%! a decrease of well over 11?. .esides a change in supply side of the >ussian vegeta le market! "nother reason for 5akistanDs low vegeta le exports in %3$$0$% is an exor itant profit margin y middlemen and growers. 5akistan has ma8ority of ur an and rural population surviving on vegeta les! Ahich is relishing food due to nutritive value such as vitamins! proteins! #alcium! 5hosphorous! Iron! water and mineral salts. etc. In its varying climatic conditions! the vegeta les grown may vary from leafy to cole crops! root vegeta les to ul or tu er crops! flower vegeta les to Immature fruit vegeta les! which are grown in different parts of the country. The area under vegeta le cultivation excluding potato and sweet potato ut including onion! garlic! chillies was 3.&1$ million hectors (a out $.:/? of The total cropped area)! producing a out '.3: million tonnes of vegeta les. There is increasing demand of vegeta les from rural to ur an areas due to 6omestic consumption directly in food either in raw or cooked form. .ut! vegeta les have variety of uses in the preparation of pickles! chutney ketchup! soups! sauces! salads! etc. except their edi le usage for cooking purposes. The vegeta le cultivation in 5akistan is most pro a ly done in different parts of the country. There is great variety of vegeta les along with their edi le parts such as roots! tu ers! ul s! >hizomes! leaves! flowers and immature pods! fruits and seeds. The low quality seed is one of the ma8or yields #onstraints in vegeta les grown in 5akistan. The seed producing agencies and growers oth suffer a lot due to timely production and availa ility @f vegeta le seed in the market during season. In different parts of the country! vegeta les are grown in Eharif or summer and >a i or winter seasons of the year. The >a i vegeta les are grown in cool climate @f winter season! which complete their life cycle and mature seeds in eginning of summer. Thus! the seed of >a i vegeta les is produced at the maturity time i.e.! the months of "pril and 9ay. whereas! the Eharif vegeta les mature their seeds in the months of

,eptem er and @cto er while Eharif vegeta les are grown in warm climate of summer.the vegeta les of oth >a i and Eharif season are shown along with their edi le parts

%roblem in $1port of Vegetables in %akistan:

$. Inadequate air cargo space. %. <igher air freight. &. >estriction in the export. 6uring shortage of crop export is restricted. Thus regular export is stopped. '. 4on0 availa ility suita le variety. (. " sence of cultivation of suita le crop varieties exclusively for export is fresh for processing. :. Improper packing of the produce. /. +egeta les are packed oIin 8ute (undesira le). 1. #orrugated fi er oard oxes are not of enough strength and damaged in transport. ;. #old storage facilities at all air ports. $3. in adequate handling space. $$. Inadequate research development ack up. $%. 4o export oriented research programmed are eing taken up in vegeta les. $&. Juality of vegeta les is not uniform. $'. #ost of vegeta le washed in shorting and grading. ,uggestion for improvement in +egeta le Kxport from 5akistan- There is need for such policy so that quality crops at competitive price are availa le regularly in market. 2ollowing are ,uggestion- $Long term and consistent export policy! "void frequent change in export policy.

%. Kxclusive production of different vegeta le for different season in suita le packets e arranged t have regular supply throughout the year at competitive price without affecting domestic supply. &. Knough quality control control measures should e made. '. >egular assessment for international market. (. ,uita le diversification for export oth in term of countries and commodities for increasing quality and value. :. Identity suita le pocket for growing different vegeta les. /. 6evelop agro technique and fro integrated nutrient! 5 and 6 management! organic farming etc.

1. 5roduction and distri ution of quality seed in adequate qualities e arranged. ;. 5re0cooling and cold storage facilities are increased. $3. +entilated and temperature controlled! storage and transport facilities are necessary.

Vegetables gro#n in %akistan:

9ore than &( kinds of vegeta les are grown in numerous eco0systems in 5akistan from the dry zone to the wet zone! low elevation to high elevation! rain fed to irrigated and low input to very high input systems such as plastic houses. 6uring summer and spring season! tomato! chilies! rin8al! potato! cucum er! gourds and okra are a undantly availa le. 6uring rainy season! gourds! cucum er! eans! okra and rin8al are common. The winter season is the most important for growing a wide variety of vegeta les including! cauliflower! ca age! lettuce! spinach! onion! potato! carrot! radish! turnip! coriander! fenugreek and peas. +egeta les produced in different zones y using different production technologies during different seasons are traded across regional markets of 5akistan in order to meet consumer demand across the country. +aried agro0climatic conditions prevailing in different provinces of the country also contri ute to year round production of different kinds of vegeta les. Thus many vegeta les can e grown and seen in the market during any season.

Area and %roduction:

Total area and production of vegeta les including potatoes and condiments! averaged a out (11 thousand ha and /:$%.' thousand tones! respectively during the past ten years (%33% 0$%) Ta le $. Though su 8ected to annual variations! overall area and production of vegeta les in 5akistan have shown an increasing trend during the past $3 years. ,ince %33%03& to %3$$0$%! the area under vegeta le crops including potato and condiments has increased from (%3.; to :$$./ thousand hectares and production has increased from :'('.% to 1'/1.1 thousand tonnes.

Vegetables e1ports:
"griculture constitutes the largest sector of 5akistanDs economy. This sector contri utes %$.'? to its =65! provides '3? employment and :3? exports. The horticulture su 0sector (2ruits and vegeta les etc.) contri utes $$? to the total value addition in agriculture sector. The current national horticulture exports are a out '33 million U,M (%3$$0$%). Kxport of ma8or vegeta les is presented in Ta le 1. 5resently 5akistan is mainly exporting vegeta les to "fghanistan! 9alaysia! >ussian 2ederation! .ahrain! U"K! ,audi "ra ia and ,ri Lanka. 5otato! onion! chilies! peas! tomato and frozen and dried vegeta les are few well exported vegeta les. 5akistan must explore markets for other vegeta les to avoid relying on only few country

improvements in vegetables:
5roduce is not in line with the international standards and internationally demanded varieties. >esearch organizations should develop varieties that est meet the needs of the glo al market. 6evelopment of varieties rich in nutrients and having resistance against diseases! insect pests! drought! heat and frost will need more emphasis and concerted efforts. ,eed of promising varieties of vegeta les should e produced to ensure regular supply of true0 to0type good quality seed. There is a need for improving and strengthening the seed0producing agencies for etter quality seed production and supply. <y rid seed production at lower cost should e encouraged. Kmerging areas of science such as iotechnology! ioengineering and tissue culture should e given due importance in research and multiplication of planting materials. 5olicy of vegeta le research has to e focused on solving chronic production pro lems through development of disease and pest resistant varieties to fit into various cropping systems in different agro ecological situations. 2uture strategies in vegeta le production must consider increasing demand for export. This has to e supplemented through crop improvement and etter management practices that can increase the production to meet domestic requirements and the potential increases in exports.

23 $fficient irrigation system:

+egeta les in general are heavy users of moisture and draw a large share of irrigation resources. The need for high0yielding! short0duration varieties for water use efficiency is much more than low0yielding ones. Aater0saving devices like drip! trickle or sprinkler irrigation should e encouraged for growing different vegeta le crops. >ain fed and river ed vegeta le production should e promoted. Therefore! it is necessary to conduct research on efficient irrigation system under our climatic conditions and to make these technologies availa le to farmers.

Integrated pest management:

"n increasing awareness and sensitivity to environmental pollution and health hazards due to the excessive use of pesticides has stimulated integrated pest management methods in vegeta le production which should e pursued. Aeed managementThe weed menace in vegeta les is worse than for other crops since they are grown mostly on fertile soils with frequent irrigation and heavy manuring. =enerally! the summer and rainy season vegeta les suffer more due to weeds as compared to winter vegeta les. Therefore! research with specia on weed control through organic mean is require

abi Vegetables 45 'eed36ield7 and &harif Vegetables :

@nion 130$%3 @kra %330%'3 =arlic :330133 #hillies %'30&%3 #a age :330133

.rin8al '30:3

#auliflower$'330$:33 ,quash melon '0( Tomato (0$3 .itter gourd- '30:3 5eas %'30%13 ,ponge gourd '30:3 >adish '30:3 >ound gourd '30:3 #arrot 130$%3 5umpkin '30:3 Turnip %'30%13 #luster ean %330%'3 ,pinach $:30%33 #ow peas %130'33

Nursery Types and Nursery Management Definition of nursery:

4ursery is a place where plants are grown! nurtured and sold out. =enerally! various commercial crop growers require a good quality saplings or grafts of genuine type. 'election of site for Nurseries: ,ite is the asic requirement of a nursery. ,ite is a place upon which one can produce seedlings of plants. Jualities of a good site are$) 4earness of road %) 4ear a ha itat &) ,uita le climate ') 4either shady nor exposed area

() ,ufficient sunlight :) =ood irrigation facilities /) =ood soil condition 1) =ood transport facility Types of Nurseries:8 4urseries are categorized in different ways. "ccording to time duration nurseries are classified in two types- $) Temporary nursery %) 5ermanent nursery 97 8 Temporary nursery: This type of nursery is developed only to fulfill the requirement of the season or a targeted pro8ect. The nurseries for production of seedlings of transplanted vegeta les and flower crops are of temporary nature. Like wise temporary arrangement for growing forest seedlings for planting in particular area can also e done in temporary nursery. 27 : %ermanent nursery: This type of the nursery is placed permanently so as to produce plants continuously. These nurseries have all the permanent features. The permanent nursery has permanent mother plants. The work goes on continuously all the year round in this nursery . "ccording to type of plants produced nurseries are classified in to following types%) Vegetable nurseries: - 0 In this nursery seedlings of cauliflower! ca prepared. ,anagement of nursery:8 4ursery plants require due care and attention after having either emerged from the seeds or have een raised from other sources like rootstock or through tissue culture technique. =enerally they are grown in the open field under the protection of mother nature where! they should e a le to face the local environment. It is the duty H main o 8ective of a commercial nursery grower to supply the nursery plants with suita le conditions necessary for their development H growth. This is the ma8or work of management in the nursery which includes all such operations right from the emergence of young plantlet till they are fully grown0up or are ready for uprooting H transplanting in the main fields. age! rin8al and tomato are

97 %otting the seedling: ; .efore planting of sapling in the pots! the pots should e filled up with proper potting mixture. 4ow a days different size of earthen pots or plastic containers are used for propagation. 2or filling of pots loamy soil! sand and compost can e used in $-$-$ proportion. ,prouted cuttings! ul s! corms or polythene ag grown plants can e transferred in earthen pots for further growth. "ll the necessary precautions are taken efore filling the pots and planting of sapling in it. 27 ,anuring - Irrigation: ; =enerally sufficient quantity of nutrients is not availa le in the soil used for seed ed. <ence! well rotten 2.B.9 ) compost and leaf mould is added to soil. >ooted cuttings! layers or grafted plants till they are transferred to the permanent location! require fertilizers. "ddition of fertilizers will give healthy H vigorous plants with good root H shoot system. It is recommended that each nursery ed of $3 N $3m area should e given &33 gm of ammonium sulphate! (33 gm of ,ingle super phosphate and $33 gm of 9uriate of potash. Irrigation either in the nursery eds or watering the pots is an important operation. 2or potted plants hand watering is done H for eds low pressure irrigation y hose pipe is usually given. <eavy irrigation should e avoided. <7 %lant protection measures: ; "doption of plant protection measures! well in advance and in a planned manner is necessary for the efficient raising of nursery plants. 2or etter protection from pest and diseases regular o servation is essential. 6isease control in seed ed-0 The ma8or disease of nursery stage plant is Odamping offO. 2or its control good sanitation conditions are necessary. 5reventive measures like treatment with (3? ethyl alcohol! 3.%? calcium hypo chloride and 3.3$? mercury chloride is done. These treatments are given for ( to &3 minutes. ,ome of the seed treatment are as follows- i) 6isinfection O The infection within the seed is eliminated y use of formaldehyde! hot water or mercuric chloride. ii) <ot water treatment O 6ry seeds are placed in hot water having a temperature of '13# O ((3# for $30&3 minutes. iii) 5rotection In dry seed treatment organo mercuric and non0mercuric compounds like agallal! aretan O:! and tafasan0:. 2or this the seeds are shaken within the seed container. Ahile in wet method! the seeds are immersed for certain period in liquid suspension. iv) ,oil treatment O ,oil contains harmful fungi! acteria! nematodes and even weeds seeds! which affect the growth and further development of plant. These can e eliminated

y heat! chemical treatment. 2or that soil is disinfected y heating to the temperature of a out :33# for &3 minutes. v) #hemical treatment O the chemicals like formaldehyde! methyl romide! chloropicrin! vapam are used. @ther diseases like rust! powdery mildew! leaf spot! acterial light! yellow vein mosaic are also o served. 2or control of these diseases .ordeaux mixture! #ar endazime! >edomil can e used. Tricoderma viridi a io0 fungicide can also e tried out. =7 >eed control: ; Aeeds compete with plants for food! space and other essentials. ,o timely control of weeds is necessary. 2or weed control weeding! use of cover crops! mulching! use of chemicals (weedicides) are practiced. 5re0emergence weedicides like .asaline or post0emergence weedicide like %P '06 and >oundup are useful. ?7 ,easures against heat and cold: ; The younger seedling is suscepti le to strong sun and low temperature. 2or protection from strong sun! shading with the help of tim er framework of $ meter height may e used. 4et house and green house structures can also e used. @7 %acking of nursery plants 8 5acking is the method or way in which the young plants are tied or kept together till they are transplanted. ,o they have to e packed in such a way that they do not lose their turgidity and are a le to esta lish themselves on the new site. "t the same time! good packing ensures their success on transplanting. 2or packing askets! wooden oxes! plastic ags are used. In some parts of the country anana leaves are also used for packing the plants with their earth all. This is useful for local transportation. A7 'ale management 8 In general the main demand for nursery plants is during rainy season. " proper strategy should e followed for sale of nursery plants. 2or that advertisement in local daily newspapers! posters! hand ills! catalogue and appointment of commission agents can e followed. B7 ,anagement of mother plants ; #are of mother plants is necessary so as to get good quality propagules and scion. ". La eling and records .. #ertification #. Irrigation 6. 2ertilization K. 5runing 2. 5rotection from pests and diseases #ollection and development of new mother plants 2ruit 4urseries

)lassification of vegetables:
Classification based on cultural practices Though vegeta les can e classified in many ways! classification ased on cultural practices has een proved to e the est adapta le in field situations. It is easy to generalize the cultivation practices ased on their culture and climatic requirements. This means crops that require same cultivation practices are placed in one group. The common vegeta le classes as per their cultivation practices are as followi3 'olanaceous fruits Kxamples include chili! tomato! rin8al! etc.. In each case seed is sown in the nursery ed to raise seedlings for transplanting. ii3 )ole crops Kxamples include ca age! cauliflower! #hinese ca age! roccoli! russels sprouts! etc.. "ll are winter crops and have more or less similar cultural requirements. iii3 oot crops Kxamples include radish! turnip! carrot! eet! etc.. In each case the seeds are sown directly in the fields. iv3 /ulb crops Kxamples include onion! garlic etc.. v3 )ucurbits Kxamples include cucum er! ottle gourd! pumpkin! itter gourd! melons! sponge gourd! squash! ridge gourd! etc.. ,eeds are sown directly in the field. vi3 'alad crops Kxamples include lettuce! celery! parsley! etc.. vii3 +eafy vegetables Kxamples include pallak! spinach! fenugreek! amaranthus! etc.. viii3 +egume crops Kxamples include peas! eans! etc.. i13 %erennial crops Kxamples include asparagus! etc.. 13 Tuber crops Kxamples include potato! sweet potato! tapioca! etc.. 1i3 ,iscellaneous Kxamples include okra) hindi! etc.. Classification based on climactic regions

.ased on the a ility of the plant to flower! fruit and produce seeds in different climatic regions of the world! the vegeta le crops have een classified into two ma8or groups. Temperate vegetables Temperate vegeta les such as ca age! cauliflower! carrots! etc.. are generally sown in higher altitudes in spring and summer and are grown as winter vegeta les in lower altitudes. The vegeta les in this category require temperate or extreme winter to e a le to flower and produce seeds. Though the crops can e successfully grown for vegeta les oth in the tropical and temperate regions ut they would produce seeds only in the temperate regions. 'ubtropical and tropical vegetables ,u tropical vegeta les and tropical crops such as chili! tomato! okra! rin8al will only grow in warm conditions and are mainly grown as spring and summer vegeta les in hotter areas.

"actors affecting on plant gro#th light and Temperature:

Introduction: The growth and development of plants is dependent on a iotic (physical) and iotic ( iological) factors. " iotic factors include the physical environmental conditions and iotic factors include animals! insects! and diseases. Kach plant has certain environmental requirements. To attain the highest potential yields a crop must e grown in an environment that meets these requirements. " crop can e grown with minimal ad8ustments if it is well matched with its climate or growing condition. Unfavora le environmental conditions can produce a stress on plants resulting in lower yields. In such cases the environment can e artificially modified! such as in greenhouses! to meet the crop requirements. Temperature: 9ost plants function in a relatively narrow range of temperatures. The extremes of this range may e considered killing frosts at a out &%Q2 (3Q#) and death y heat and desiccation at a out $3(Q2 ('3Q#). Air Temperature: Kach kind of crop grows and develops most rapidly at a favora le range of air temperatures. This is called the optimum air temperature range. 2or most

crops the optimum functional efficiency occurs mostly etween (( and /(Q2 ($% and %'Q#). 9ost crops (and especially vegeta les) can e classified according to the temperature requirements of their optimum air temperature range. <owever they are generally grouped into whether they require low or high air temperatures for growth. Temperature requirements are usually ased on night temperature. Those that grow and develop elow :(Q2 ($1Q#) are the cool season crops! and those that perform a ove :(Q2 are the warm season crops. #rops that originated in temperate climates usually require low temperature! while those that originate in the tropical climates require warm temperature. 'oil Temperature: ,oil temperature has direct dramatic effects on micro ial growth and development! organic matter decay! seed germination! root development! and water and nutrient a sorption y roots. In general! the higher the temperature the faster these processes occur. The size! quality! and shape of storage organs are greatly affected y soil temperature. 6ark0colored soils a sor more solar energy than light colored soils. The capacity of water to move heat from one area to another (conduction) is greater than that of air. <eat is therefore released to the surface faster in clay soils than in dry sandy soils. The lower the air temperature! the more rapid the loss. "lthough light0 colored sandy soils a sor less solar energy! less heat is also released to the atmosphere ecause of the low water0holding capacity of the soil. )hilling Injury: 9ost crops are in8ured at temperatures at or slightly elow freezing. Tropical or su tropical plants may e killed or damaged at temperatures a ove freezing ut elow (3Q2 ($3Q#). This latter type of in8ury is called chilling in8ury. ,uscepti ility to cold damage varies with different species and there may e differences among varieties of the same species. The suscepti ility to cold damage varies with stage of plant development. 5lants tend to e more sensitive to cold temperatures shortly efore flowering through a few weeks after anthesis. (eat 'tress: Ahen temperatures rise too high! heat destruction of the protoplast results in cell death. This occurs in the range of $$&0$%%Q2 ('(0((Q#). In tomatoes! fruits exposed on vines to high temperatures and high solar radiation can reach $%30$%(Q2 (';0(%Q#). If green fruits are exposed at these temperatures for an hour or more! they ecome sun urnedP and ripe fruits ecome scalded. "s with cold resistance! the plant cells can ecome gradually acclimated! to a certain extent! to heat y slowly raising the temperature and lengthening

the exposure daily. Transpiration from the leaf stomata helps cool leaves. It has een calculated that transpiration can reduce heating y a out $( to %(?. ,ymptoms of heat in8ury are the appearance of dead areas in leaves of hypocotyls and young leaves of many plants. <eat in8ury occurs over a wide range of plants depending on the species or tissue. VernaliCation: The iennials crops (those that flower in alternate years)! and some of the cool season crops initiate flower formation after extended (several weeks or months) exposure to low temperature. The exposure of certain plants to low temperatures induces or accelerates flowering ( olting). This is vernalization. The required length of low temperature exposure varies with species. 5remature flowering is called olting. This can cause su stantial yield loss. This is particularly true for crops that require little cold exposure! like heat tolerant #hinese ca age. In some species! seedlings and young plants still in the 8uvenile stage are insensitive to conditions that promote flowering in older plants. In some species! seeds can e vernalized. The seeds must have sufficient water to allow to vernalization process to occur. #ertain tu ers! corms! and ul s require low temperatures following moderately high temperatures efore growth occurs. +ight: "ll light is made up of energy. Light to humans is the wavelengths of radiant energy in the electromagnetic spectrum that activates the light receptors in our eyes. Ahen these light receptors are activated! the impulses are interpreted y our rain and we experience vision. Light to plants is the wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum including the wavelengths that humans can see (visi le light) and some of the wavelengths that humans can7t see (such as microwaves and infrared light). Light in human or animal vision typically acts only as a medium for transferring information a out position and movement! shape and color of material o 8ects. The human and animal interest in light perception is mainly centered on food! enemies! seeking other mem ers of the same species for reproduction! etc. (.8orn! $;;'). Light for the plant is not only used as an informational medium! ut also for producing food through the process of photosynthesis. The characteristics of direction and spectral composition of light in the plant7s environment is transferred to the plant through the interception and activation of pigment systems within the leaf. This information affects the morphological

development (size)proportion of root and shoots) of the plant! hopefully imparting to the plant some type of ecological or physiological advantage for survival. 5lants also use light for sensing and detecting competitors and keeping track of time. +ight Duality: ,unlight is often referred to as white light and is composed of all colors of light. " color of light would e the relative distri ution of wavelengths from a radiation or reflective source. +ight Intensity: Light intensity is a ma8or factor governing the rate of photosynthesis. The quantity or amount of light received y plants in a particular region is affected y the intensity of the incident (incoming) light and the length of the day. The intensity of light changes with elevation and latitude. The amount of sunlight also varies with the season of the year and time of day! as well as! other factors! such as clouds! dust! smoke or fog. 5lants have varying preferences for light intensity. The light saturation point of the plant determines the relative light requirement of plant. The light saturation point is the point a ove which an increase in light intensity does not result in an increase in photosynthetic rate. #rops such as corn! cucur its! legumes! potato! and sweet potato require a relatively high level of light for proper plant growth while onions! asparagus! carrot! celery! cole crops! lettuce and spinach can grow satisfactorily with lower light intensity. +ight Duration: 6ue to the tilt of the earthDs axis (%&Q from the vertical) and its travel around the sun! the length of the light period (also called photoperiod or daylength) varies according to the season of the year and latitude. It varies from a nearly uniform $%0hour day at the equator (3 latitude) to continuous light or darkness throughout the %' hours for a part of the year at the poles. ,ome plants change their growth in response to daylength and exhi it photoperiodism. @ne important plant response to daylength in some plants is flowering. ,ome plants flower when a specific daylength minimum has een passed. ,hort day plants flower rapidly when the days get shorter and long0 day plants flower fast when days get longer. 5lants that are not affected y daylength are called day0neutral plants. These plants can flower under any light period. +ight $nergy )apture by %lants ; %hotosynthesis: @ne of the main roles of light in the life of plants is to serve as an energy source through the process of photosynthesis. Using water and car on dioxide through photosynthesis! plants produce the foodstuffs (photosynthates) necessary for growth and survival. ,u sequently!

car ohydrates (starches and sugar) and stored chemical energy are produced during this iochemical process in plants. 5lants capture the energy in light using a green pigment called chlorophyll. " very precise num er of photons at specific wavelengths (near :13 nm) are required to split a water molecule (< @) within the green leaf! which releases %
oxygen (@ )! and provides chemical energy to continue the long iochemical process to

produce more complex molecules such as car ohydrates. #ar on dioxide from the air and water from within the leaf com ine to produce oxygen and photosynthates. In the research la oratory! chlorophyll can easily e extracted from plant tissue using chemical solvents. #hlorophyll can also e extracted y a rasion as anyone who has ever pruned tomato plants y hand or had grass stains on their clothes can attest. +ight egulated %lant Development ; %hotomorphogenesis : 5hotomorphogenesis is defined as the a ility of light to regulate plant growth and development! independent of photosynthesis. 5lant processes that appear to e photomorphogenic include internode elongation! chlorophyll development! flowering! a scission! lateral ud outgrowth! and root and shoot growth. 5hotomorphogenesis differs from photosynthesis in several ma8or ways. The plant pigment responsi le for light0regulated growth responses is phytochrome. 5hytochrome is a colorless pigment that is in plants in very small amounts. @nly the red (:33 to ::3 nm) and far red (/33 to /'3 nm) wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum appear to e important in the light0regulated growth of plants. The wavelengths involved in generating photosynthesis are generally roader ('33 to /33 nm) and less specific. 5hotomorphogenesis is considered a low energy response 0 meaning that it requires very little light energy to get a growth0regulating response. 5lants generally require greater amount of energy for photosynthesis to occur. $ffects of humidityE ,oisture on vegetables: 5lants prefer air that has a certain amount of humidity or else the plant may dry out. 9any gardeners who grow vegeta les mist their vegeta les in order to raise the humidity for the vegeta les! thus increasing their quality. If the gardener wants some of the vegeta les to develop flowers! misting can help aid the vegeta le in developing flowers during the flowering period Irrigation and mulching: Irrigation: "lthough amaranth is relatively drought tolerant! yet insufficient water will reduce yield. Aater should e applied especially 8ust after sowing or transplanting to ensure a good stand. "s a rule! the plants should e irrigated if wilting occurs at noontime. "nother way to estimate soil moisture content is to take a handful of soil from the ottom of a $(0cm deephole. ,queeze the soil. If it holds together when you release your grip! there is sufficient soil moistureP if the soil crum les! it is time to irrigate. Irrigate thoroughly to maintain vigorous plant growth. "void over0irrigation! which may enhance disease development and nutrient leaching. 6rip irrigation or micro0sprinkler irrigation is

recommended in areas with limited water supply ,ulching: ,@IL 9"4m99ulching"=K9K4T 9ulching are the covering material on vegeta les that provide protection in oth season in summer and winter season there are two form of mulching material $) 4atural form ) synthetic form 'OI+ 'election and ,ANA0$,$NT: $. Introduction ,oil management is now recognised as a critical component of sustaina le vegeta le production on the ,wan #oastal 5lain. In the past it was suggested that the soil was simply there to Chold up the plantD and vegeta le production was viewed as a form of ChydroponicsD. The reality is! if we ignore our soils! it ecomes increasingly difficult to maintain crop yields and effectively manage nutrition! irrigation! pests and diseases. =rowers are striving to improve soil performance as a means of increasing returns y reducing nutrition! irrigation and pesticide costs! while maintaining yield. The 4utrient and Aater 9anagement chapters addressed current =ood 5ractice to make good use of fertiliser and irrigation. %23 Improved soil performance The sandy soils of the ,wan #oastal 5lain have limited water holding capacity and limited a ility to retain nutrients.Improving soil performance is in keeping with our theme and we elieve that any practice that can increase our soilDs a ility to hold water and nutrients! while reducing environmental impact! is a =ood 5ractice. The potential rewards are etter quality crops! lower costs! continued access to natural resources and a sustaina le future! Increasing soil organic matter is central to improving soil performance. ,oil car on is the energy source for micro ial activity in the soil. ,oil organic matter is the third and argua ly the most important component of our soil It has potential to improve oth the physical and chemical components of the soil and improvecrop performance and crop quality nutrient and irrigation efficiency infiltration and reduce compaction nutrient holding and reduce nutrient leaching pesticide efficiency Improving soil performance through increased organic car on! will improve vegeta le productivity and help address environmental concerns facing the industry. It is also important to recognise that not all forms of soil car on improve soil performance. #ar on derived from the action of ush fires is often not active! however iochar! produced from pyrolysis (incineration of organic materials in the a sence of oxygen)! is oth sta le and active and may well prove to e a valua le additive to our sandy soils. Active soil organic carbon: "ctive soil organic car on reflects the decomposition of organic materials y the actions of a vast num er of soil organisms that are collectively referred to as the soil food we .They are responsi le for returning minerals to the soil and for maintaining soil

quality and performance. This is a dynamic process that requires a continuing supply of organic materials The decomposition process produces a large range of car on0 ased compounds that include simple sugars that fuel iological activity! cellulose cementing agents that contri ute to soil structure and humic su stances. The humic su stances play a critical role in delivering many of the enefits associated with increased soil organic matter levels and ultimately they are largely responsi le for increasing sta le soil car on levels. Increasing soil organic car on improves soil structure! water infiltration! soil aeration! com ats soil compaction and increases the soilDs water holding capacity. In sandy soils!organic matter increases nutrient holding capacity and is associated with increased organic nitrogen levels. "dequate soil organic matter also counters acidification caused y most fertilisers and the associated increases in iological activity and diversity can reduce diseases and pests. Irrigation: Improved soil performance can reduce irrigation frequency and associated evaporative losses. Increases in soil organic car on following compost applications increased soil water holding capacity y etween %3 and '3? depending on the rate of compost applied This resulted in significant irrigation savings during the cooler months.#hanging management to increase soilcar on will also reduce irrigation frequency in summer. 3.($ 3./( 3.;$(LSD 0.48 P<0.05) %olyacrylamides: 5olyacrylamides work y slowing down the infiltration rate of water through thesoil profile.5olyacrylamides can assist plant health and growth y maintaining waterand nutrients in the root zone longer. There is no root uptake of the product! no phytotoxic effect and over time! the product iodegrades to car on and nitrogen compounds. There is a range of products availa le in liquid and granular forms. These are reported to significantly reduce leaching of fertilisers into aquifers! protecting against groundwater pollution and significantly diminishing environmental risk. Trial work in horticultural crops in other states and in roadacre crops in the wheat elt has provided encouraging results and there are plans to include polyacrylamides in future soils research in vegeta le crops. Ahile the impacts of polyacrylamides may e short term! they could potentially provide immediate cost effective results while uilding soil car on using other practices such as compost and cover crops. Nutrition: Increasing soil organic car on increases the soilDs a ility to hold nutrients. Using compost to increase soil organic car on reduced crop potassium requirements y %3?. This is a direct reflection of the increase in soil cation exchange capacity (#K#). #K# is an indicator of soil fertility! showing the soilDs a ility to hold and supply positively charged elements (cations) such as calcium! magnesium and potassium. The addition of compost increased #K# three fold from 8ust over %.( to more than 1.3 4itrogen Increased soil organic matter is also associated with large increases in stored nitrogen. In addition to normal mineralisation causing processes such as cultivation! the use of good quality compost results in the steady release of solu le plant

availa le nitrogen. this capacity to allow more efficient use of nitrogen is illustrated y improved marketa le yield with su stantial reductionsin fertiliser nitrogen 4itrogen that is not used y the crop is likely to e recycled y the enhanced micro ial activity resulting from increased soil organic matter. This com ined with good fertiliser management can help reduce the risk of nitrogen loss to groundwater )omposted organic amendments: Aith regular use! compost will uild soil nitrogen and car on! increase soil acation exchange capacity! increase water holding capacity! reduce ulk density and sta ilise p<. #ompost is sta le aero ically decomposed organic matter. It is a iologically active material! mostly of organic origin! that can vary in texture. It is typically dark rown with an earthy appearance and smell. #ompost is the result of a managed decomposition process involving successions of naturally occurring micro0organisms that reak down and transform organic material into a range of increasingly complex organic su stances! many of which are loosely referred to as humus. <umic materials are responsi le for many of the important characteristics of quality soils that include increased soil organic car on! soil fertility and the a ility to hold plantavaila le. *se of %lant 0ro#th egulator in Vegetables : " growth regulator is R "n organic compound! R #an e natural or synthetic! R It modifies or controls one or more specific physiological processes within a plant ut the sites of action and production are different. If the compound is produced within the plant it is called a plant hormone (e.g. auxin! which regulates the growth of longitudinal cells involved in ending a stem of a plant one way or the other). ,u stances applied externally also can ring a out modifications such as improved rooting of cuttings! increased rate of ripening! easier separation of fruit from the stem. .oth internal plant hormones and la created hormones are called plant growth regulators. <ormones usually move within plant from a site of production to site of action. There are five classes of phytohormones: S "uxins! S =i erellins! S #ytokinins! S " scisic acid and S Kthylene. Au1ins: These are organic su stances which at low concentration (less than 3.33$ m) promote growth along the longitudinal axis! when applied to shoot of plants freed as far as placing from their own inherent growth promoting su stances. 0ibberellins: These su stances are having gi ane ring skeleton capa le of producing the same physiological responses as gi erellic acid that it must e active in specific gi erellin

ioassay. The gi erellins are phytohormones which are active in regulating dormancy! flowering! fruit setting! and stimulating germination of seeds and extending growth of shoots. )ytokinins: These are su stances composed of hydrophilic group of higher specificity (adenine) and one lipophilic group without specificity. The cytokinins form a group of plant hormones having similar effects as those of ="s in reaking the dormancy of a wide range of seeds and in increased fruit set. These hormones mainly stimulate cell divisions and prevent chlorophyll degradation. Absecisic acid 4A/A7: "." is a naturally occurring sesquiterpene which regulate plant growth and meta olism in various ways and have een detected in nearly all plants. It is involved in the a scission of plant organs! induction and vegetative uds! in regulation of fruits repining and generally in reduction of growth. $thylene: it is the only gaseous hydrocar on hormones which plays an important role in the ripening of fruits! inhi ition of root growth! a scission and other growth processes. Unlike the other hormones! "." and Kthylene are not discovered through any interaction with fungi. ole of %lant 0ro#th (ormone in vegetable %roduction: The role of plant regulators in various physiological and iochemical processes in plants is well known.=rowth regulators are known to affect S ,eed germination! S ,eed dormancy S +egetative growth! S 4odulation ! S Tu erization ! S 2ruit ripening and yield. These can also e used for producing polyploidy and male sterility in order to overcome inter0 species incompa ilities and for producing hy rid seed. ,eed =ermination- 5re0 showing treatment of seed with growth regulators has een reported to enhance seed emergence. In tomato! higher germination with ="& at 3.( mg)l! and %!'06 at 3.( mg)l is reported ,oaking of seeds in ethephon at '13 mg)l for %' h improved germination in muskmelon! ottle gourd! squash melon and watermelon at low temperature. 'eed Dormancy: 9ain pro lem has een potato where freshly harvested tu ers fail to sprout efore the termination of rest period. #hemicals which have een reported to reak the rest period are ="! ethylene chlorhydrin and thiourea.the treatment which has een used for reaking of dormancy in potato comprise the vapour treatment with ethylene chlorhydrin

( $ liter per %3 q) followed y dipping in thiourea ($? sol.) for $h finally in =" ($ mg)l) for % seconds Lettuce is another vegeta le in which treatment with =" has een reported to reak seed dormancy induced y high temperatures. "lo#eringInduction of flowering in plants which otherwise fail to flower has also een reported with the use of various plant growth regulators. "pplication of =" at (3 mg)l to young leaves of non0 flowering varieties of potato ! when floral uds had 8ust formed! resulted in flower induction in all varieties. 9< delayed flowering in okra . =" has een reported to induce early flowering in lettuce . 'e1 $1pression: The treatment with growth regulators has een found to change sex expression in cucur its! okra and pepper. 0ametocides : ,ome plants growth regulators possess gametocidal actions to produce male sterility which can e used for 2$ hy rid seed production. The chemicals which has een reported to show good performance are 9< at $33 to (33 mg)l in egg plant! okra! peppers and tomato! ="& in onion %!&0 dichloroiso utyrate( 3.% to 3.1?) in egg plants! muskmelon! okra! onion! root crops! spinach and tomato and TI." in cucum er! egg plants! onion! and tomato. =" at $33 mg)l can also e used for inducing male sterility in pepper. (ybrid 'eed %roduction: =rowth regulators can e used as an aid in hy rid seed production. Use of ethephon has een used for producting temporary female lines in some cucur its . ,uccessful 2$ hy rid in .utter0nut squash has een made y using female line produced with ten weekly sprays of ethephon 5lant growth regulators have also een used for maintenance of gynoecious lines. In cucum er! ="& sprays have een made to induce staminate flowers in gynoecious lines. ,ilver nitrate at (33 mg)l has een reported to e as effective as ="& in inducing male flowers on gynoecious lines of cucum er . <owever! in muskmelon foliar sprays of ,ilver thiosulphate at '33 mg)l was found est for induction of male flower on gynoecious lines. "ruit 'et: 5oor fruit set is a ma8or pro lem in tomato! rin8al and chillies which is frequently caused y adverse weather conditions during flowering. 5lant growth regulators have een reported to enhance fruit set under oth normal and adverse weather conditions. %arthenocarpy,tudies on use of growth regulators in many vegeta les have shown an increase in the fruit size with their applications. The role of plant growth regulators in fruit development can also e seen from the fact that it is possi le to stimulate fruit development without fertilization ( parthenocarpic) with their help. In rin8al! application of %!'0d at 3.333%(? in lanolin paste to to cut end of styles or as foliar sprays to freshly opened flower cluster has een reported to induced parthenocarpy in rin8al. "ruit ipening:

KthephonP an ethylene releasing compound! has een reported to induced ripening in tomato and pepper. 2ield application of ethephon at $333 mg)l at turning stage of earliest fruits induced early ripening of fruits thus increasing the early fruit yield y &30&(?. 5ost0 harvest deep treatment with ethephon at (330%333 mg)l has also een reported to induce ripening in mature green tomatoes Tomato: ,oaking of seed in 4@" at %(0(3 mg)l ! =" at (0%3 mg)l and #I5" at $30%3 mg)l P %!'06! 3.( mg)l or thiourea at $30$ 9 have een reported to improve fruit yield in tomato. /rinjal: ,oaking of seedlings roots in 4"" at 3.% mg)l and ascor ic acid at %(3 mg)l has een reported to produce highest fruit yield. )hillies and %eppers: 2oliar sprays of =" at (3 mg)l at fruit setting or planofix (4"" $3 mg)l) dou le sprays ( at flowering and ( week later) decreased flower shedding and gave est fruit yield in chillies %O'T(A V$'T (andling of vegetables: %otato: <arvesting ,hift to field ins Transportation to packing house #ure (%3 T#P 130$33 ><) and store Unload from storage Aash ,ort and grade 5ack and #old storage Load and transport to market&3 5otato 9aturity <arvesting U V % to & inches in diameter. 5otato 5ackaging ,torage U =unny ags U Temperature ( T# U >< ;30;(? $% $3 Aeight loss (?) 1 : ' % 3 % : %3 Temperature (T#)&'.5otato 2ruit quality issues $) #hilling in8ury %) =reening ,olution- .y controlling sunlight ,olution- #rop rotation! resistance cultivars! &) .acterial soft rot removal of damage plant ,olution- 9aintain drainage in field! prolong watering Use high quality of seed H split application of water ') 5hytophthora infestans ,olution- Use of fungicide! resistance verities () 2usarium rot ,olution- #rop rotation! resistance cultivars! removal of damage plant. ONION: @nion <arvesting #lean up roots and stem Transportation to packing house ,ort and grade ,hifted in ins or ags ,tore Load and transport to market&1 @nion 9aturity <arvesting U &0' inches in diameter U /3 ? leaves of the crop end'3 @nion 5ackaging ,torage U 5lastic ags U Temperature /0$' T# U >< :30/( ? Kffect of humidity ,kin %3 ? ;3 ? property ,tiffness $;;3 1(3 (9pa) ,train at &.( /.; reakage '% <ole @nion 2ruit quality .acterial soft rot ,olution- Use high quality of seed H split application of water %) =rey mold ,olution- grow resistant verities )A OT#arrot <arvesting ,hift to field ins Transportation to packing house Unload from storage Unload from storage and wash ,ort and grade <ydro cool (W( T#) 5ack and #old storage Load and transport to mark #arrot 9aturity <arvesting U Immature stage U

9arketa le size U Length U harvesting #arrot 5ackaging ,torage U 5lastic ags U Temperature 3 T# U >< ;30;(? #arrot 2ruit quality issues $) Intact root ,olution5rolong watering in summer! maintain good drainage in field %) =rey mold ,olution9aintain temperature during storage! 5romote cooling &) .acterial soft rot )A*+I"+O>$ : #auliflower <and <arvesting 2ield packed 5acking house X X Aash with chlorinated water Transport to packing area X X Arap head Unload X X 5ack y count in hydro cooling <ydro cool X X 5alletize in oxes Trim leaves X Aash with chlorinated water X Arap head X ,ize manually X pack y count H palletized #ool Load in vehicle H transport to market #auliflower 9aturity <arvesting U 9ature curds are at least $( cm in U #urds attain full size diameter U 5lant is cut 8ust elow the last leaf U Length #auliflower 5ackaging ,torage U Aaxed vegeta le cartons U Temperature 3 T# U >< ;( ? U @% %0( ? >espiration rate U #@% %0( ? #auliflower 2ruit quality issues $) 2reezing in8ury ,olution- #ontrol storage temperature %) 5hysical in8ury &) =rey mold ,olution9aintain temperature during storage. TO,ATO: Tomato <arvesting 5lace in trays Transportation to packing house Aashing and air drying =rading 5alletized 5allets strapped vertically to reduce vi ration #ooling at $30$& T# Load and transport to market!Tomato 9aturity <arvesting U 2ormation of gel0like material U #olor is turning from green to red surrounding the seeds Tomato 5ackaging ,torage U +ariety of containers Temperature U #orrugated carton oxes U 9ature green $%0$( T# U Light red $30$% T# >espiration rate U 2irm ripe /0$3 T# Temperature 9g #@%)kg.ha.Tomato 2ruit quality issues $) #hilling in8ury ,olution- #ontrol storage temperature %) 2reezing in8ury ,olution- #ontrol storage temperature &) =ray mold ,olution- 9aintain temperature during storage. %ost harvest handling of vagetables: Juality is a com ination of agronomic practices! variety characteristics! grading! processing and finally packaging. The a sence of even a single factor makes the product inferior in quality and thus less accepta le in international markets. Improper handling of the produce results in a reduction of the market value! keeping quality and food value. +egeta les are highly perisha le in nature and have a very limited shelf life. They cannot e stored for a longer period unless they are properly harvested and kept in a temperature0controlled environment (cold storage). #old storage facilities are not availa le in the country that results in very high post harvest losses ranging from %( to '3 per cent depending on the type of vegeta le. Internationally accepted standards of processing and packing are required to e esta lished. "ll vegeta les eing exported are either unprocessed or have undergone su 0standard processing and packaging. >esearch on post harvest value addition of different vegeta les has to e undertaken. There may e an increased demand for processed vegeta les in the coming years. Technology for proper handling! packing! transporting and storing vegeta les to preserve quality has to e developed locally or introduced.Unless the productivity is su stantially increased! there will e a shortfall in production to meet domestic requirements. Increasing

productivity will not e rewarding unless technologies are developed for processing of vegeta les! and the esta lishment of industries at the village level to generate employment and increase incomes of the rural people. Kndeavour should e made to initiate research to develop simple agro0 ased industries that can e esta lished in farming communities. 5ost harvest technology development of value0added products needs considera le improvement. There is a demand for oth fresh and processed vegeta les especially in the 9iddle Kast and Kuropean markets. %$'T AND DI'$A'$ ,ANA0$,$NT: I7 Insect of vegetables and their disease management: ,everal diseases and insect pests seriously affect vegeta le production. #ole crops like ca age and cauliflower are attacked y diamond ack moth! ca age utterfly! ca age semi0looper and aphids. "phids are the main pests on root vegeta les. Thrips are important in onion. 2ruit and shoot orer is a widely distri uted pest mainly on eggplant ( rin8al) and is a very serious one. >ed pumpkin eetle is a common pest of cucur its. 9elon fruit fly is active throughout the year in various parts of the country. ,potted oll worm and 8assids are serious pests of okra. Tomato fruit orer is quite serious throughout the country. >oot knot nematodes seriously affect most vegeta les! particularly in light soils! and cause considera le damage. Insecticides dominate in the strategy of vegeta le pest management in 5akistan. <owever! care is required in selecting safe pesticides ecause residues left on the plants may cause health hazards to people and animals. Integrated management of disease and insect pests in different vegeta le crops needs to e developed systematically. ,ince there is an overuse of hazardous insecticides! research on integrated pest management with minimum use of insecticides has to e undertaken as a priority. 93 Introduction: Bield and quality are central to sustaina le vegeta le production. If not properly managed! pests and diseases can dramatically reduce crop yield! quality and su sequent returns. Ae invest a lot of time! money and natural resources into growing vegeta les. =ood pest and disease management can protect this investment from avoida le losses. Traditionally! pests and diseases were managed using a calendar0 ased chemical spray program. These were often crop and locality specific! developed through experience gained over a num er of seasons. Today! pests and diseases are managed using a more integrated approach. Bou may e familiar with terms such as integrated pest management (I59) and integrated disease management (I69). These approaches ring together the est mix of chemical and iological controls and cultural practices! to manage pests and diseases. They donDt discard traditional chemical treatments and local knowledge! ut integrate them into a sustaina le system. esources to manage pests and diseases+egeta le crops grown on the ,wan #oastal 5lain are affected y a range of pests and diseases. ,ome crops are more suscepti le to damage from different pests than others. 6ifferent pest thresholds have een developed for differentcrops to reflect this variation. there is a range of useful information to help growers make informed decisions

a out pest and disease management and utterflies ,oths and butterflies: These are grouped together in the order Lepidoptera! which means Cscaly wingsD. The main difference etween moths and utterflies is that moths do not fly during the day unless distur ed. .utterflies also have clu ed antennae and the ha it of holding their wings vertically when at rest! whereas moths sit with their wings flat. )ut#orm caterpillars- (several species) They eat into a plantDs stem! sometimes making the plant fall over. They have a very wide host range and can damage almost all vegeta le cropsP young seedlings are especially vulnera le. The caterpillars are rown or lack!herring0 oned! hairless! and a out '3 mm long. They can e found in the soil surrounding the plant and curl up nose to tail when distur ed. The caterpillar pupates inthe soil and emerges as a medium0sized! grey0 odied moth with dark wings. #utworm may e active throughout most of the year ut itDs the autumn! and more especially the spring generations! that do the most damage. )abbage #hite butterfly: (Pieris rapae) These also chews holes in leaves. The mature caterpillar has a pale yellow line on its ack and a line of yellow spots on each side. It normally sits on the upper surfaces of leaves in road daylight. 5lants attacked include ca age! roccoli! .russels sprouts! #hinese ca age! celery! eetroot! rocket and watercress. The adult female moth is distinctive! with white wings and a lack spot on each forewing. )luster caterpillar (Spodoptera littura) chews holes in leaves. @lder caterpillars also attack flowers and pods. Boung caterpillars are smoothskinned with a pattern of red! yellow! and green lines. Ahen distur ed! the caterpillar curls into a tight spiral with the head protected in the centre. They attack a range of crops including lettuce! leek and tomatoes. @ther moths attack vegeta le crops including armyworm (various species)! and potatomoth (Phthorimaea operculella). 5K,T "46 6I,K",K 9"4"=K9K4T )ontroled: There is a range of iological control options for caterpillars in "ustralia. 4aturally occurring eneficials include insect predators such as assassin ugs! tachinid flies! paper wasps! lacewings and lady irds. 5arasites include Trichogramma wasps which parasitise moth eggs and other wasps such as "panteles and #otesia spp. which parasitise the caterpillar. Trichogramma is availa le commercially for release against <eliothis eggs in sweet corn. .acillus thuringiensis (.t) and nuclear polyhedrosis virus (45+) are highly effective and selective iological controls. .t is a acterial stomach poison for all caterpillars! that is sprayed onto foliage like other insecticides. 45+ is a virus that is registered in "ustralia for use on <eliothis. It attacks the cell structure of the caterpillar! forming CcrystalsD that kill the caterpillar after a few days. .oth .t and 45+ are applied to foliage where they are eaten y actively feeding caterpillars that die three to five days later. .t and 45+ are safe to use with eneficial insects! ees and mammals.

/iological controls for T,9 include the predatory mites Typhlodromus occidentalis and Phytoseiulus persimilis which are commercially availa le )hemical and resistance management: 5esticides are a ma8or technological tool used successfully throughout the world. "n adverse consequence of persistent application has een the emergence of resistant populations. 5esticide resistance is a glo al phenomenon that has occurred with fungicides! actericides! insecticides! rodenticides! nematicides and her icides >esistant populations occur when the same chemical! same family of pesticides or pesticides with a similar mechanism of activity are used repeatedly at the same location. Ahen a few naturally resistant organisms remain after a treatment! they contri ute to the development of a larger population of resistant organisms. Kventually the population that develops may contain mainly resistant organisms and will not e controlled with the recommended rates of the pesticide. To help minimise the development of pest resistance! all fungicides! insecticides and her icides sold in "ustralia are grouped according to their mode of action! indicated y a letter num er code on the product la el. The mode of action la el allows the user to identify pesticides that work y similar means and which share a common resistance risk Vegetable diseases and their control: Damping-Off (seedling disease): Seeds o many ve!eta"les are suscepti"le to dampin!#o un!i $hen planted in in ested soils. The seeds may ail to !erminate% or seedlin!s may "e attac&ed "e ore or a ter emer!ence and turn "ro$n% shrin&% and inally die. 'ontrol measures include these( plant un!icide#treated seeds in $ell#drained areas) do not apply e*cessive amounts o nitrate orms o nitro!en ertili+ers) and rotate the location o the ve!eta"les. oot ot of !eans and "outhern #eas$ oot rot : is severe on !reen "eans% lima "eans% and southern peas. The disease irst appears as reddish or reddish#"ro$n areas on stems and roots. ,s the disease advances% discolored areas spread until the entire root and lo$er stem are a ected. ,"ove#!round symptoms include stuntin!% yello$in!% droopin! o leaves% ailure to produce normal pods% and death. %arly !light of Tomatoes( -arly "li!ht is a ma.or disease o tomatoes in /ississippi. Symptoms irst appear on lo$er% older leaves as circular% dar& "ro$n to "lac& spots that o ten contain rin!s% !ivin! a 0tar!et "oard1 e ect. ,s the disease pro!resses% leaves turn yello$% $ither% and drop o . 2re3uently% only the upper hal o the plant has !reen leaves% and in severe cases% the plant "ecomes completely de oliated.-arly "li!ht also occurs on plant stems and sometimes on ruit. 4n seedlin!s% the disease may !irdle the stem and !ive the appearance o dampin!#o . reduce losses to early "li!ht "y providin! !ood ventilation in plant "eds and $aterin! $hen leaves have time to dry. Seed treatment $ith Thiram aids in controllin! the dampin!#o sta!e. Do not set tomato plants $here early "li!ht

occurred the year "e ore% and remove and destroy all diseased plant de"ris in the !arden a ter harvest.,pplications o chlorothalonil or manco+e" e ectively control this disease. There is no $aitin! period a ter application until harvest or 5ordeau* mi*ture or chlorothalonil% "ut there is a 5#day $aitin! period or manco+e".5e!in applyin! $hen plants are 8 to 60 inches tall% and continue at 7#day intervals throu!h the !ro$in! season. ,pplications o these un!icides also control some o the other lea % stem% and ruit diseases o tomatoes. !lossom %nd ot - Tomato: 5lossom#-nd 8ot o Tomatoes95lossom#end rot occurs on the tomato ruit. :t may also "e a pro"lem on peppers% s3uash% and $atermelons. :t is more common on ruit that is one#third to one#hal !ro$n and occurs on the "lossom end o the ruit. :t "e!ins as a small% $ater#soa&ed spot that develops into a dar& "ro$n% leathery spot that may involve hal the ruit. The sur ace o the spot shrin&s and "ecomes lat or sun&en. rot is caused "y a lac& o calcium in the developin! ruit. The upta&e o calcium rom the soil "y the tomato plant can "e reduced "y luctuations in soil moisture9either e*cessively $et soil or e*cessively dry soil. The disease commonly occurs $hen plants are !ro$n rapidly and lu*uriantly early in the season and are then su".ected to prolon!ed dry $eather. 5ecause o dryin! conditions% the disease may "e more serious on the $ind$ard side o a !arden and on sta&ed tomatoes than on unsta&ed or "ushy plants. Prevent "lossom#end rot "y maintainin! a soil p; around <.5% irri!atin! and mulchin! to maintain uni orm soil moisture% and avoidin! heavy applications o nitro!en. 'ontrol "lossom#end rot "y sprayin! $ith 4 ta"lespoons o =< percent calcium chloride per !allon o $ater at 7# to 60#day intervals or 4 applications. 5e!in sprayin! $ith irst appearance o symptoms. 4verdosin! plants $ith calcium chloride may result in lea "urn. 'alcium chloride is su!!ested only or tomatoes. "potted &ilt: Spotted >ilt o Tomatoes and Peppers9This viral disease is transmitted "y several species o thrips and may &ill plants or drastically reduce ruit#set. 2ruits rom diseased plants are !enerally small and distorted. Tomatoes develop irre!ular yello$ish "lotches.:nitial symptoms appear as thic&enin! o veins on youn!er olia!e. ?oun!er olia!e !enerally e*hi"its a pronounced do$n$ard curlin!. :nternodes "ecome shortened% and immature ruit does not ripen. Dar& purple strea&s can occur on leaves% stems% and ruits. 4ther symptoms are "li!htin! and "lac&enin! o youn! shoots. 4n individual lea lets% small% dar&% circular dead spots may appear. 5adly spotted leaves may turn dar& and $ither. "outhern "tem !light: Southern 5li!ht9Southern "li!ht a ects most !arden ve!eta"les. The un!us that causes southern "li!ht attac&s plant parts (roots% stems% leaves% or ruit) that are in contact $ith or .ust under the soil sur ace.The irst visi"le symptoms are usually an advancin! yello$in! and $iltin! o the olia!e% "e!innin! $ith the lo$er leaves. Durin! $arm% moist $eather% a $hite un!us !ro$th may appear on the lo$er stem near the soil sur ace and on or!anic de"ris in the soil. Later% li!ht tan to dar& "ro$n mustard seed#li&e "odies called sclerotia develop in the mold. ,s the disease advances% several plants ne*t to one another in the ro$ die.Southern "li!ht is di icult to control% "ut you can reduce losses

$ith these practices( #o'dery Milde': Po$dery /ilde$9Po$dery milde$ is caused "y a un!us that commonly occurs as a $hite% po$dery !ro$th on leaves o cucum"ers% s3uash% melons% "eans% and -n!lish peas. 5enomyl and chlorothalonil e ectively control po$dery milde$ on vine crops% and sul ur provides control on "eans and peas. %hysiological Disorders in Vegetables: /lossom $nd ot: " physiological disorder associated with insufficient uptake and translocation of calcium to the fruit. 2or control! ensure adequate moisture and calcium in the soil. It is essential to maintain uniform soil moisture throughout the season. 6o not permit plants to wilt during hot days. 6o not use urea or ammonium sources of 4 for sidedressing or fertigation ecause these forms of nitrogen inhi it calcium uptake. "void in8uring roots. /lotchy ipening and 0rey#all: .lotchy ripening is most often found in greenhouses and damage to fruit may e significant. It can also e encountered in the field in fresh0market and processing tomato crops. This poorly understood physiological disorder seems to e a consequence of any environmental stress that slows the growth of the plant! patricularly sudden stress that occurs at some point early in fruit development. The cause of this physiological disorder and its relationship to *gray wall* is not well understood. .lotchy ripening has een linked to potassium and) oron deficiency and to high nitrogen levels! which promote excessive growth. This syndrome has sometimes een linked to infection y Tomato 9osaic +irus! ut this does not seem to e the definitive cause. Aeather plays a role in the development of lotchy ripeningP the disorder is more prevalent when temperatures are very high. "ffected fruit ripen unevenly! with hard! gray to yellow patches. The patches do not turn red! ut remain gray or turn yellow. Ahen fruit are cut! the vascular tissues may appear rown and rotted. =rowers should provide alanced fertilization and! in greenhouses! avoid excessively high temperatures! if possi le. #ultivars vary in suscepti ility to =reywall. "void those varieties which show excessive symptoms. Improper temperatures! moisture levels! cloudiness or nutrition can contri ute to this pro lem. "void in8ury to roots. 6o not sidedress with urea or ammonium sources of nitrogen. Vegetables 'pecific problems : 5otato- Karly and late light! 5L>+ #hilies- 5hytophthora root rot! viruses! aflatoxin @nion- 5urple lotch! downy mildew! thrips! weed infestation Tomato- Karly light! viruses! fruit orer! heat tolerance! nematodes! lossom end rot 5eas- 5owdery mildew! root rot! leaf miner! pod orer

#a age- <ead cracking @kra- 5od orer! yellow vein mosaic virus! 8assids #auliflower- <eat tolerance #ucum er- 5owdery mildew! downy mildew! cucum er mosaic virus .rin8al - ,hoot and 2ruit orer Tinda gourd- 5owdery mildew 'torage of Vegetables: #"44I4= #KLL">I4= 2@@6, #U>I4= 9K"T "46 2I,< 6>BI4= 2@@6, 2K>9K4TI4= 2@@6, 2>KKYI4= 2@@6, 5I#ELI4= 2@@6, AIT< "#I6! ,"LT! @> "L#@<@L ,K"LI4= 2@@6, 5>K,K>+I4= 2>UIT, 5>K,K>+I4= 9K"T,! 5@ULT>B! 2I,<! "46 ="9K 5>K,K>+I4= +K=KT".LK, >K#I5K, ,4"#E, ,@U5 5I#ELK, .>K"6, ,"L"6, "46 >KLI,< ,I6K 6I,< ,AKKT ,5>K"6, 6K,,K>T, .K+K>"=K, #@@EI4= #L",,K, #@>>K#TI@4, 9K6I" #@4T"#T 5>K,K>+I4= +K=KT".LK,

+egeta les The est food preservation methods for fresh vegeta les depends on their degree of ripeness. To preserve the est quality vegeta les! it helps to understand the difference etween maturity and ripeness. 9aturity means the produce will ripen and ecome ready to eat after you pick it. >ipeness occurs when the color! flavor! and texture is fully developed. @nce it is fully ripe! fresh produce egins the inevita le and declining spoilage process. <ereDs a guideline9ature! slightly underripe produce is optimal for canning and pickling. >ipe produce is est for fresh eating! drying! and freezing. @verripe produce is suita le for cooking and freezingP cook vegeta les into soup or stew. 9oldy or decaying produce elongs in the composter or worm inZTo prepare fresh vegeta les for preserving! always wash in plenty of running water! remove non0edi le parts such as stems and seeds! peel or trim as desired! and cut into slices or cu es. <ere are several vegeta le preserving methods! from the easiest (and least expensive) to the most complicated. >efrigerator pickles are the simplest way you can preserve fresh vegeta les and extend their shelf life for a few days. Think of them as a type of salad! or simply crunchy! mouthwatering fast food. These easy refrigerator pickle recipes use almost any vegeta le. ,alting is an easy and old0fashioned method for preserving vegeta les such as salted cauliflower. ,alting was promoted in the early twentieth century as an alternative to canning. 9any people familiar with the technique consider salted vegeta les to e far superior in taste and texture than canned or frozen ones. Bou must store salted vegeta les in a refrigerator (W'3T2) or cold cellar where temperatures never go a ove (3T2. .efore using salted vegeta les! you usually remove excess salt y soaking in cold water for % to 1 hours. Bou can prepare and serve salted vegeta les in the same ways you would as if they were fresh! cold in salads! simmered in soups! or prepared as a hot vegeta le side dish. "ermenting #ith salt: uses low salt concentration (%[? to (? weight of the salt per weight of the food)! to promote fermentation. ,auerkraut and kimchi are perhaps the most well0known examples. .ut the technique can e applied to almost any vegeta le. This recipe for sour turnips is well known in eastern Kurope as kisla repa or sauer ru en. Drying vegetables: is easy to do in your conventional gas or electric oven. Klectric food dehydrator appliances offer more control than your oven. Bou can purchase a asic model for as little as M(3. @ne of the est ways to use dried vegeta les is this versatile recipe for ean and pasta soup. "reeCing vegetablesfor long term storage requires adequate packaging and a dedicated freezer appliance (known as a deep freeze) to chill foods to at least 3T2. True freezing is not possi le in the freezer compartment of your refrigerator where the temperature typically hovers near &%T2. Treat your refrigerator0freezer like a checking account. Use it for short term freezing of food that you plan to use within one month. To use freezing as an effective

food preservation method! routinely clean out your freezer y consuming the food. )anning: #anning requires a modest investment in equipment and skills that are easy to learn and practice. The fundamental tasks include choosing the right canning method! taking precautions to prevent otulism poisoning! and preparing and processing canned foods correctly. There are two canning methods- oiling waterU ath (.A.) canning and steam0 pressure canning. Ahich method you use depends on whether the food you plan to can is high acid or low acid. <igh0acid foods include most fruits and fruit products. In addition! low acid vegeta les can e canned using tested recipes for pickles! relish! and tomato products! which contain added acid! usually vinegar. %ressure canning: low0acid foods such as plain vegeta les requires a pressure canner. " pressure canner reaches %'3T2! which destroys heat0resistant organisms that can cause food poisoning! primarily otulism. #ontrary to what some cooks elieve! you cannot safely put any food in a 8ar and process in a canner. To make foods safely! such as canned soups and spaghetti sauce (with or without meat)! e sure to use a tested recipe and prepare and process canned foods correctly. ,ethods to Improve the 'torage +ife of efrigerator %ickles 9ost refrigerator pickles have a relatively short storage life of 8ust a few days. Unless you are in a risk group for food0 orne illness! the following heat treatments can increase the shelf life of refrigerator pickles up to $ month. .oil the pickling solution efore you pour it over washed and prepared vegeta les. This method does not improve the safety of raw pickled vegeta les that you want to refrigerate for more than a few days. .lanch vegeta les efore pickling to decrease! ut not eliminate! possi le food orne pathogens. .lanching vegeta les also destroys enzymes that hasten spoilage! which can extend the refrigerator storage life of your pickles y a few days. #over lanched vegeta les with cold pickling solution! or use oiling solution for compound effect. #ook vegeta les to kill acteria. Instead of lanching! you can simply cook the vegeta les until tender! followed y rapid cooling. Ahen cold! immerse the vegeta les in a cold or hot pickling solution. This method can extend the refrigerator storage life of your pickles y a few weeks. <eat any refrigerator pickle 8ust efore consuming. 5lace vegeta les in a covered saucepan! ring to a oil! and oil for % minutes. ,erve warm or at room temperature. Bou should consume these pickles within % hours and discard any leftovers. 6o not re0 refrigerate or reheat pickles a second time. ."ood %oisioning "ood 'afty ho# to %ickle ,ake %ickle preservating vegetables efrigerator pickle )$++A IN0 "OOD': " root cellar is an old0fashioned winter food storage preservation method. In the roadest sense! cellaring is any form of storage that holds food in optimum condition for an extended period y controlling the temperature! humidity! and light. TodayDs modern

\root cellar] is the refrigerator. <owever! if you want to maintain a supply of food without the use of electricity! then some knowledge and practice of root cellar preservation methods is useful. 4o matter where you live! you can use the concept of cellaring to some degree.There are a num er of options for storing seasonal crops through winter. The cellaring method depends on your resources as well as on the type of foods to e stored. " food storage cellar does not have to e a stand0alone uilding or an old0 fashioned root cellar in a dirt0floor asement. In the city! you have several options for cellaring food! whether you live in a house! condominium! or apartment. " food storage cellar can also e a cool asement closet! a ox uried in the ground! or an attic. If you garden! you may store crops in the ground with heavy mulching. Types of #inter food storage preservation methods: " root cellar is the classic winter storage cellar and existed when houses had unfinished asements with dirt floors. This (lack of) construction made the cellar cool! drafty! and relatively humid. The open! non0insulated root cellar had adequate airflow that despite high humidity! discouraged condensation on the walls. In contrast! a cold room is a finished! ut unheated room in some modern homes." cold room! unlike the root cellar! is a finished ut unheated room in an otherwise warm! dry asement. The asic difference etween a root cellar and a asement cold room is the construction. If you have a cold room! or a asement that is partly elow ground! you may e a le to create a usa le cold room. The trick is to design the room as if it is actually an exterior space. The key element of the construction is to insulate the ceiling and interior walls! leave the exterior walls uninsulated! add a vapor arrier on the warm side of the house! and install an insulated exterior door with weather stripping to the cold room. 9ost importantly! add two screened! ad8usta le vents that provide a (high) warm0air outlet and (low) cool0air intake. Knsure the floor is a porous material (dirt! cement! or composite deck material are etter than wood or linoleum). 2inally! uild shelving away from the walls to promote air circulation within the room. "ny type of indoor cellar requires a method to control air temperature and relative humidity. 6epending on the type of food to e stored! a root cellar or a cold room needs cool temperatures! ranging from &%T2 to :3T2! and higher than average humidity^ etween :3 to ;3 percent relative humidity (><). .uried containers make a convenient root cellar or cold space for winter food storage! especially root crops. The container should e new or clean! and should not have previously held nonfood items. ,uita le containers include new metal or plastic gar age cans and plastic storage ins. 6rill holes in the ottom of the container for drainage. Locate the container in an area convenient to your house! ut away from garages and car fumes. 6ig a hole 8ust large enough to hold the container! with at least % inches sticking out a ove ground level. Load the container with layers of vegeta les! separated y straw. #over the top of the container with $ to % feet of insulating material. 9akeshift cellars are other simple! easy ways to provide additional storage ofseasonal crops through winter- .asement utility rooms! especially those with a furnace! tend to e warm and dry. This type of room is suita le for some types of vegeta les such as winter squashes and onions! as well as dried and canned foods. "ttic rooms! if they are warm and dry! are well suited to onions! dried vegeta les! and dried her s. If the attic ecomes very cold in severe weather! you will need to rotate food to another location. .y summertime! if the weather turns hot and humid! winter

stored food should e used up."n extra energy0efficient refrigerator! while requiring the use of electricity! can also provide a method for long0term storage of locally grown seasonal fruits and vegeta les. >egardless of the type of food storage method used! e sure to monitor the storage environment using a thermometer! as well as a hygrometer that measures relative humidity. #heck the produce at least once a month for possi le signs of wilting or decay. "t least once a year! thoroughly clean and sanitize any type of root cellar or food storage area. 5roper temperature and humidity! and annual cleaning are crucial to relia le long0term storage! and regular monitoring will help you maintain the quality of your food for an entire season of delicious eating. Types of produce for #inter food storage: The tradition of cellaring takes advantage of cold weather! which provides a natural winter food storage environment. In more temperate locations! storage areas need to e given more thought. Kither way! the storage methods you use must provide a controlled environment for the types of foods you wish to keep. If you are new to cellaring! you may find that ca ages! onions! potatoes! and root crops are the easiest types of produce to master. If you grow your own vegeta les! plant seed varieties recommended for long0 term storage. <arvest vegeta les early in the morning! on a cold day. .efore you store any produce! sort it for quality. Ahen selecting produce to e stored! always choose firm! mature! un lemished fruits and vegeta les! and handle them carefully. 4ever store any overripe! damaged! or decaying produce in a food storage areaP it can contaminate other items if stored near y. Immediately use or compost overripe produce instead of placing in any type of cellar. Tips for successful winter food storage- To preserve fresh fruit and vegeta le produce successfully! it helps to understand the difference etween maturity and ripeness. 9aturity means the produce will ripen and ecome ready to eat after you pick it. >ipeness occurs when the color! flavor! and texture is fully developed. >ipe produce is est for cellaring or cold food storage methods! as well as for fresh eating! drying! or freezing. 9ost produce is est stored in mesh ags! askets! or other containers that allow for plenty of air circulation. 5lace mature produce gently in clean containers without sharp edges. 4ote that some produce! such as potatoes and onions have very different storage requirements. 5otatoes and onions! along with most types of fruits! donDt make good neigh ors in a food storage cellar. <ere is a summary of the storage requirements for popular winter vegeta les#a ages keep est when you store it in the garden with heavy mulching! or in an outdoor uilding hung upside down y their roots from hooks. #a age gives off ethylene gas! so do not store ca age indoorsP the odor will fill the house. #a age prefers cold (&%T2 to '3T2)! humid (13 to ;3 percent ><) conditions. @nions and garlic should e conditioned for long storage y \curing] or drying in a well0 ventilated place (such as an attic! open shed! or covered porch) for % to & weeks! or until their outer skins make a rustling sound! indicating they are sufficiently dry for storage. 9edium0size red or yellow onions keep longer than large! white! or sweet varieties. @nions and garlic prefer cool ('3T2 to (3T2)! dry (:3 to /3 percent ><) rooms. If you garden! onions and garlic (as well as leeks) can also e stored in0ground for several

weeks! and can withstand light frosts (to &'T2) with heavy mulching. 5otatoes should e conditioned for long storage y \curing]. To prepare potatoes for curing! sort and remove any damaged or suspect (soft) potatoes for immediate use. 5lace firm! un lemished potatoes in a single layer! in the dark (in slightly open paper sacks or loosely covered with newspaper)! at '(T2 to :3T2 for % weeks. "fter curing! store potatoes in a cold (&%T2 to '3T2)! dry (:3 to /3 percent ><) location. ,tore potatoes in complete darkness! such as inside paper ags! covered wooden oxes! tin pails! or uried in dry sand. ,prouting indicates the potatoes are too warm! or are stored next to produce such as onions or apples. 5umpkins and winter squashes can e harvested after the vines are killed y a frost. Leave stems on during storage to protect fruit against disease. The est way to store winter squashes is in a cool to warm ('3T2 to :3T2)! dry (:3 to /3 percent ><) room. "ttics! closets! or near a asement furnace can e excellent alternative locations. 5lace them individually on shelves or hung in mesh ags. >oot crops! including eets! carrots! celeriac! horseradish! parsnips! ruta agas! salsifies! turnips! and winter radishes! may e stored in0ground for several weeks! and can withstand light freezing (to %1T2) with heavy mulching. Bou can leave horseradish! parsnip! and salsify in the ground! well mulched until springP they ecome sweet in very cold temperatures. >uta agas! turnips! and winter radishes give off strong odors! so donDt store them indoors. In the cellar! store only eets! carrots! horseradish! parsnips! and salsifies. To store in the cellar! cut off the tops! leaving a $0inch stem! and place in askets or oxes. To optimize moisture in dry storage rooms! layer the crops with sand or sphagnum moss. >oot crops prefer cold (&%T2 to '3T2)! very humid (13 to ;3 percent >< or more) conditions. )$++A >INT$ "OOD: 6rying is one of the simplest and least expensive forms of food preservation! requiring only warm temperatures com ined with good air circulation. 6rying removes the water that acteria! yeasts! and molds need to grow. If adequately dried and properly stored! dehydrated foods are shelf sta le (safe for storage at room temperature). Bou have a choice of several different methods to dry food. 9ethods that work well in the most climates include solar drying! conventional ovens! or an electric dehydrator. ,olar drying utilizes a collector! which traps heat and makes it possi le to dry foods in any climate. The collector is a specially designed covered ox that increases the drying temperature and maximizes air circulation. Bou can find online articles on solar food drying! including plans for uilding solar dryers at uilditsolar.com. @ven drying uses a conventional gas or electric oven. It is a good choice if you want to do occasional drying or are drying for the first time. #aution- the oven0drying method is not safe in a home with small children. "n electric food0dehydrator can consistently produce a quality product and is easier than other methods. Bou can purchase a asic model for as little as M(3! which is a good choice for first0time users or those who want to dry foods occasionally or in small amounts. >ash fruit or berries: . 2ruits and large straw erries may e halved! quartered! or sliced. Leave all other erries

whole. ,team0 lanch firm0skinned fruits and erries. 5retreat light0colored fruits for rowning. ,pread on towel lined trays to remove excess moisture.5reheat an oven or food dehydrator to $&3T2 to $'3T2. 5lace fruit on drying trays. 6ry until shriveled and leathery! or rittle for longer storage.#ool &3 minutes! or until no longer warm. >emove from drying trays. ,tore in an airtight container in a cool! dry place. 6ried #hopped +egeta les using a dehydrator Bield- $_1 to $_& pound dried per pound of fresh % l . (a out % dry pt.) fresh vegeta les (such as carrots! peas! roccoli! or corn kernels) >ash vegetables: 5eel and trim as needed. #ut in serving0size pieces and lanch. ,pread on towel0lined trays to remove excess moisture.5reheat an oven or food dehydrator to $&3T2 to $'3T2. 5lace vegeta les on drying trays. 6ry until vegeta les are shriveled and leathery! or rittle for longer storage. #ool &3 minutes! or until no longer warm. >emove from drying trays. ,tore in an airtight container in a cool! dry place. @ven06ried Tomatoes Bield- $( to %3 ounces $( to %3 (a out ( l .) medium fresh ripe tomatoes! prefera ly no larger than & inches in diameter #ore! and halve or quarter small tomatoes up to & inches in diameterP slice large tomatoes $_1 to &_1 inch thick. 5reheat oven to the lowest temperature setting. 9aintain an oven temperature etween $%(T2 and $'(T2. #heck the oven temperature with an accurate thermometer. 6ecrease the temperature y propping open the oven door with a wooden spoon or folded towel. 9aximize air circulation to speed drying. 5lace a fan on a chair near the propped0open oven door so that it lows away the hot! escaping air. @pen near y doors and windows to promote more airflow. #ontinue to dry until tomatoes have flattened completely! shrunk greatly in size! deepened in color to a dark red! and are no longer plump or sticky. 6ry until plia le! or crisp and rittle for longer storage. #ool &3 minutes! or until no longer warm. >emove from drying trays. ,tore in an airtight container in a cool! dry place. 2or more information a out food preservation methods and recipes! see the ook The <ome 5reserving .i le y #arole #ancler! availa le from ooksellers everywhere.

'A+AD' AND $+I'(: >ed and green relish (#ancler)#anning relish recipes are a great way to preserve a variety of vegeta les at the end of the season. 2rom one asic relish recipe! you can create two different relishes! one red and spicy! the other green and zesty. Tip- .efore you harvest or uy the fresh produce for any canning pro8ect! check that you have all of the required

canning equipment in working condition! and asic supplies such as pickling salt! vinegar! sugar! and spices. >elish has many delicious uses. .esides a topping for urgers or hot dogs! you can com ine relish with yogurt to use as a dip for crackers or vegeta les! lend it with vinegar and oil for a flavorful salad dressing! add it to mayonnaise and use as a sandwich spread! serve it with grilled or roasted meats and seafood! or perk up vegetarian meal of grains and legumes. This spicy red tomato and pepper relish pairs well with urgers and other red meats. The green pickle relish adds zest to potato! egg! and tuna salad! and makes a quick tartar sauce when stirred into mayonnaise! along with fresh her s like parsley or chives. ,arketing of Vegetables: 9arketing is one of the most important factors in determining the success of any fruit and vegeta le farming enterprise. 9arketing includes all the operations and decisions made y producers. These decisions range from deter0mining the most marketa le crops for production to deciding how to est deliver quality produce to the consumers at a profit. <owever! contrary to popular elief! marketing does not egin after a crop is produced. Instead! marketing alternatives need to e considered even efore production takes place. 2ruit and vegeta le growers in Texas have numerous alternatives for marketing fresh produce. Kach alternative has characteristics that make them more advantageous for different types of producers. +olume of produce grown! location of the grower! time availa le for marketing activities and quality of the produce are a few of the important factors to consider when choosing a market or com ination of markets to use. 5roducers may e etter a le to use or develop more alternatives if they know the ma8or characteristics of each marketing alternative. 2ruit and vegeta le marketing alternatives may e classified as direct or non0direct markets. 6irect markets involve producer interaction with consumers on a one0on0one asis! and include pick0your0own operations! roadside stands! community supported agriculture (#,") and farmers markets. 4on0 direct markets involve producer interaction with market intermediaries. The non0direct markets include terminal market firms! shipping point firms! processors! grower cooperatives! rokers! and retail outlets. The following discussion will explain the characteristics! advantages! and disadvantages of the principal direct and non0direct market outlets for fresh produce. Non;Direct ,arket Alternatives: "s mentioned earlier! fruit and vegeta les may e marketed directly y producers to consumers or non0directly through terminal market firms! wholesalers! rokers! processors! cooperatives! private packing facilities or uyers for retail outlets. Important factors to e considered when choosing a non0direct marketing alternative are uyersD needs! requirements! and the a ilities of the producer to meet those needs and requirements. .uyers may desire certain grades and varieties of produce! and they may require that the specific produce e packaged in certain containers. .uyers may demand certain quantity levels of produce for specified time periods. ,mall acreage producers should e aware of their a ilities and shortcomings relative to the needs and requirements of uyers. Terminal ,arket "irms:

Terminal markets are assem ly and distri ution centers located in large metropolitan areas. 5roducers truck their commodities in large amounts to terminal markets where uyers purchase and then redistri ute the goods to local markets. Terminal markets in Texas are located in 6allas and <ouston. Terminal market uyers include uyers for chain stores or large wholesalers. "lthough their requirements may vary slightly! they generally are looking for the following characteristics from their source of supply-" large volume from one source is needed! so they do not have to make many small purchases. " dependa le supply which will e availa le over a long period of time! so they do not have to keep locating new sources." consistent quality of the product and as high a quality as can e purchased at the market price. They also desire to have a variety of consumer and wholesale packs availa le from the source! so they can meet the varied demands of their retailers. " full line of produce is needed! so they can uy mixed loads. They can then meet their need for a variety of produce without having to contract many different sources." source with an esta lished reputation to minimize the risks of not o taining the quality and condition desired. " comparison of the small fruit and vegeta le farmerDs situation and the terminal market uyerDs needs suggests that small farms do encounter pro lems in meeting many of the needs of terminal market produce uyers. They encounter pro lems in meeting volume! timing! containers! delivery schedules! marketing experience and product quality. "lthough terminal market uyers do some usiness with small firms! many have tended to ypass these firms in favor of large producers located in esta lished fruit and vegeta le producing areas. This does not suggest that there have not een successful small farm marketing firms. There have een successful firms! ut these firms have! through application of marketing arrangements! overcome some of their pro lems! so they could meet the needs of their terminal market uyers. Advantages of terminal markets: #urrent market information is usually availa le at terminal markets. =rowers have opportunities to contact many potential uyers.=rowers may sell large quantities fairly quickly. Disadvantages commonly associated #ith terminal markets : .uyers usually accept only consistently high quality produce. .uyers usually have very strict packaging requirements. 5rices are ased on current retail market prices! so they can fluctuate widely over time. 5roducers must provide transportation to the terminal market for their produce. 5roducers must deliver produce to terminal markets in relatively large quantities (i.e.! truckloads). 'hipping %oint "irms ,hipping point sales are those made y the farmer to a local shipping point uyer who in turn sells the fruits and vegeta les to terminal market uyers. ,hipping point uyers may e area packing houses! produce dealers or other handlers such as uying offices for large

chain stores. 2or successful marketing! produce! grading! packing and cooling are required y most uyers. 5acking facilities provide these services for growers and also may harvest! manage field operations! supply inputs! deliver to uyers and lease production equipment. Advantages to dealing #ith shipping point firms: =rowers have the a ility to market large volumes through pooling! and do not have to esta lish a terminal market sales program of its own.,hipping point uyers may provide guidance on grades! container sizes! etc.5roduce may e sold to sources not otherwise availa le to producers. Disadvantages to dealing #ith shipping point firms: 5rices received depend on the facility since the firm has limited information on market prices and conditions.The firm does not develop terminal market outlets of its own.The argaining position of the firm is weak! especially if there are a limited num er of shipping point firms in the area. /rokers: .rokers are individuals or firms who neither take title nor possession of produce! ut serve as agents to negotiate sales contracts etween uyers and sellers. ,ome sellers rely on rokers entirely while others use roker services in a supplemental fashion with their own sales and procurement staff. .rokers try to locate the est quality produce at fair prices for oth uyers and sellers! and they inform uyers and sellers of terms! conditions and special agreements of proposed contracts. .rokers may also handle invoicing! collections and remittance! ut rokers are not responsi le for payment if uyers fail to honor a contract. There are t#o types of brokers: involved in the exchange of fruits and vegeta les! uyers and sellers. .uying rokers are individuals or firms that arrange sales etween terminal markets and local retailers. ,elling rokers arrange sales etween local growers and terminal market uyers. Aith modern forms of communication! uying and selling rokers may e located in shipping point or terminal wholesale markets. ,ome considerations important to rokers in grower clients are the a ility to supply produce over a long season! consistently high quality! large volumes from one source and experience in growing produce. .rokers generally investigate growersD reputations to see if they have the needed production experience to meet the terminal market uyersD requirements. "lthough rokers handle the sale of produce! producers retain responsi ility for most of the marketing functions. 5roducers are still responsi le for the production! handling! assem ling! grading and packing activities. Advantages to selling through a broker: =rowers o tain the services of a professional produce salesman and have access to a large num er of uyers..rokers provide needed price information.5roducers are not responsi le for the selling function which reduces personnel overhead for selling. Disadvantages to selling through a broker: 5roducts must e homogeneous and a le to e graded! ut grades may not represent

sellerDs quality. 5roducerDs volume may e inadequate! and cost of rokerage sales is high if large volumes are handled. 5roducers remain responsi le for product delivery and quality. %rocessors: @ther non0direct marketing options for producers are fruit and vegeta le processing plants. These plants have the capacity to process large quantities of produce. 5rocessors compete on a national level y reducing per unit production costs or y locating produce that can increase the receiving or distri ution efficiency. 5roducers usually contract to provide processing plants with a certain amount of quality produce over a certain period of time. <owever! processors do not contract for all of their produce. =enerally! they contract for a out :3 percent! purchase &3 percent on the open market and produce $3 percent of the total needed quantity. This allows processors the freedom to \play] the market and possi ly receive the supplies at lower prices. =ood managerial capa ilities are essential for a producer to provide the required amounts and qualities of produce for a processing facility. 5rocessors may control the production practices through the contracts and their field representatives. %roducer advantages associated #ith processor contracts: 5rice and quantity contract agreements assure producers of a market. 5roduction expertise is sometimes provided y the processor. 5rocessors may provide harvesting assistance.5roducer disadvantages associated with processor contracts- 5rices received may e lower due to less risk. Juality standards may e stringent. )ooperatives: @ 8ectives of produce marketing cooperatives are to secure higher prices! guarantee markets for produce and reduce handling costs for their mem ers. 9ost fruit and vegeta le cooperatives also provide various marketing services for their patrons including harvesting! grading! packing! cooling! storage and transportation services. #ooperatives allow mem ers to ring their produce to one location and pool their produce which allows producers to meet uyer requirements that they often cannot meet y themselves. <owever! some fruit and vegeta le cooperatives also provide purchasing! pooling! processing and argaining functions for their mem ers. /enefits rendered by cooperatives: =rowers gain enefits of large volume marketing. @ften a sales specialist is availa le. =rowers gain enefits of increased argaining strength. 5roducers may reduce level of market risk. 6isadvantages of fruit and vegeta le cooperatives- 5roducers lose some independence y selling through a cooperative. 9em ers may only sell through the cooperative when prices are high! and then use other marketing channels which hurt cooperativesD reputation. 9ore experienced! etter producers might su sidize inexperienced producers and! therefore! not reach their profit potentials.

etail Outlets: 9any opportunities exist for small acreage producers who are willing to deliver fresh pro0duce to retail outlets. Aith the growing popularity of salad ars and the need for dependa le high quality produce! some restaurants purchase locally grown fresh fruits and vegeta les. =rocery stores are also potential contacts for fresh produce sales. @ther potential markets include institutions such as schools! hospitals! prisons and hotels. ,elling to these markets requires a truck to transport the merchandiseP time to deliver to each location (as several will e needed to make delivery cost efficient)P and the a ility to deal with several uyers on an individual asis. .uyers and sellers usually negotiate prices and delivery times. These outlets require frequent low volume deliveries of a variety of produce. Institutional markets may purchase lower quality grades and not require specific containers. 5roducers need to make contact with potential uyers in the winter months efore the growing season in order to identify packing! quality! container! variety requirements and to ecome acquainted with uyers. #ontact should again e made with the uyers prior to harvest in order to deliver samples and place orders. =rowers should deliver the amounts and qualities contracted on time. "t the end of the season! producers should ask uyers what changes would improve the operation. #onsulting with uyers allows them to influence the operation! and makes them more likely to purchase produce next season. Advantages of dealing #ith retail outlets: =rowers may e paid at time of delivery. =rowers can argain for price levels.5acking costs may decrease and special containers may not e necessary.5roducers replace middlemen in the marketing process. Disadvantages of dealing #ith retail outlets: ,uperior quality produce may e demanded. 5roducers need time and extra planning to develop client contracts and deliver produce. There is the possi ility of high transportation costs per unit volume. Direct ,arket Alternatives: >egardless of its occurrence through pick0your0own operations! roadside stands! or farmersD markets! direct marketing is an approach which is usually eneficial to oth producers and consumers. Ahen producers choose to use a direct market! they want to capture the retail dollar that consumers pay at other markets. If growers expect to receive prices similar to those at retail outlets! they must provide the same value of services as other retailers and wholesalers. >etail store produce price consumers pay generally covers the cost of producing! grading! packing transporting! wholesaling and retailing. In order to receive higher net returns! producers try to provide all the marketing services at a lower cost! provide services which are not availa le through other markets and eliminate certain unnecessary services. #onsumers! on the other hand! purchase from direct markets to uy high quality fresh produce directly from producers at competitive prices. .esides providing a financial exchange arena for oth producers and consumers of fresh produce! direct markets also provide social settings for these individuals. 5roducers have the opportunity to discuss production practices! display ideas! usage of different types of produce and to socialize with friends! neigh ors! and consumers. #onsumers have the opportunity to visit a local farm and talk with others who share similar interests.

"lthough direct marketing seems to provide an opportunity for producers to receive higher net returns! producers should consider the amount of additional time and effort! the required production knowledge and the needed retail sales experience associated with direct markets. 5roducers should e aware that direct markets may require them to work long hours! do a variety of work and deal with various types of people in a pleasant manner. 9uch of the time required to operate a direct market is spent with customers. 5roducers should talk with customers to promote positive attitudes and goodwill for the market which will hopefully result in repeat sales. The sales time required to operate a direct market may take away from production activities. 9any times! other family mem ers are in charge of the retailing portion of the direct marketing operation! so the grower can manage the production activities of the operation. %ick;6our;O#n Operations: 5ick0your0own operations (5B@) are a type of direct marketing outlet where consumers come to the farm and harvest fruits and vegeta les themselves. 5B@ operations are feasi le for crops that mature at one time or those which maturity is easily identified. 5B@ is often preferred y consumers who like to select fresher! higher quality produce at lower prices. "lso! many consumers en8oy picking produce themselves as a recreational event or family outing. 5B@ markets can serve as an additional selling method for producers who use other direct and non0direct marketing alternatives. <owever! 5B@ operations require the producer to work very long hours! to do a variety of different 8o s and to deal with various types of people pleasantly. ,ome areas that are very important to the success of 5B@Ds are crop diversity! quality and advertising and promotion. 5B@ operations often are more successful if they provide a variety of produce. This is especially true if there are a large num er of similar operations in the area. In order to encourage repeat sales and goodwill! it is important that 5B@Ds consistently provide high quality produce. "dvertising and promotion are critical to 5B@ success since consumers learn a out an operationDs existence and a out what produce is availa le from these efforts. These and other topics are discussed elow. )rop Diversification: "s in any type of direct market! the uying ha its! tastes and preferences! distance from the market and income levels of potential customers in the area must e identified and evaluated. The level of competition in the area also can dictate the crops and services producers provide. 5roducers should identify the num er of similar farmers in the area and the type of crops they produce and services offered. 5roducers often can reduce competition y planting crops at different times. Long season and early season crops can e ideal for 5B@ operations! especially if there are a large num er of operations in a proposed area. 5roducers can provide several varieties of a particular crop to diversify their operations and increase customer satisfaction. This helps prolong the harvest season and provide a longer period of cash flow. "lso! special services or products can e added to an operation to gain market share. ,ome examples are recipes! plants! flowers! seeds! her s and homemade crafts. "ield +ayout:

2ield layout is also important to the 5B@ operator. 2ield planting should e coordinated! so that the earliest maturing crops are nearest the weigh in station to minimize damage to immature crops. 2ruits and vegeta les that require the most supervision should e located near the checkout area. The timing of spray applications is also an important issue for 5B@ operations! since customers may wander to an area of an operation that has een recently sprayed or planted. "lso! chemical application for some crops may drift on crops to e harvested that are within the vicinity and cause potential health pro lems. Duality: <igh quality produce is essential to the 5B@ operation. ,everal 5B@ surveys have indicated that customers ranked quality as eing the most favora le aspect of the 5B@ operation with price and recreation ranked next! respectively. Juality influences the num er of customers that patronize the 5B@! the price levels set for the produce and the amount of word0of0mouth advertising generated. 5roducers should remem er that high quality is important to customers! ut they also appreciate honesty a out the quality of the produce availa le. 5roducers may e a le to gain credi ility and goodwill y honestly representing and explaining the quality level of their produce. The quality level may mean the difference in repeat sales! volume and profit levels for the operation. .%ricing: 5ricing is a difficult decision for most farmers starting a 5B@ market. 9ost producers use competitorsD prices as a yardstick for setting their own prices! including other 5B@ operations! local grocery stores! farmersD markets! roadside stands or wholesalers. 5rice levels should reflect quality of produce! picking conditions! distance to the market! services offered and other advantages and disadvantages that the operation offers. <owever! in order to make a profit! producers should also consider their production costs and yields when setting price levels. 5roduce may e sold y weight! volume or count. The simplest method for calculating prices is to sell y volume. <owever! producers must provide the containers for the customers! so correct volumes can e measured. Kven with the specific containers! correct volumes are not guaranteed! and some pickers will overfill the containers which may result in a significant amount of fruit o tained at no charge. 5ricing y weight can eliminate the container pro lem! ut it requires more time and la or. Ahen pricing y weight! the containers must first e weighed prior to picking and the weight recorded. 2illed containers must e weighed after picking and the produce weight calculated. " scale! pen! and roll of masking tape should e all of the equipment needed for this process. Kven with a weight pricing system! it may e necessary to provide some containers since all consumers will not ring their own. #harges for containers are appropriate in these instances. #ount pricing is a simple method that prices produce on a per item asis. <owever! count pricing o viously cannot e used for all types of fresh produce. 4o matter what pricing method is selected! it is recommended that the price e rounded to the nearest nickel or dime for easy price calculation and to maintain the \farm] image. "lso! the pricing method should e mentioned on signs and other forms of advertising. It is est to start the price too high than too low ecause it is much easier to lower prices than to raise them. ,uccessful 5B@ operations seldom lower their prices directly in order to attract enough customers to move the produce as fast as it matures. Instead! the grower may advertise quantity sales or specials.

)ontainers: <arvesting containers are needed and can e supplied y the customer! the farmer or sold to the customer y the farmer. 5roducers need to supply a variety of containers that are appropriate for the produce they have for sale. ,ome producers design their own specialized containers. The containers selected should e sturdy! avoid ruising the produce and should not hold such large quantities that consumers cannot easily carry them. The 5B@ name! logo and map to the farm can e printed on the containers for a minimal charge. The printed information encourages repeat sales! and a discount could e offered to consumers if the oxes are used repeatedly or returned. If consumers ring their own container! a greater amount of time is spent with each customer weighing in the containers and then weighing the produce after picking. Therefore! the check in and checkout process is slowed down! ut it provides a fair pricing system for producer and consumer. "lso! some consumers will not ring containers with them! and it will e necessary for the 5B@ operator to have some type of containers availa le for their use. 4o matter what container system is chosen! a sign and any advertisements should explain the container policy. +ocation: The location of a roadside stand can greatly influence its profita ility. There will pro a ly e very few market locations that will e ideally suited. ,ome varia les to consider when evaluating sites are traffic count! population density and composition! zoning regulations! distance from customers and competitors as well as the type of produce offered. The more successful stand sites are located near customers and are easily visi le from the road. 4ormally! a level stretch on the right hand side of the road heading toward town has the most promise as a market location. If a stand is close to a city! then the average weekly sales may e higher than if the stand was in a more rural area! especially if the road is a usy! main thoroughfare to and from the city or town. <owever! in higher population areas! consumers will travel a shorter distance to a stand (approximately a $( minute oundary for travel time to the market). >oadside stands generally are more successful! if the average highway speed is '( miles per hour or less. "vaila ility of parking is another important factor that should e considered in selecting a location for the roadside market. @ff road parking is essential for the safety of customers and users of the highway. " frontage road is not necessary! ut the stand should have a safe! easy entrance that is visi le from the road. The parking lot should e a well drained grassy or graveled area. If the stand is generating a large amount of traffic! then traffic flow directions may e needed to assist in orderly parking. @rganized traffic patterns can make a ig difference in the num er of cars that can park at any given time. Three main steps an operator can take to fully use parking lot space include setting up definite entrances and exits! setting up one way traffic flow and marking off distinct parking spaces for cars. 2ollowing these steps improves safety as customers enter! move through and leave the lot. It also eliminates con0fusion in the lot and allows for more parking spaces. <owever! the cost of setting up traffic patterns and marking off spaces needs to e considered. ,igns will e required to direct traffic! and materials will e needed to mark off parking spaces. "acilities5 /uildings5 and $!uipment:

The facilities used to house a roadside stand do not need to e ela orate! ut should serve operational needs. Kssential facilities for the market are a sales area! adequate parking and roadway access. The facilities should provide protection for produce! employees and customers. ,ome optional facilities are a cool storage area! restrooms! playground and a picnic area. .uildings used for a market may e new or converted. The uildings or stands must e neat! attractive and large enough for adequate displays with plenty of room for walking! and! should always e in good repair and freshly painted with conservative colors. The floor can e of wood! concrete! clean shavings or sawdust. The roof should e sufficiently high to avoid radiation. The main purpose of the uilding is to protect the produce and customers from the weather. Ahen uilding a structure! producers should consider the expected sales levels! the length of the season and types of produce to e sold. 2rom these factors! growers can determine the size of the uilding! the appropriate uilding design and needed construction materials. "fter evaluating their market expectations! growers may find that no permanent roadside stand structure is needed. If the grower has one or two items to sell! a temporary stand or a simple pole shed might e quite adequate. >egardless of the structure used! it is important to keep the rural image with a colorful creative stand. The amount of equipment needed also varies with the type of stand. The only necessary pieces of equipment for a roadside stand are a money ox or a cash register and a produce display. @ther types of equipment that might e included are scales! an ice machine! a cold storage unit! and accent lighting fixtures. ,ome specialized equipment might e needed! depending on the market type and services offered. 'ource of %roduce: The source of produce depends on the type of market. =rowers may specialize in one product or sell a variety of goods. The produce may e entirely grown y the roadside marketer! purchased from other area growers or purchased from wholesalers. ,ome markets sell one superior quality product during the harvest season. <owever! some growers! who specialize in a single product! do sell small volumes of other products. 9ultiple produce stands expose consumers to more produce which can result in increased sales. In either type of stand! consistent! high quality produce is necessary to esta lish repeat sales. "armersF ,arkets 2armersD markets are an increasingly popular form of direct marketing. 2armersD markets are a type of direct market where producers come to a designated place to sell their products directly to consumers. 2armersD markets differ from other direct marketing operations in that growers share insurance! advertising and other marketing costs. ,uccessful farmersD markets are very helpful in increasing the incomes of small farmers who participate in them. 2armersD markets range from large permanent facilities such as the 6allas farmersD market open seven days a week to a tent in a parking lot open for a specific time period seasonally or throughout the year. " market may e operated y a grower organization! community development groups or state and local governments. #onsumers come to farmersD markets for a variety of reasons which generally include-

They wish to take advantage of lower prices. They prefer fresher! higher quality produce. 2armersD markets offer a wide variety of produce to choose from. 5roduce is availa le in large quantities for canning and preserving purposes. They en8oy the market atmosphere and conversing with produce growers. They like to support local agriculture. 'ummary: #areful evaluation of potential uyer needs efore making production decisions can aid vegeta le producers in choosing non0direct marketing methods that may enefit their marketing plans and overall operation. 5roducers need to know quality! quantity! packaging and delivery requirements. 5roducersD a ilities and limitations also are important. 2or example! more time is required to deliver to several stores than to sell to one wholesaler. "lso! producersD volumes and qualities may dictate what non0direct marketing options to choose and should e considered carefully when making marketing decisions. Vegetable "orcing and Vegetable for %rocessing: Vegetable "orcing: It is the method of growing of vegeta les out of their normal in sellers! heated uildings! greenhouses! cold farms and under other artificial growing conditions. It is the most intensive type of vegeta le growing. +egeta le produced through these! give a very high return! vegeta le forcing is not possi le ecause the consumers cannot afford the prices of such vegeta les. "ccording to #houdhury ($;;/) growing of the summer vegeta les.Ion the river eds during the winter months with the help of organic manure! with reaks of dry grass is also type of forcing. ,ome times for early product seedlings of crops like tomato or rin8al are forced to germinate in small protected structures. This may also e a type of vegeta le forcing. Vegetable for %rocessing: Low cost with high quality and convenience in storage and use! have given rise to vegeta le processing in India. .ut this industry is still not well0developed 5eople also in general! have not yet developed liking for the canned and processed vegeta les in India. ,till we need vegeta les of good quality for canning! dehydration and freezing in our existing factories. 5ickling and fermentation also require vegeta les. 2or these also we must grow good vegeta les. +egeta les for processing are generally grown around vegeta les processing factories! for the regular supply of vegeta les to the factories