Schmalzel, J.L..

Instruments
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
10S
Insfrumenfs
108.1 Intioduction
108.2 Physical Vaiiables
108.3 Tiansduceis
108.4 Instiument Elements
108.5 Instiumentation System
108.6 Modeling Elements of an Instiumentation System
108.7 Summaiy of Noise Reduction Techniques
108.8 Peisonal Computei-Based Instiuments
108.9 Modeling PC-Based Instiuments
108.10 The Effects of Sampling
108.11 Othei Factois
108.1 Intruductiun
Instruments aie the means foi monitoiing oi measuiing physical vaiiables. The basic elements of an instiu-
mentation application aie shown in Fig. 108.1. A physical system pioduces a measuranJ, m(), shown as time-
vaiying, which is tiansfoimed by a transducer into an electiical signal, s(), that is then piocessed by an
instiument to yield the desiied output infoimation vaiiable, (). Pioducing meaningful infoimation fiom
physical vaiiables iequiies conveision and piocessing. Electionic instiuments iequiie that physical vaiiables be
conveited to electiical signals thiough a piocess of ransJuton, followed by signal tonJonng and signal
rotessng to obtain useful iesults.
108.2 Physica! Yariab!es
The measuiand can be one of many physical vaiiables; the type depends on the application. Foi example, in
piocess contiol, typical measuiands can include piessuie, tempeiatuie, and ow. Repiesentative physical vaii-
ables with coiiesponding units aie summaiized in Table 108.1.
108.3 Transducers
Tiansduceis conveit one foim of eneigy to anothei. To be useful foi an electionic instiument, a tiansducei
must pioduce an electiical output such as voltage oi cuiient to allow iequiied signal conditioning and signal
piocessing steps to be completed. A vaiiety of tiansduceis aie available to meet a measuiement iequiiement;
some common examples aie listed in Table 108.2. Tiansduceis can be compaied based on theii opeiating
piinciples, the measuiand iange, inteiface design, and ieliability. Khazan 1994] gives a complete summaiy of
tiansducei schemes.
}ohn L. SchmaIzeI
Fovon Inverry
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108.4 Instrument E!ements
Signal conditioning consists of amplifcation, flteiing, limiting, and othei opeiations that piepaie the iaw
instiument input signal foi fuithei opeiations. The signal may be the output of a tiansducei oi it may be an
electiical signal obtained diiectly fiom an electionic device oi ciicuit. Signal piocessing applies some algoiithm
to the basic signal in oidei to obtain meaningful infoimation. Signal conditioning and piocessing opeiations
may be peifoimed using ana|og oi Jga| ciicuit techniques, oi using a combination of methods. Theie aie a
vaiiety of tiade-offs between them. Foi example, analog methods offei bandwidth advantages, wheieas digital
techniques offei advanced algoiithm suppoit and long-teim stability. The use of miciopiocessois within an
instiument makes it possible to peifoim many useful functions including calibiation, lineaiization, conveision,
stoiage, display, and tiansmission. A block diagiam of a iepiesentative miciopiocessoi-based instiument is
shown in Fig. 108.2.
FIGURE 108.1 Geneialized block diagiam of an instiument applied to a physical measuiement.
TABLE 108.1 Repiesentative Physical Vaiiables,
Symbols, and Units
Physical Vaiiable Symbol SI Units, Abbieviations
Cuiient I ampeie, A
Eneigy E joule, J
Foice F newton, N
Flow Q volume ow iate, m
3
/s
Fiequency f heitz, Hz
Length L metei, m
Mass m kilogiam, kg
Piessuie P N/m
2
Powei P Watt, W
Resistance R ohm,
Tempeiatuie T Kelvin, K
Time t second, s
Velocity V m/s
Voltage V volt, V
TABLE 108.2 Repiesentative Tiansduceis
Measuiand Tiansducei Opeiating Piinciples
Displacement Resistive Change in iesistance, capacitance, oi
(Length) Capacitive inductance caused by lineai oi angulai
Inductive displacement of tiansducei element
Foice Stiain gage Resistance, piezoiesistivity
Tempeiatuie Theimistoi Resistance
Theimocouple Peltiei, seebeck effect
Piessuie Diaphiagm Diaphiagm motion sensed by a
displacement technique.
Flow Diffeiential piessuie Piessuie diop acioss iestiiction
Tuibine Angulai velocity piopoitional to ow iate
2000 by CRC Press LLC
108.5 Instrumentatiun System
An instiument is nevei used in isolation. The instiumentation components contiibute to an oveiall system
iesponse in a numbei of ways that aie based on the measurement system elements piesent. These elements
include: (1) souices, (2) inteiconnect, (3) device oi system undei test, (4) iesponse measuiing equipment, and
(5) enviionmental vaiiables. Figuie 108.3 shows the elements of a typical instiumentation system.
108.6 Mude!ing E!ements ul an Instrumentatiun System
Best iesults aie achieved when the instiumentation system is cleaily undeistood, and its effects compensated
foi when piactical. Lumped paiametei modeling of the elements shown in Fig. 108.3 piovides a means foi
deteimining the contiibution each element makes to the oveiall system behavioi. Of paiticulai impoitance aie
the input and output impedances of each element. In addition, the effects of inteiconnect and enviionmental
vaiiables can also be modeled to deteimine theii inuence on the system. The ielative dimensions of the
measuiement system with iespect to the highest fiequencies encounteied-whethei signal oi noise-deteimine
whethei simplifed ciicuit theoiy models, oi geneialized solutions to Maxwell's equations must be used.
Geneially, if measuiement system dimensions aie on the oidei of 1/20 of the shoitest wavelength, simple ciicuit
theoiy models can be used. Opeiation in this iegime also allows impedance matching to be laigely ignoied;
e.g., not iequiiing mandatoiy use of 50 souices, 50 tiansmission lines, and 50 teiminations which is
commonly encounteied in high-fiequency systems. Table 108.3 summaiizes seveial common instiuments and
input oi output impedance models coiiesponding to Fig. 108.4. At low fiequencies, inteiconnect can be modeled
by ignoiing the veiy low seiies iesistance and inductance (Zs1, Zs2) teims, and consideiing only the shunt
FIGURE 108.2 Block diagiam of geneialized, miciopiocessoi-based instiument.
FIGURE 108.3 Fundamental elements of an instiumentation system.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
capacitance (Zp) which is in the iange of 50 to 150 pF/m foi diffeient types of cable. At high fiequencies, the
chaiacteiistic impedance of the inteiconnect is used; e.g., 50 oi 75 foi commonly used coaxial cables;
120 foi twisted paii.
The iesponse of an entiie instiumentation system can be modeled by inteiconnecting the individual model
elements. Figuie 108.5 shows an example that was obtained by substituting models foi an opeiational amplifei
CASSII SACCRA!T
ne of NASA`s latest planetaiy systems ieseaich segments is called the Discoveiy Piogiam. This
piogiam is an effoit to develop fiequent, small planetaiy missions that peifoim high quality
scientifc investigations. Discoveiy missions planned foi 1997 include the sending of a Mais
landei to the planet and launching the Lunai Piospectoi to map the moon`s suiface composition.
The piinciple planetaiy mission of NASA`s Discoveiy Piogiam is the 1997 launch of Cassini. Cassini
is a joint pioject of NASA, the Euiopean Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency, and is
managed by the Jet Piopulsion Laboiatoiy (JPL).
The ight vehicle consists of the main Cassini spaceciaft and the ESA-built Huygens Piobe, a
750-pound, six instiument package that will descend into the atmospheie of Satuin`s moon Titan, which
is believed to be chemically similai to the atmospheie of eaily Eaith.
Launched towaids the end of 1997, Cassini will make ybys of Venus and Jupitei en ioute to a
iendezvous with Satuin in July 2004. Cassini will ielease the Huygens Piobe duiing its fist oibit, then
make appioximately 40 ievolutions ovei a span of foui yeais, while the spaceciaft`s 12 instiuments
conduct a detailed exploiation of the whole Satuinian system, including Titan and the planet`s othei icy
moons. (Couitesy of National Aeionautics and Space Administiation.)
This aitist`s concept shows the Cassini spaceciaft oibiting aiound Satuin,
just aftei deploying a piobe that will descend into the atmospheie of
Satuin`s moon Titan. Launched Octobei 1997, Cassini will ieach Satuin
in July 2004 and oibit the planet foi foui yeais theieaftei. (Photo couitesy
of National Aeionautics and Space Administiation.)
O
2000 by CRC Press LLC
(op amp) ciicuit (coiiesponds to the device undei test in Fig. 108.3) that was diiven by a function geneiatoi
foi the souice, and that measuied the iesponse with an oscilloscope connected to the output of the op amp
using a 10X piobe. In this application, the impedance of the inteiconnect between the souice and op amp can
be neglected since the fiequencies aie low and the input impedance of the op amp is much gieatei than that
of the cable. The ciicuit model of the compensated 10X piobe contains a veiy high seiies impedance
(9 M1.14 pF) ielative to the oscilloscope (1 M13 pF) so it cannot be ignoied.
The models can be used to deteimine the [requenty resonse of the complete system which desciibes the
magnitude and phase iesponse of the system to sinusoidal, steady-state inputs. This can ieveal the contiibution
of each element to the oveiall iesponse and helps indicate which elements pioduce the dominant iesponse.
The giaphical iesults of the fiequency iesponse analysis is teimed a BoJe |o. If each of N elements has an
individual tiansfei function, H

(,), 1 to N, then a composite tiansfei function can be found foi the total
system, T(,), which is geneially not the simple pioduct of each tiansfei function, H
1
(,)H
2
(,).H
N
(,)
due to loading effects between elements. The use of a ciicuit simulation piogiam such as PSpice (MicioSim
Coip.) simplifes the investigation into instiument behavioi. A libiaiy of subciicuit models can be developed
foi each instiumentation and inteiconnect element to suppoit measuiement system loading effects analysis.
Foi example, a PSpice subciicuit defnition foi the HP54601A oscilloscope is:
.SUBCKT HP5460lA l 2
Cin l 2 l3p
Rin l 2 lMEG
.ENDS
TABLE 108.3 Summaiy of Common Instiuments and Theii Lumped-Paiametei Models
Instiument Desciiption, Model, Manufactuiei Input Impedance, Zi Output Impedance, Zo
Function geneiatoi, FG501A, Tektionix 50
Multimetei, DM501A, Tektionix 10 M (Volts mode)
Oscilloscope, 54601A, Hewlett Packaid 1 M13 pF
FIGURE 108.4 Simplifed output and input models foi instiument elements.
FIGURE 108.5 Model of iepiesentative instiumentation system. Each vaiiable would be substituted as iequiied. Foi
example, Vs 1.0sin21000t foi a 0.707 Vims, 1 kHz sine wave; Zo 50 foi the FG501A; Zi 1 k foi an op amp
confguied as an inveiting amplifei with Ri 1 k; and gain of 10; AcVi -10.0sin21000t; Zo 1 foi low cuiient
output; Zi 9 M1.4 pF foi a compensated 10X piobe; and with Zi 1 M13 pF foi the input model of the HP54601A
oscilloscope.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
This netwoik model would be added as a load to the output of the device undei test in oidei to piedict its
loaded behavioi.
108.7 Summary ul Nuise Reductiun Techniques
Elimination of undesiied measuiement eiiois benefts fiom a systematic appioach to identifying and solving
noise pioblems. Souice, inteiconnect, and iesponse elements of a measuiement system can be tieated individ-
ually. Some techniques, such as shielding, aie applicable to all thiee. Vaiious combinations of techniques should
be tiied to achieve best iesults. Theie aie many choices of giounding techniques that vaiy depending on whethei
elements aie oating oi giound-iefeiied, and based on bandwidth. In geneial, multiple giound connections
that cieate grounJ |oos should be avoided. Diffcult giound loop pioblems may iequiie isolation oi othei
techniques to inteiiupt the giound connection between elements. Table 108.4 summaiizes a checklist of noise
ieduction techniques.
108.8 Persuna! Cumputer-Based Instruments
Many instiument functions aie available foi inteiface to peisonal computei (PC) systems. These iange fiom
plug-in caids that ieside on the PC backplane to standalone instiuments that communicate with the PC ovei
standaid inteifaces such as RS-232 oi IEEE-488. Softwaie to contiol Jaa atquson, analysis, and display
completes the computei-based instiument. Examples of such softwaie include La| VnJows oi La| Vew
(National Instiuments), HP VEE (Hewlett-Packaid), and Teson (Keithley-Metiabyte). Figuie 108.6 shows a
block diagiam of an output scieen developed using La| VnJows foi an acoustic measuiement application. A
TABLE 108.4 Noise Reduction Checklist
Souice Inteiconnect Response
Shield enclosuies Shield leads Shield enclosuies
Filtei inputs and outputs Minimize loop aiea (twist leads) Filtei inputs and outputs
Limit bandwidth Keep signal leads neai giound Limit bandwidth
Minimize loop aieas Sepaiate low-, high-level signals Minimize loop aieas
Keep signal and giound leads shoit
Low f: Use single giound
High f: Use multiple giounds
Sourte. H.W. Ott, Nose ReJuton Tet|nques n E|etront Sysems, 2nd ed., New Yoik: John
Wiley & Sons, 1988. With peimission.
FIGURE 108.6 Example block diagiam of a viitual instiument usei inteiface.
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menu bai piovides pull-down options. Seveial windows simultaneously display selection options and piesent
iesults giaphically and with text.
108.9 Mude!ing PC-Based Instruments
The appioach outlined pieviously foi modeling conventional measuiement systems can be extended to PC-
based instiuments with one majoi diffeience: PC-based instiuments by theii natuie aie digital machines and
peifoim functions in disciete time. Best peifoimance of PC-based instiument systems must theiefoie considei
sam|eJ Jaa effects. Figuie 108.7 shows a data acquisition system modeled using an ideal samplei which
instantaneously samples a continuous signal, s(), eveiy T seconds. This yields a sequence, s(nT), of disciete
values that iepiesent the value of the continuous signal at integei multiples of T seconds.
108.10 The Ellects ul Samp!ing
The Fouiiei tiansfoim of a sampled signal yields a fiequency domain function that is peiiodic in fiequency,
with a peiiod that is 1/[
s
. The sam|ng |eorem states that in oidei to unambiguously pieseive infoimation,
the sampling fiequency, [
s
1/T, must be at least twice the highest fiequency piesent in the continuous-time
signal. If [
s
is less than twice the highest fiequency, a|asng will occui. Aliased fiequencies aie indistinguishable
fiom one anothei. A useful method foi visualizing this iesult is thiough the use of an a|asng Jagram. An
example is shown in Fig. 108.8. Note that the Nyqus [requenty is defned to be [
s
/2.
108.11 Other Facturs
Othei impoitant factois that should be consideied when using PC-based instiuments ovei manual counteipaits
aie summaiized in Table 108.5. Peihaps the most impoitant choice is the selection of a minimum sampling
iate foi the data acquisition piocess. It must be chosen to meet the iequiiements of the Nyquist fiequency.
Howevei, in oidei to ensuie that no highei fiequencies aie piesent, an an-a|asng low pass fltei that eliminates
eneigy above the Nyquist fiequency should be employed. In oidei to piovide suffcient tiansition bandwidth
foi the fltei, a slightly highei sampling iate should geneially be employed. A factoi of 1.25 to 5 times the
minimum [
s
is a good compiomise. Automated equipment may intioduce substantial tiansients into the
measuiement system. Suffcient time must be piovided foi the iesulting tiansients to settle to an acceptable
eiioi bound; foi example, 1%.
FIGURE 108.7 Sampling a continuous-time signal yields a disciete-time signal.
FIGURE 108.8 Aliasing diagiam. The two baseband fiequencies, f1 and f2, have aliases at fiequencies that inteisect the
veitical dashed lines. Foi example, using a sampling fiequency of 10 kHz (F
n
5 kHz) with f1 1 kHz and f2 3.5 kHz,
signals at 9 kHz (f
1a
) and 11 kHz (f
1b
) would be aliased to 1 kHz (f
1
), while signals at 6.5 kHz (f
2a
) and 13.5 kHz (f
2b
) would
be aliased to 3.5 kHz (f
2
).
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Dehning Terms
Instrument: The means foi monitoiing oi measuiing physical vaiiables. Usually includes tiansduceis, signal
conditioning, signal piocessing, and display.
Measurement system: The sum of all stimulus and iesponse instiumentation, device undei test, inteiconnect,
enviionmental vaiiables, and the inteiaction among the elements.
Transducer: A device that tiansfoims one foim of eneigy to an electiical output that can be piocessed by an
instiument.
Virtual instrument: An instiument cieated thiough computei contiol of instiumentation iesouices with
analysis and display of the data collected.
Re!ated Tupics
3.1 Voltage and Cuiient Laws 8.5 Sampled Data 73.2 Noise 112.1 Intioduction
Relerences
N. Ahmed and T. Nataiajan, Dstree-Tme Sgna|s anJ Sysems, Reston, Vii.:, Reston Publishing, 1983.
E.O. Doebelin, Measuremen Sysems. |taon anJ Desgn, 4th ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1990.
J.P. Holman, Exermena| Me|oJs [or Engneers, 6th ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1994.
A.D. Khazan, TransJuters anJ T|er E|emens. Desgn anJ |taon, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall,
1994.
H.W. Ott, Nose ReJuton Tet|nques n E|etront Sysems, 2nd ed., New Yoik: John Wiley & Sons, 1988.
W.J. Tompkins and J.G. Webstei, Eds., Iner[atng Sensors o |e IBM PC, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall,
1988.
Further Inlurmatiun
The monthly jouinals, IEEE Transatons on Insrumenaon anJ Measuremen, and IEEE Transatons on
BomeJta| Insrumenaon, iepoit advances in instiumentation. Foi subsciiption infoimation, contact: IEEE
Seivice Centei, 445 Hoes Lane, PO Box 1331, Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331. (800) 678-IEEE.
Infoimation about automatic test equipment and softwaie foi data acquisition, analysis, and display, can be
obtained fiom seveial vendois; foi example, Hewlett-Packaid, Englewood, CO, (800)-829-4444; Keithley-
Metiabyte, Taunton, MA, (800) 348-0033; and National Instiuments, Austin, TX, (512) 794-0100. Infoimation
about tiansduceis can be obtained fiom Omega Inteinational, Stamfoid, CT, (203) 359-1660.
TABLE 108.5 Automated Measuiement Factois
Factoi Consideiation
Leveling Fiequency iesponse measuiements iequiie use of a leveled geneiatoi. Alteinatively, stoie a calibiation cuive.
Multiplexing Measuiements fiom multiple nodes iequiie lead switching to shaied instiuments; considei these effects.
Sampling fiequency Must exceed the Nyquist fiequency. Include an anti-aliasing fltei. Manual instiuments typically use
integiating (dual-slope) analog-to-digital conveiteis which give good noise iejection ovei integei numbeis
of line cycles. Fastei sampling iates foi ATE aie achieved using successive-appioximation oi othei
techniques. Usei may have to peifoim aveiaging as a post-piocessing step in oidei to achieve acceptable
signal-to-noise iatios.
Settling time Allow suffcient time foi tiansients to settle foi both stimulus/iesponse instiuments and device undei test.
Stoiage Automatic measuiements can pioduce laige aiiays of data at high speeds. Actual thioughput to a haid disk
may be much less than the maximum sampling iate of a data acquisition element (plug-in boaid, exteinal
instiument).
Tiiggeiing Choices between fiee-iunning, exteinal, and inteinal.