Sugar Sugar is the generalized name for a class of chemically-related sweet-flavored substances, most of which are used as food.

They are carbohydrates, composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. There are various types of sugar derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose (also known as dextrose , fructose and galactose. The table or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide (in the body, sucrose hydrolyses into fructose and glucose . !ther disaccharides include maltose and lactose. "hemically-different substances may also have a sweet taste, but are not classified as sugars. Some are used as lower-calorie food substitutes for sugar described as artificial sweeteners. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants, but are only present in sufficient concentrations for efficient extraction in sugarcane and sugar beet. Sugarcane is a giant grass and has been cultivated in tropical climates in the #ar $ast since ancient times. % great expansion in its production took place in the &'th century with the lay out of sugar plantations in the (est )ndies and %mericas. This was the first time that sugar became available to the common people who previously had to rely on honey to sweeten foods. Sugar beet is a root crop, is cultivated in cooler climates, and became a ma*or source of sugar in the &+th century when methods for extracting the sugar became available. Sugar production and trade have changed the course of human history in many ways. )t influenced the formation of colonies, the perpetuation of slavery, the transition to indentured labour, the migration of peoples, wars between sugar tradecontrolling nations in the &+th century, and the ethnic composition and political structure of the new world. The world produced about &,' million tonnes of sugar in -.&&. The average person consumes about -/ kilograms of sugar each year (00.& kg in industrialised countries , e1uivalent to over -,. food calories per person, per day.

Since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been 1uestioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is bad for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration and tooth decay. 2umerous studies have been undertaken to try to clarify the position, but with varying results, mainly because of the difficulty of finding populations for use as controls that do not consume, or are largely free of any sugar consumption.

"ontents 3hide4

5 & $tymology 5 - 6istory o -.& %ncient times and 7iddle %ges o -.- 7odern history 5 0 "hemistry o 0.& 2atural polymers of sugars o 0.- #lammability 5 / Types of sugar o /.& 7onosaccharides o /.- 8isaccharides 5 9 :roduction o 9.& Sugar beet o 9.- Sugarcane o 9.0 ;efining o 9./ :roducing countries 5 , #orms and uses 5 < "onsumption 5 ' 6ealth effects o '.& =lood glucose levels o '.- !besity and diabetes o '.0 "ardiovascular disease o './ %lzheimer>s disease o '.9 7acular degeneration o '., Tooth decay o '.< %ddiction

o '.' 6yperactivity 5 + 7edicinal usage 5 &. 7easurements 5 && See also 5 &- ;eferences 5 &0 #urther reading 5 &/ $xternal links

$tymology %nt feeding on sugar crystals

The etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The $nglish word ?sugar?3&4 originates from the %rabic word sukkar which came from the :ersian shekar,3-4 itself derived from Sanskrit @arkarA,304 which originated from Tamil BBB BBB Sakkarai.3/4 )t most probably came to $ngland by way of )talian merchants. The contemporary )talian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and :ortuguese words, azCcar and aDCcar respectively, have kept a trace of the %rabic definite article. The !ld #rench word is zuchre E contemporary #rench sucre. The earliest Freek word attested is GHIJKLMN (sOkkaris .3943,4 % satisfactory pedigree explaining the spread of the word has yet to be done. The $nglish word *aggery, a coarse brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugar cane *uice, has a similar etymological originP :ortuguese xagara or *agara, derived from 7alayalam cakkarA from the Sanskrit @arkarA.3<4 6istory 7ain articleQ 6istory of sugar %ncient times and 7iddle %ges Sugar cane plantation

Sugar has been produced in the )ndian subcontinent3'4 since ancient times. )t was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. !riginally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness. Sugarcane was a native of tropical South %sia and Southeast %sia.3+4 8ifferent species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in )ndia and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from 2ew Fuinea.3+43&.4 !ne of the earliest historical references to

sugarcane is in "hinese manuscripts dating back to 'th century =" which mention the fact that the use of sugarcane originated in )ndia.3&&4

Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the )ndians discovered methods of turning sugarcane *uice into granulated crystals that were easier to store and to transport.3&-4 "rystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the )mperial Fuptas, around 9th century %8. 3&-4 )n the local )ndian language, these crystals were called khanda (8evanagariQ ,Rhaa which is the source of the word candy.3&04

)ndian sailors, who carried clarified butter and sugar as supplies, introduced knowledge of sugar on the various trade routes they travelled.3&-4 =uddhist monks, as they travelled around, brought sugar crystallization methods to "hina.3&/4 8uring the reign of 6arsha (r. ,.,E,/< in 2orth )ndia, )ndian envoys in Tang "hina taught methods of cultivating sugarcane after $mperor Taizong of Tang (r. ,-,E,/+ made his interest in sugar known. "hina then established its first sugarcane plantations in the seventh century.3&94 "hinese documents confirm at least two missions to )ndia, initiated in ,/< %8, to obtain technology for sugar-refining.3&,4 )n South %sia, the 7iddle $ast and "hina, sugar became a staple of cooking and desserts.

The triumphant progress of %lexander the Freat was halted on the banks of the )ndus ;iver by the refusal of his troops to go further east. They saw people in the )ndian subcontinent growing sugarcane and making granulated, salt-like sweet powder, locally called Sharkara (8evanagariQ ,SarkarA , pronounced as saccharum (THIJKLM . !n their return *ourney, the 7acedonian soldiers carried the ?honey bearing reeds? home with them. Sugarcane remained a little-known crop in $urope for over a millennium, sugar a rare commodity, and traders of sugar wealthy.3&&4

"rusaders brought sugar home with them to $urope after their campaigns in the 6oly Uand, where they encountered caravans carrying ?sweet salt?. $arly in the &-th century, Venice ac1uired some villages near Tyre and set up estates to produce sugar for export to $urope, where it supplemented honey which had previously been the only available sweetener.3&<4 "rusade chronicler (illiam of Tyre, writing in the late &-th century, described sugar as ?very necessary for the use and health of mankind?.3&'4 )n the &9th century, Venice was the chief sugar refining and distribution centre in $urope.3&&4 7odern history

)n %ugust &/+-, "hristopher "olumbus stopped at Ua Fomera in the "anary )slands, for wine and water, intending to stay only four days. 6e became romantically involved with the governor

of the island, =eatriz de =obadilla y !ssorio, and stayed a month. (hen he finally sailed, she gave him cuttings of sugarcane, which became the first to reach the 2ew (orld.3&+4

Sugar was a luxury in $urope prior to the &'th century, when it became more widely available. )t then became popular and by the &+th century, sugar became considered a necessity. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed ma*or economic and social changes.3-.4 )t drove, in part, colonization of tropical islands and nations where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and sugar manufacturing could thrive. The demand for cheap labor to perform the hard work involved in its cultivation and processing increased the demand for the slave trade from %frica (in particular (est %frica . %fter slavery was abolished, there was high demand for indentured laborers from South %sia (in particular )ndia .3-&43--43-04 7illions of slave and indentured laborers were brought into the "aribbean and the %mericas, )ndian !cean colonies, southeast %sia, :acific )slands, and $ast %frica and 2atal. The modern ethnic mix of many nations that have been settled in the last two centuries has been influenced by the demand for sugar.3-/43-943-,4

Sugar also led to some industrialization of former colonies. #or example, Uieutenant W. :aterson, of the =engal establishment, persuaded the =ritish Fovernment that sugar cane could be cultivated in =ritish )ndia with many advantages and at less expense than in the (est )ndies. %s a result, a number of sugar factories were established in =ihar in eastern )ndia.3-<4

8uring the 2apoleonic (ars, sugar beet production increased in continental $urope because of the difficulty of importing sugar when shipping was sub*ect to blockade. =y &''., the sugar beet was the main source of sugar in $urope. )t was cultivated in Uincolshire and other parts of $ngland, although the Xnited Ringdom continued to import the main part of its sugar from its colonies.3-'4

Xntil the late nineteenth century, sugar was purchased in loaves, which had to be cut using implements called Sugar nips.3-+4 )n later years, granulated sugar was more usually sold in bags.

Sugar cubes were produced in the nineteenth century. The first inventor of a process to make sugar in cube form was 7oravian Wakub RryYtof ;ad, director of a sugar company in 8aZice. 6e began sugar cube production after being granted a five-year patent for the invention on Wanuary -0, &'/0. 6enry Tate of Tate [ Uyle was another early manufacturer of sugar cubes at his refineries in Uiverpool and Uondon. Tate purchased a patent for sugar cube manufacture from

Ferman $ugen Uangen, who in &'<- had invented a different method of processing of sugar cubes.30.4 "hemistry SucroseQ a disaccharide of glucose (left and fructose (right , important molecules in the body. 7ain articleQ "arbohydrate

Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or oligosaccharides. 7onosaccharides are also called ?simple sugars,? the most important being glucose. %lmost all sugars have the formula " n6 -n! n (n is between 0 and < . Flucose has the molecular formula " ,6 &-! ,. The names of typical sugars end with ?-ose,? as in ?glucose?, ?dextrose?, and ?fructose?. Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of carbohydrates soluble in water. The acyclic mono- and disaccharides contain either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These carbon-oxygen double bonds ("\! are the reactive centers. %ll saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides *oined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water (6-! per bond.30&4 7agnification of grains of refined sucrose, the most common free sugar

7onosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such as sucrose and polysaccharides (such as starch . $nzymes must hydrolyze or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds become metabolized. %fter digestion and absorption the principal monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and galactose. 7any pentoses and hexoses can form ring structures. )n these closed-chain forms, the aldehyde or ketone group remains non-free, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot occur. Flucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form at e1uilibrium, with less than ..&] of the molecules in the open-chain form.30&4 2atural polymers of sugars

=iopolymers of sugars are common in nature. Through photosynthesis plants produce glucose, which has the formula " ,6 &-! ,, and convert it for storage as an energy reserve in the form of other carbohydrates such as starch, or (as in cane and beet as sucrose, with the chemical formula " &-6 --! &&. Starch, consisting of two different polymers of glucose, is a readily degradable form of chemical energy stored by cells, and can be converted to other types of energy.30&4 %nother polymer of glucose is cellulose which is a linear chain composed of several hundred or thousand glucose units. )t is used by plants as a structural component in their cell walls. 6umans can only digest cellulose to a very limited extent, though ruminants can do so with the help of symbiotic bacteria in their gut.30-4 82% and ;2% are built up of the monosaccharides deoxyribose and ribose respectively. 8eoxyribose has the formula "96&.!/ and ribose the formula "96&.!9.3004 #lammability

Sugar is an organic substance that burns easily upon exposure to an open flame. =ecause of this, the handling of sugar presents a risk for dust explosion. The -..' Feorgia sugar refinery explosion, which resulted in &/ deaths, /. in*ured, and more than half of the facility>s destruction, was caused by the ignition of sugar dust. The fire spread rapidly due to the level of sugar dust contamination throughout the facility, including several piles of indisposed sugar. % specialized foam truck had to be called in to put out the silo fires, because the sugar inside was burning at /,...^#.3citation needed4 Types of sugar 7onosaccharides

Flucose, fructose and galactose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general formula ",6&-!,. They have five hydroxyl groups (_!6 and a carbonyl group ("\! and are cyclic when dissolved in water. They each exist as several isomers with dextro- and laevorotatory forms which cause polarized light to diverge to the right or the left.30/4

Flucose, dextrose or grape sugar occurs naturally in fruits and plant *uices and is the primary product of photosynthesis. 7ost ingested carbohydrates are converted into glucose during digestion and it is the form of sugar that is transported around the bodies of animals in the bloodstream. )t can be manufactured from starch by the addition of enzymes or in the presence of acids. Flucose syrup is a li1uid form of glucose that is widely used in the manufacture of foodstuffs. )t can be manufactured from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis.3094

#ructose or fruit sugar occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane sugar and honey and is the sweetest of the sugars. )t is one of the components of sucrose or table sugar. )t is used as a high fructose syrup which is manufactured from hydrolized corn starch which has been processed to yield corn syrup, with enzymes then added to convert part of the glucose into fructose.30,4

Falactose does not generally occur in the free state but is a constituent with glucose of the disaccharide lactose or milk sugar. )t is less sweet than glucose. )t is a component of the antigens found on the surface of red blood cells that determine blood groups.30<4 8isaccharides

Sucrose, maltose and lactose are all compound sugars, disaccharides, with the general formula "&-6--!&&. They are formed by the combination of two monosaccharide molecules with the exclusion of a molecule of water.30/4

Sucrose is found in the stems of sugar cane and roots of sugar beet. )t also occurs naturally alongside fructose and glucose in other plants, particularly fruits and some roots such as carrots. The different proportions of sugars found in these foods determines the range of sweetness experienced when eating them.30/4 % molecule of sucrose is formed by the combination of a molecule of glucose with a molecule of fructose. %fter being eaten, sucrose is split into its constituent parts during digestion by a number of enzymes known as sucrases.30'4

7altose is formed during the germination of certain grains, most notably barley which is converted into malt, the source of the sugar>s name. % molecule of maltose is formed by the combination of two molecules of glucose. )t is less sweet than glucose, fructose or sucrose.30/4 )t is formed in the body during the digestion of starch by the enzyme amylase and is itself broken down during digestion by the enzyme maltase.30+4

Uactose is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk. % molecule of lactose is formed by the combination of a molecule of galactose with a molecule of glucose. )t is broken down when consumed into its constituent parts by the enzyme lactase during digestion. "hildren have this enzyme but some adults no longer form it and they are unable to digest lactose.3/.4 :roduction Sugar beet % pack of sugar made of sugar beet.

Sugar beet (=eta vulgaris is an annual plant in the #amily %maranthaceae, the tuberous root of which contains a high proportion of sucrose. )t is cultivated in temperate regions with ade1uate rainfall and re1uires a fertile soil. The crop is harvested mechanically in the autumn and the crown of leaves and excess soil removed. The roots do not deteriorate rapidly and may be left in a clamp in the field for some weeks before being transported to the processing plant. 6ere the crop is washed and sliced and the sugar extracted by diffusion. 7ilk of lime is added to the raw *uice and carbonatated in a number of stages in order to purify it. (ater is evaporated by boiling the syrup under a vacuum. The syrup is then cooled and seeded with sugar crystals. The white sugar which crystallizes out can be separated in a centrifuge and dried. )t re1uires no further refining.3/&4 Sugarcane

Sugarcane (Saccharum spp. is a perennial grass in the family :oaceae. )t is cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical regions for the sucrose that is found in its stems. )t re1uires a frost-free climate with sufficient rainfall during the growing season to make full use of the plant>s great growth potential. The crop is harvested mechanically or by hand, chopped into lengths and conveyed rapidly to the processing plant. 6ere it is either milled and the *uice extracted with water or the sugar is extracted by diffusion. The *uice is then clarified with lime and heated to kill enzymes. The resulting thin syrup is concentrated in a series of evaporators after which further water is removed by evaporation in vacuum containers. The resulting supersaturated solution is seeded with sugar crystals and the sugar crystallizes out, is separated from the fluid and dried. 7olasses is a by-product of the process and the fiber from the stems, known as bagasse, is burned to provide energy for the sugar extraction process. The crystals of raw sugar have a sticky brown coating and can either be used as they are or can be bleached by sulphur dioxide or treated in a carbonatation process to produce a whiter product.3/-4 ;efining SugarsP clockwise from top leftQ (hite refined, unrefined,

brown, unprocessed cane

"ane sugar re1uires further processing to provide the free-flowing white table sugar re1uired by the consumer. The sugar may be transported in bulk to the country where it will be used and the refining process often takes place there. The first stage is known as affination and involves immersing the sugar crystals in a concentrated syrup which softens and removes the sticky brown coating without dissolving them. The crystals are then separated from the li1uor and dissolved in water. The resulting syrup is either treated by a carbonatation or a phosphatation process. =oth involve the precipitation of a fine solid in the syrup and when this is filtered out, a lot of the impurities are removed at the same time. ;emoval of colour is achieved by either using a granular activated carbon or an ion-exchange resin. The sugar syrup is concentrated by boiling and then cooled and seeded with sugar crystals causing the sugar to crystallize out. The li1uor is spun in a centrifuge and the white crystals are dried in hot air, ready to be packaged or used. The surplus li1uor is made into refiners> molasses.3/04 The )nternational "ommission for Xniform 7ethods of Sugar %nalysis sets standards for the measurement of the purity of refined sugar, known as )"X7S% numbersP lower numbers indicate a higher level of purity in the refined sugar.3//4 :roducing countries

The five largest producers of sugar in -.&& were =razil, )ndia, the $uropean Xnion, "hina and Thailand. )n the same year, the largest exporter of sugar was =razil, distantly followed by Thailand, %ustralia and )ndia. The largest importers were the $uropean Xnion, Xnited States and )ndonesia. "urrently, =razil has the highest per capita consumption of sugar, followed by %ustralia, Thailand and the $uropean Xnion.3/943/,4 (orld sugar production (&... metric tons 3/94 "ountry -..+`&. -.&.`&& -.&&`&=razil 0&,,.. )ndia -',,0. 0&,'9. &9,+9. &9,,&/ &0,0&< 0,,/.. -.,,0< &/,.&/ &&,/-+ 0',09. -,,,9. &,,,'< &&,&++ -..<`.' 09,<9. -',0.. &9,.+. &&,'/. &,,</. -..'`.+

$uropean Xnion "hina &9,'+' Thailand

<,'-. <,-.. ,,+0. +,,,0 &.,&<.

Xnited States <,0+, ,,'00 <,--/ <,&&. <,&90 7exico ;ussia 9,'9- 9,-,. 9,&&9 9,/+9 9,,9. 0,-.. 0,/'& 0,/// -,++, /,'..

:akistan %ustralia !ther 0',/-/ Total

/,&,0 0,9&- 0,/-. 0,+-. /,--. /,+0+ /,'&/ /,<.. 0,<.. /,&9. 0<,+&0 &//,&// 0<,<.& &90,,'< 0<,-,/ &,&,/0< 0+,/</ &,',-/<

&,0,90,

#orms and uses ;ock candy crystallised out of a supersaturated sugar solution

Franulated sugars are used at the table to sprinkle on foods and to sweeten hot drinks and in home baking to add sweetness and texture to cooked products. They are also used as a preservative to prevent micro-organisms from growing and perishable food from spoiling as in *ams, marmalades and candied fruits.3/<4

7illed sugars are ground to a fine powder. They are used as icing sugar, for dusting foods and in baking and confectionery.3/'4

Screened sugars are crystalline products separated according to the size of the grains. They are used for decorative table sugars, for blending in dry mixes and in baking and confectionery. 3/'4

=rown sugars are granulated sugars with the grains coated in molasses to produce a light, dark or demerara sugar. They are used in baked goods, confectionery and toffees.3/'4

Sugar cubes are white or brown granulated sugars pressed together in block shape. They are used to sweeten drinks.3/'4

Ui1uid sugars are strong syrups consisting of ,<] granulated sugar dissolved in water. They are used in the food processing of a wide range of products including beverages, ice cream and *ams.3/'4

)nvert sugars and syrups are blended to manufacturers specifications and are used in breads, cakes and beverages for ad*usting sweetness, aiding moisture retention and avoiding crystallization of sugars.3/'4

Syrups and treacles are dissolved invert sugars heated to develop the characteristic flavors. Treacles have added molasses. They are used in a range of baked goods and confectionery including toffees and licorice.3/'4

Uow calorie sugars and sweeteners are often made of maltodextrin with added sweeteners. 7altodextrin is an easily digestible synthetic polysaccharide consisting of short chains of glucose molecules and is made by the partial hydrolysis of starch. The added sweeteners are often aspartame, saccharin, stevia or sucralose.3/+4

:olyols are sugar alcohols and are used in chewing gums where a sweet flavor is re1uired that lasts for a prolonged time in the mouth.39.4

)n winemaking, fruit sugars are converted into alcohol by a fermentation process. )f the must formed by pressing the fruit has a low sugar content, additional sugar may be added to raise the alcohol content of the wine in a process called chaptalization. )n the production of sweet wines, fermentation may be halted before it has run its full course, leaving behind some residual sugar that gives the wine its sweet taste.39&4 "onsumption

)n most parts of the world, sugar is an important part of the human diet, making food more palatable and providing food energy. %fter cereals and vegetable oils, sugar derived from sugar cane and beet provided more kilocalories per capita per day on average than other food groups. 39-4 %ccording to the #%!, an average of -/ kilograms (90 lb of sugar, e1uivalent to over -,. food calories per day, was consumed annually per person of all ages in the world in &+++. $ven with rising human populations, sugar consumption is expected to increase to -9.& kilograms (99 lb per person per year by -.&9.3904

8ata collected in multiple nationwide surveys between &+++ and -..' show that the intake of added sugars has declined by -0./ percent with declines occurring in all age, ethnic and income groups.39/4

(orld sugar consumption (&... metric tons 3994 "ountry -..<`.' -..+`&. -.&.`&& -.&&`&-.&-`&0 )ndia --,.-& -0,9.. &,,/+, &/,9.. &&,,9. --,9.. &,,<,. &/,0.. &&,'.. -0,9.. &<,/.. &/,... &-,... &.,-9& <',<&< &9,,&.0 -9,9.. &<,'.. &/,/.. &&,9.. &.,0,/ '.,<9&

-..'`.+ -,,9.. &<,'.. &/,+.. &&,<..

$uropean Xnion &<,'.. "hina &/,-9. =razil &&,/..

Xnited States +,9+. +,/<0 +,',& &.,.', !ther <<,.+' Total &9.,'99 <,,,./ &9-,/'< <<,+&9 &90,<<,

'&,<9. &,0,.&/

&,.,-.-

The per capita consumption of refined sugar in the Xnited States has varied between -< and /, kilograms (,. and &.& lb in the last /. years. )n -..', %merican per capita total consumption of sugar and sweeteners, exclusive of artificial sweeteners, e1ualled ,&.+ kilograms (&0, lb per year. This consisted of -+.,9 kg (,9./ lb pounds of refined sugar and 0& kg (,'.0 lb pounds of corn-derived sweeteners per person.39,439<4 6ealth effects

Some studies involving the health impact of sugars are effectively inconclusive. The (6! and #%! meta studies have shown directly contrasting impacts of sugar in refined and unrefined forms39'4 and since most studies do not use a population who are not consuming any ?free sugars? at all, the baseline is effectively flawed. 6ence there are articles such as "onsumer ;eports on 6ealth that said in -..', ?Some of the supposed dietary dangers of sugar have been overblown. 7any studies have debunked the idea that it causes hyperactivity, for example.?39+4 8espite this, the article continues to discuss other health impacts of sugar. =lood glucose levels

)t used to be believed that sugar raised blood glucose levels more 1uickly than did starch because of its simpler chemical structure. 6owever, it turned out that white bread or #rench fries have the same effect on blood sugar as pure glucose, while fructose, although a simple carbohydrate, has a minimal effect on blood sugar. %s a result, as far as blood sugar is concerned, carbohydrates are classified according to their glycemic index, a system for measuring how 1uickly a food that is eaten raises blood sugar levels, and glycemic load, which

takes into account both the glycemic index and the amount of carbohydrate in the food.3,.4 This has led to carbohydrate counting, a method used by diabetics for planning their meals.3,&4 !besity and diabetes

Studies on the link between sugars and diabetes are inconclusive, with some suggesting that eating excessive amounts of sugar does not increase the risk of diabetes, although the extra calories from consuming large amounts of sugar can lead to obesity, which may itself increase the risk of developing this metabolic disease.3,-43,043,/43,943,,43,<4 !ther studies show correlation between refined sugar (free sugar consumption and the onset of diabetes, and negative correlation with the consumption of fiber.3,'43,+43<.43<&4 These included a -.&. metaanalysis of eleven studies involving 0&.,'&+ participants and &9,./0 cases of type - diabetes. 3<-4 This found that ?SS=s (sugar-sweetened beverages may increase the risk of metabolic syndrome and type - diabetes not only through obesity but also by increasing dietary glycemic load, leading to insulin resistance, a-cell dysfunction, and inflammation?. %s an overview to consumption related to chronic disease and obesity, the (orld 6ealth !rganization>s independent meta-studies specifically distinguish free sugars (?all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit *uices? from sugars occurring naturally in food. The reports prior to -... set the limits for free sugars at a maximum of &.] of carbohydrate intake, measured by energy, rather than mass, and since -..-39'4 have aimed for a level across the entire population of less than &.]. The consultation committee recognized that this goal is ?controversial. 6owever, the "onsultation considered that the studies showing no effect of free sugars on excess weight have limitations.?39'4 "ardiovascular disease

% number of studies in animals have suggested that chronic consumption of refined sugars can contribute to metabolic and cardiovascular dysfunction. Some experts have suggested that refined fructose is more damaging than refined glucose in terms of cardiovascular risk.3<04 "ardiac performance has been shown to be impaired by switching from a carbohydrate diet including fiber to a high-carbohydrate diet.3</4 Switching from saturated fatty acids to carbohydrates with high glycemic index values shows a statistically-significant increase in the risk of myocardial infarction.3<94 !ther studies have shown that the risk of developing coronary heart disease is decreased by adopting a diet high in polyunsaturated fatty acids but low in sugar whereas a low fat, high carbohydrate diet brings no reduction. This suggests that consuming a diet with a high glycemic load typical of the ?*unk food? diet, is strongly associated with an increased risk of developing coronary heart disease.3<,4

The consumption of added sugars has been positively associated with multiple measures known to increase cardiovascular disease risk amongst adolescents as well as adults.3<<4

Studies are suggesting that the impact of refined carbohydrates or high glycemic load carbohydrates are more significant than the impact of saturated fatty acids on cardiovascular disease.3<'43<+4 % high dietary intake of sugar (in this case, sucrose or disaccharide can substantially increase the risk of heart and vascular diseases. %ccording to a Swedish study of /0.& people undertaken by Uund Xniversity and 7almb Xniversity "ollege, sugar was associated with higher levels of bad blood lipids, causing a high level of small and medium lowdensity lipoprotein (U8U and reduced high-density lipoprotein (68U . )n contrast, the amount of fat eaten did not affect the level of blood fats. %s a side note, moderate 1uantities of alcohol and protein were linked to an increase in the good 68U blood fat.3'.4 %lzheimer>s disease

)t is suggested that %lzheimer>s disease is linked with the western diet, which is characterised by high intakes of red meat, sugary foods, high-fat foods and refined grains. )t has been hypothesized that dementia could be prevented by taking mono-supplements of specific vitamins or drugs, but studies have shown that this approach does not show appreciable results. 3'&4

8ietary pattern analysis considers overall eating patterns, comparing diets of people with %lzheimer>s disease to diets of healthy controls using factor analysis. This analysis shows a ma*or eating pattern for those with %lzheimer>s characterised by a high intake of meat, butter, high-fat dairy products, eggs, and refined sugar, while the ma*or eating pattern for those without %lzheimer>s was characterised by a high intake of grains and vegetables.3'-4

!ne group of experimenters compared a normal rodent diet (&+] protein, 9] fat and ,.] complex carbohydrate with free access to water against the same diet but with free access to a &.] sucrose solution. The experimental results underscore the potential role of dietary sugar in the pathogenesis of %lzheimer disease and suggest that controlling the consumption of sugarsweetened beverages may be an effective way to curtail the risk of developing the disease.3'04 7acular degeneration

There are links between free sugar consumption and macular degeneration in older age.3'/4 Tooth decay

)n regard to contributions to tooth decay, the role of free sugars is also recommended to be below an absolute maximum of &.] of energy intake, with a minimum of zero. There is

?convincing evidence from human intervention studies, epidemiological studies, animal studies and experimental studies, for an association between the amount and fre1uency of free sugars intake and dental caries? while other sugars (complex carbohydrate consumption is normally associated with a lower rate of dental caries.3'94 Uower rates of tooth decay have been seen in individuals with hereditary fructose intolerance.3',4

%lso, studies have shown that the consumption of sugar and starch have different impacts on oral health with the ingestion of starchy foods and fresh fruit being associated with low levels of dental caries.3'94 %ddiction 7ain articleQ Sugar addiction

Sugar addiction is the term for the relationship between sugar and the various aspects of food addiction includingQ ?bingeing, withdrawal, craving and cross-sensitization?. Some scientists assert that consumption of sweets or sugar could have a heroin addiction like effect.3'<4 6yperactivity

There is a common notion that sugar leads to hyperactivity, particularly in children, but studies and meta-studies tend to disprove this.?39+4 Some articles and studies do refer to the increasing evidence supporting the links between refined sugar and hyperactivity.3''4 The (6! #%! meta-study suggests that such inconclusive results are to be expected when some studies do not effectively segregate or control for free sugars as opposed to sugars still in their natural form (entirely unrefined while others do.39'4 !ne study followed thirty-five 9-to-<-year-old boys who were reported by their mothers to be behaviorally ?sugar sensitive?. They were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. )n the experimental group, mothers were told that their children were fed sugar, and in the control group, mothers were told that their children received a placebo. )n fact, all children actually received the placebo, but mothers in the sugar expectancy condition rated their children as significantly more hyperactive.3'+4 This suggests that the real effect of sugar is that it increases worrying among parents with preconceived notions. 7edicinal usage

Sugar is effective in wound cleaning.3+.4 )n -.&0, 7urandu et al. found clinically that sugar is an antibiotic, and pouring granulated sugar on necrotic wounds can help ulcers heal faster.3+&4 7easurements

8ifferent culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture.

The 8omino Sugar "ompany has established the following volume to weight conversionsQ3+-4

5 =rown sugar & cup \ /' teaspoons c &+9 g \ ,.'' oz 5 Franular sugar & cup \ /' teaspoons c -.. g \ <.., oz 5 :owdered sugar & cup \ /' teaspoons c &-. g \ /.-0 oz.

=ulk density3+04

5 8extrose sugar ..,- g`mU ( \ ,-. kg`md0 5 Franulated sugar ..<. g`mU 5 :owdered sugar ..9, g`mU 5 =eet sugar ..'. g`mU

See also

5 =arley sugar 5 =rown sugar 5 =utanol fuel 5 "aramel 5 Flycemic index 5 Flycomics 5 6oling cane 5 Uist of unrefined sweeteners

5 7uscovado 5 !smophile 5 Sugar plantations in the "aribbean

;eferences

&. Wump up d The -g- is unexplained, possibly reflecting a Venetian dialect. -. Wump up d "ompare the !$8 and the !nline $tymology 8ictionary. 0. Wump up d %hmad e 6assan, Transfer !f )slamic Technology To The (est, :art )))Q Technology Transfer in the "hemical )ndustries, 6istory of Science and Technology in )slam. /. Wump up d %chaya, R.T. (-..0 . The Story of !ur #ood. Xniversities :ress. p. <. )S=2 +<''&<0<&-+0<. 9. Wump up d GHIJKL, 6enry Feorge Uiddell, ;obert Scott, % Freek-$nglish Uexicon, on :erseus ,. Wump up d This form is not phonetically explained, but may reflect a mediation through a language en route from the Sanskrit original. 7odern Freek THJKLf 3sOJari4 is due to cluster simplification 3kJ4 g 3J4 and initial sandhi (acc. hfi GHJKLf 3tin sOJari4 g hf THJKLf 3ti zOJari4 . The word has also changed its nominal class. <. Wump up d ?Waggery?. !xford 8ictionaries. ;etrieved -.&--.'-&<. '. Wump up d 7oxham, ;oy, The Freat 6edge of )ndia, "arroll [ Fraf, -..& )S=2 .-<',<.+<,-,. +. d Wump up toQ a b Renneth #.Riple [ Rriemhild "onee !rnelas. ?(orld history of #ood E Sugar?. "ambridge Xniversity :ress. ;etrieved + Wanuary -.&-. &.. Wump up d Sharpe, :eter (&++' . ?Sugar "aneQ :ast and :resent?. )llinoisQ Southern )llinois Xniversity. &&. d Wump up toQ a b c Feorge ;olph (&'<0 . Something about sugarQ its history, growth, manufacture and distribution. &-. d Wump up toQ a b c %das, 7ichael (Wanuary -..& . %gricultural and :astoral Societies in %ncient and "lassical 6istory. Temple Xniversity :ress. )S=2 &-9,,0+-'0--.. :age 0&&. &0. Wump up d ?SugarcaneQ Saccharum !ffcinarum?. XS%)8, Fovt of Xnited States. -..,. p. <.&.

&/. Wump up d Rieschnick, Wohn (-..0 . The )mpact of =uddhism on "hinese 7aterial "ulture :rinceton Xniversity :ress. )S=2 .-,+&-.+,<,-<. &9. Wump up d Sen, Tansen. (-..0 . =uddhism, 8iplomacy, and TradeQ The ;ealignment of Sino-)ndian ;elations, ,..E&/... 7anoaQ %sian )nteractions and "omparisons, a *oint publication of the Xniversity of 6awaii :ress and the %ssociation for %sian Studies. )S=2 .'-/'--9+0-/. :ages 0'E/.. &,. Wump up d Rieschnick, Wohn (-..0 . The )mpact of =uddhism on "hinese 7aterial "ulture :rinceton Xniversity :ress. -9'. )S=2 .-,+&-.+,<,-<. &<. Wump up d :onting, "live (-... 3-...4. (orld historyQ a new perspective. UondonQ "hatto [ (indus. p. /'&. )S=2 .-<.&&-,'0/-j. &'. Wump up d =arber, 7alcolm (-../ . The two citiesQ medieval $urope, &.9.E&0-. (-nd ed. . ;outledge. p. &/. )S=2 +<'-.-/&9-&</&9--. &+. Wump up d %breu y Falindo, W. deP %. "ioranescu (ed (&+<< . 6istoria de la con1uista de las siete islas de "anarias. TenerifeQ Foya ediciones. -.. Wump up d Sidney 7intz (&+', . Sweetness and :owerQ The :lace of Sugar in 7odern 6istory. :enguin. )S=2 +<'-.-&/-..+-00--. -&. Wump up d ?#orced Uabour?. The 2ational %rchives, Fovernment of the Xnited Ringdom. -.&.. --. Wump up d (alton Uai (&++0 . )ndentured labor, "aribbean sugarQ "hinese and )ndian migrants to the =ritish (est )ndies, &'0'E&+&'. )S=2 +<'-.-'.&'-<</,-+. -0. Wump up d Steven Vertovik (;obin "ohen, ed. (&++9 . The "ambridge survey of world migration. pp. 9<E,'. )S=2 +<'-.-9-&-///.9-<. -/. Wump up d R Uaurence (&++/ . ?% kuestion of UabourQ )ndentured )mmigration )nto Trinidad [ =ritish Fuiana, &'<9E&+&<?. St 7artin>s :ress. )S=2 +<'-.-0&--&-&<--0. 7issing or empty l url\ (help -9. Wump up d ?St. Uucia>s )ndian %rrival 8ay?. "aribbean ;epeating )slands. -..+. -,. Wump up d ?)ndian indentured labourers?. The 2ational %rchives, Fovernment of the Xnited Ringdom. -.&.. -<. Wump up d $arly Sugar )ndustry of =ihar E =ihargatha. =ihargatha.in. ;etrieved on -.&-.&-.<. -'. Wump up d ?6ow Sugar is 7ade E the 6istory?. SR)UQ Sugar Rnowledge )nternational. ;etrieved -.&--.0--'. -+. Wump up d ?% Visit to the Tate [ Uyle %rchive?. The Sugar Firls blog. &. 7arch -.&-. ;etrieved -.&--.0-&&.

0.. Wump up d 8uncan =arrett and 2uala "alvi. The Sugar Firls. "ollins. p. ix. )S=2 +<'-.-..<//'/<-.. 0&. d Wump up toQ a b c :igman, (ardP 6orton, 8. (&+<- . :igman and 6orton, ed. The "arbohydratesQ "hemistry and =iochemistry Vol &% (-nd ed. . San 8iegoQ %cademic :ress. pp. &E,<. )S=2 .-&--99,09--0. 0-. Wump up d Woshi, SP %gte, V (&++9 . ?8igestibility of dietary fiber components in vegetarian men?. :lant foods for human nutrition (8ordrecht, 2etherlands /' (& Q 0+E//. doiQ&..&..<`=#.&.'+&+'. :7)8 '<&+<0<. 00. Wump up d The 7erck )ndexQ %n $ncyclopedia of "hemicals, 8rugs, and =iologicals (&&th ed. , 7erck, &+'+, )S=2 .+&&+&.-'j , '-.9. 0/. d Wump up toQ a b c d =uss, 8avidP ;obertson, Wean (&+<, . 7anual of 2utritionP 7inistry of %griculture, #isheries and #ood. UondonQ 6er 7a*esty>s Stationery !ffice. pp. 9E+. 09. Wump up d #red (. Schenck ?Flucose and Flucose-"ontaining Syrups? in Xllmann>s $ncyclopedia of )ndustrial "hemistry -..,, (iley-V"6, (einheim. doiQ &..&..-`&/09,..<.a&-m/9<.pub0,. Wump up d Rretchmer, 2P 6ollenbeck "= (&++& . Sugars and Sweeteners. ";" :ress, )nc. 0<. Wump up d :eter 6. ;aven [ Feorge =. Wohnson (&++9 . "arol W. 7ills (ed , ed. Xnderstanding =iology (0rd ed. . (7 ". =rown. p. -.0. )S=2 .-,+<----&0-,. 0'. Wump up d ?Sucrase?, $ncyclopndia =ritannica !nline 0+. Wump up d ?7altase?, $ncyclopndia =ritannica !nline /.. Wump up d ?Uactase?, $ncyclopndia =ritannica !nline /&. Wump up d ?6ow =eet Sugar is 7ade?. SR)U. ;etrieved -.&--.0---. /-. Wump up d ?6ow "ane Sugar is 7ade?. SR)U. ;etrieved -.&--.0---. /0. Wump up d ?6ow Sugar is ;efined?. SR)U. ;etrieved -.&--.0---. //. Wump up d 8eulgaonkar, %tul (7arch &-E-9, -..9 . ?% case for reform?. #rontline -- (' . "heck date values inQ ldate\ (help /9. d Wump up toQ a b ?SugarQ (orld 7arkets and Trade?. Xnited States 8epartment of %griculture. 2ovember -.&&. /,. Wump up d )nternational )llovo Sugar. ;etrieved on -.&--.&-.<. /<. Wump up d ?Types and uses?. Sugar 2utrition XR. ;etrieved -.&--.0--0. /'. d Wump up toQ a b c d e f g ?The *ourney of sugar?. =ritish Sugar. ;etrieved -.&--.0--0.

/+. Wump up d ?Uow calorie sugars and sweeteners?. Silver Spoon. ;etrieved -.&--.0--0. 9.. Wump up d $uropean :arliament and "ouncil (&++. . ?"ouncil 8irective on nutrition labelling for foodstuffs?. "ouncil 8irective of -/ September &++. on nutrition labelling for foodstuffs. p. /. ;etrieved -.&&-.+--'. 9&. Wump up d ;obinson, W. (ed. (-.., . The !xford "ompanion to (ine (0rd edition . !xford Xniversity :ress. pp. ,,9E,,,. )S=2 .-&+-',.++.-,. 9-. Wump up d ?#ood =alance Sheets?. #ood and %griculture !rganization of the Xnited 2ations. -..<. 90. Wump up d ?(orld agricultureQ towards -.&9`-.0.?. #ood and %griculture !rganization of the Xnited 2ations. )S=2 +--9-&./<,&-'. 9/. Wump up d ?;educing sugar intake?. Sugar.org. -.&&. 99. Wump up d ?SugarQ (orld 7arkets and Trade?. Xnited States 8epartment of %gricultureQ #oreign %griculture Service. 7ay -.&-. ;etrieved -.&--.+-.<. 9,. Wump up d ?Sugarcane profile?. %g 7arketing ;esearch "enter, partially funded by XS8% ;ural 8evelopment. -.&&. 9<. Wump up d ?Sugars and Sweeteners?. $conomic ;esearch Service, XS8%. -.&&. 9'. d Wump up toQ a b c d Woint (6!`#%! $xpert "onsultation, -..0, ?(6! Technical ;eport Series +&, 8iet, 2utrition and the :revention of "hronic 8iseases?, Feneva 9+. d Wump up toQ a b ?Shaking salt and sugar from your diet?. "onsumer ;eports on 6ealth. "onsumers Xnion of X.S. Wanuary -..'. ;etrieved Wuly --, -.&&. #or example, a &++9 metaanalysis of -0 studies, inQ (olraich, 7. U.P (ilson, 8. =.P (hite, W. (. (2ovember --, &++9 . ?The $ffect of Sugar on =ehavior or "ognition in "hildren?. Wournal of the %merican 7edical %ssociation -. (-. Q &,&<E&,-&. doiQ&..&..&`*ama.&++9..090.-...90.0<. ,.. Wump up d "arbohydrates and the Flycemic Uoad. 6arvard School of :ublic 6ealth. ,&. Wump up d =easer, ;ichard S.P "ampbell, %my :. (-..9 . The Woslin guide to diabetesQ a program for managing your treatment (-nd ed. . Simon and Schuster. p. 0<. )S=2 +<'-.-</0-9<'/-'. ,-. Wump up d %merican %ssociation of "linical $ndocrinologists. ?8iabetes kuiz.? Uast 7odified -..<-.<-&&. ,0. Wump up d %merican 8ietetic %ssociation. ?2utritionQ #act vs. #iction.? ,/. Wump up d Woslin 8iabetes "enter ?"lassroom :resentation on 8iabetes for $lementary School %ge "hildren.?

,9. Wump up d 7arschilok, "atherine. ?%sk a 7edical :rofessionalQ 8iabetes 7yths and 7isconceptions.? Wuvenile 8iabetes ;esearch #oundation. ,,. Wump up d %merican 8iabetes %ssociation. ?8iabetes 7yths.? ,<. Wump up d 2ational 8iabetes $ducation :rogram. ?Tips for Teens with 8iabetes.? Uast 7odified 2ovember -..<. ,'. Wump up d %povian, ". 7. (-../ . ?Sugar-Sweetened Soft 8rinks, !besity, and Type 8iabetes?. W%7%Q the Wournal of the %merican 7edical %ssociation -+- (' Q +<'. doiQ&..&..&`*ama.-+-.'.+<'. ,+. Wump up d Uee S Fross, Ui Ui, $arl S #ord and Simin Uiu (-../ . ?)ncreased consumption of refined carbohydrates and the epidemic of type - diabetes in the Xnited StatesQ an ecologic assessment?. %merican Wournal of "linical 2utrition <+ (9 Q <</E<<+. :7)8 &9&&0<&/. <.. Wump up d 7 : Stern, " Fonzalez, = 8 7itchell, $ Villalpando, S 7 6affner and 6 : 6azuda (&++- . ?Fenetic and environmental determinants of type )) diabetes in 7exico "ity and San %ntonio?. 8iabetes /& (/ Q /'/E/+-. doiQ&..-00<`diabetes./&././'/. :7)8 &,.<.<0. <&. Wump up d "arbohydrate 1uantity and 1uality and risk of type - diabetes in the $uropean :rospective )nvestigation into "ancer and 2utritionE2etherlands ($:)"-2U study. doiQ&..0+/9`a*cn.-.&..-+,-.. <-. Wump up d 7alik, V. S.P :opkin, =. 7.P =ray, F. %.P 8espres, W.-:.P (illett, (. ".P 6u, #. =. (-.&. . ?Sugar-Sweetened =everages and ;isk of 7etabolic Syndrome and Type - 8iabetesQ % meta-analysis?. 8iabetes "are 00 (&& Q -/<<E-/'0. doiQ&..-00<`dc&.-&.<+. :7" -+,09&'. :7)8 -.,+00/'. <0. Wump up d =rown, " 7P 8ulloo, % FP 7ontani, W-: (-..' . ?Sugary drinks in the pathogenesis of obesity and cardiovascular diseases?. )nternational Wournal of !besity 0-Q S-'. doiQ&..&.0'`i*o.-..'.-./. </. Wump up d :orto, U. ". W.P Savergnini, S. S. k.P 8e "astro, ". 6.P 7ario, $. F.P #erreira, %. V. 7.P Santos, S. 6. S.P %ndrade, S. :.P Santos, ;. %. S. et al. (-.&& . ?"arbohydrate-enriched diet impairs cardiac performance by decreasing the utilization of fatty acid and glucose?. Therapeutic %dvances in "ardiovascular 8isease 9 (& Q &&E--. doiQ&..&&<<`&<90+//<&.0',-'-. :7)8 -&-'--.&. ldisplayauthors\ suggested (help <9. Wump up d Wakobsen, 7. X.P 8ethlefsen, ".P Woensen, %. 7.P Stegger, W.P T*onneland, %.P Schmidt, $. =.P !vervad, R. (-.&. . ?)ntake of carbohydrates compared with intake of saturated fatty acids and risk of myocardial infarctionQ importance of the glycemic index?. %merican Wournal of "linical 2utrition +& (, Q &<,/E'. doiQ&..0+/9`a*cn.-..+.-+.++. :7)8 -.0<9&',. <,. Wump up d Stanley, (. ".P Shah, R. =.P $ssop, 7. #. (-..+ . ?8oes Wunk #ood Uead to 6eart #ailureo )mportance of 8ietary 7acronutrient "omposition in 6ypertension?. 6ypertension 9/ (, Q &-.+E&.. doiQ&..&&,&`6e:$;T$2S)!2%6%.&.+.&-',,.. :7" -'.0.0/. :7)8 &+'/&-+0.

<<. Wump up d (elsh, W. %.P Sharma, %.P "unningham, S. %.P Vos, 7. =. (-.&& . ?"onsumption of %dded Sugars and )ndicators of "ardiovascular 8isease ;isk %mong XS %dolescents?. "irculation &-0 (0 Q -/+E9<. doiQ&..&&,&`");"XU%T)!2%6%.&&..+<-&,,. :7)8 -&--.<0/. <'. Wump up d Siri-Tarino, :. (P Sun, k.P 6u, #. =P Rrauss, ;. 7 (-.&. . ?Saturated fat, carbohydrate, and cardiovascular disease, :atty ( Siri-Tarino, ki Sun, #rank = 6u, ;onald 7 Rrauss?. %merican Wournal of "linical 2utrition +& (0 Q 9.-E+. doiQ&..0+/9`a*cn.-..'.-,-'9. :7" -'-/&9.. :7)8 -..'+<0/. <+. Wump up d 6u, #. =. (-.&. . ?%re refined carbohydrates worse than saturated fato?. %merican Wournal of "linical 2utrition +& (, Q &9/&E-. doiQ&..0+/9`a*cn.-.&..-+,--. :7" -',+9.,. :7)8 -./&..+9. '.. Wump up d Sonestedt, $milyP (irfplt, $lisabetP (allstrbm, :eterP Fullberg, =oP 8rake, )sabelP 6lebowicz, WoannaP 2ordin #redrikson, FunillaP 6edblad, =o et al. (-.&& . ?6igh disaccharide intake associates with atherogenic lipoprotein profile?. =ritish Wournal of 2utritionQ &. doiQ&..&.&<`S...<&&/9&&..0<'0. ldisplayauthors\ suggested (help '&. Wump up d =errino, #. (-..- , ?(estern diet and %lzheimer>s disease?, $pidemiologia $ :revenzione 0Q &.<E&&9, :7)8 &-&+<./< '-. Wump up d Fustaw-rothenberg, Ratarzyna (-..+ , ?:atterns %ssociated with %lzheimer>s 8iseaseQ :opulation =ased Study?, )nternational Wournal of $nvironmental ;esearch and :ublic 6ealth (!riginal articlelformat\ re1uires lurl\ (help ,Q &009E&0/., doiQ&..00+.`i*erph,./&009 '0. Wump up d "ao, 8.P Uu, 6.P Uewis, T. U.P Ui, U. (-..< . ?)ntake of Sucrose-sweetened (ater )nduces )nsulin ;esistance and $xacerbates 7emory 8eficits and %myloidosis in a Transgenic 7ouse 7odel of %lzheimer 8isease?. The Wournal of =iological "hemistry (!riginal articlel format\ re1uires lurl\ (help -'- (-'- Q 0,-<9E0,-'-. doiQ&..&.</`*bc.7<.09,&-... '/. Wump up d =arclay, UaurieP 7ilton, ;"P Rlein, ;P Fensler, FP Taylor, % (-..< . ?8iet 6igh in ;efined "arbohydrates 7ay )ncrease ;isk for %ge-;elated 7acular 8egeneration?. %merican Wournal of "linical 2utrition ', (/ Q &-&.E&-&'. :7)8 &<+-&/./. '9. d Wump up toQ a b 7oynihan, :.P :etersen, :. $. (-../ . ?8iet, nutrition and the prevention of dental diseases?. :ublic health nutrition < (&% Q -.&E--,. :7)8 &/+<-.,&. ',. Wump up d qero 8T, #ontana 7, 7artrnez-7ier $%, #erreira-qandonO %, %ndo 7, FonzOlez-"abezas ", =ayne S (September -..+ . ?The biology, prevention, diagnosis and treatment of dental cariesQ scientific advances in the Xnited States?. W %m 8ent %ssoc &/.Q -9SE0/S. :7)8 &+<-0+-'. '<. Wump up d %vena, 2icole 7.P ;ada, :edro and 6oebel, =artley F. ?$vidence for sugar addictionQ behavioral and neurochemical effects of intermittent, excessive sugar intake?. 2euroscience [ =iobehavioral ;eviews, -..'P0-(& Q-.E0+. $pub -..< 7ay &'. httpQ``www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov`pmc`articles`:7"--09+.<`

''. Wump up d Uien, UarsP Uien, 2annaP 6eyerdahl, Son*aP Thoresen, 7agneP =*ertness, $spen (-.., . ?"onsumption of Soft 8rinks and 6yperactivity, 7ental 8istress, and "onduct :roblems %mong %dolescents in !slo, 2orway?. %merican Wournal of :ublic 6ealth +, (&. Q &'&9E&'-.. doiQ&..-&.9`%W:6.-../..9+/<<. :7" &9',&90. :7)8 &<..'9<'. and Ueila %zadbakht and %hmad $smaillzadeh (-.&& . ?8ietary patterns and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among )ranian children?. 2utrition. doiQ&..&.&,`*.nut.-.&&..9..&'. and "aroline 8avis (-.&. . ?%ttention-deficit`6yperactivity 8isorderQ %ssociations with !vereating and !besity?. "urrent :sychiatry ;eports &- (9 Q 0'+E0+9. doiQ&..&..<`s&&+-.-.&.-.&00-<. :7)8 -.,0-&0/. '+. Wump up d 6oover, 8. (.P 7ilich, ;. (&++/ . ?$ffects of sugar ingestion expectancies on mother-child interactions?. Wournal of %bnormal "hild :sychology -- (/ Q 9.&E9&9. doiQ&..&..<`=#.-&,'.''. :7)8 <+,0.'&. edit +.. Wump up d 7urandu, 7.P (ebber, 7. %.P Simms, 7. 6.P 8ealey, ". ?Xse of granulated sugar therapy in the management of sloughy or necrotic woundsQ a pilot study?. W (ound "are. -.&& 7ayP-.(9 Q-.,, -.', -&. passim. ;etrieved -.&0-.+-&&. +&. Wump up d 6ope, Wenny (-.&0-.--&0 . ?:ouring granulated sugar on wounds >can heal them faster than antibiotics>?. 8aily 7ail. ;etrieved -.&0-.+-&&. +-. Wump up d ?7easurement [ conversion charts?. 8omino Sugar. -.&&. ;etrieved -.&--.0.&. +0. Wump up d ??$ngineering ;esources E =ulk 8ensity "hart,? :owder and =ulk?.

#urther reading

5 %das, 7ichael (Wanuary -..& . %gricultural and :astoral Societies in %ncient and "lassical 6istory. Temple Xniversity :ress. )S=2 &-9,,0+-'0--.. !"U" ///+0-,9. 5 =arrett [ "alvi, 8uncan [ 2uala (7arch -.&- . The Sugar Firls. "ollins. )S=2 +<'-.-..<//'/<-.. 5 6ugill, %nthony (&+<' . Sugar %nd %ll That. Fentry =ooks. )S=2 .-'9,&/-./'-&. 5 Wames, Flyn (-../ . Sugarcane. =lackwell :ublishing. )S=2 .-,0--.9/<,-j. !"U" 9&'0<++. '/-9&&0<. 5 % " 6annah, The )nternational Sugar Trade, "ambridgeQ (oodhead, &++,. )S=2 &-'99<0.,+-0 5 %urora %. Saulo (7arch -..9 . ?Sugars and Sweeteners in #oods?. "ollege of Tropical %griculture and 6uman ;esources. 5 Fary Taubes (%pril &0, -.&& . ?)s sugar toxico?. 2ew eork Times.

$xternal links (ikimedia "ommons has media related to Sugars.

5 "ook>s ThesaurusQ Sugar 5 Sugar at the !pen 8irectory :ro*ect

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5v 5t 5e

Types of carbohydrates Feneral

5 %ldose 5 #uranose 5 Retose 5 :yranose

Feometry

5 %nomer 5 "yclohexane conformation 5 7utarotation

7onosaccharides 8ioses

5 %ldodiose o Flycolaldehyde

Trioses

5 %ldotriose o Flyceraldehyde 5 Retotriose o 8ihydroxyacetone

Tetroses

5 %ldotetroses o $rythrose o Threose 5 Retotetrose o $rythrulose

:entoses

5 %ldopentose o %rabinose

o Uyxose o ;ibose o jylose 5 8eoxy sugar o 8eoxyribose 5 Retopentose o ;ibulose o jylulose

6exoses

5 %ldohexose o %llose o %ltrose o Falactose o Flucose o Fulose o )dose o 7annose o Talose 5 8eoxy sugar o #ucose o #uculose o ;hamnose 5 Retohexose o #ructose

o :sicose o Sorbose o Tagatose

6eptoses

5 Retoheptose o 7annoheptulose o Sedoheptulose

g<

5 !ctose 5 2onose o 2euraminic acid

7ultiple 8isaccharides

5 "ellobiose 5 Uactose 5 7altose 5 Sucrose 5 Trehalose 5 Turanose

Trisaccharides

5 7altotriose 5 7elezitose 5 ;affinose

Tetrasaccharides

5 Stachyose

!ther oligosaccharides

5 %carbose 5 #ructooligosaccharide (#!S 5 Falactooligosaccharide (F!S 5 )somaltooligosaccharide ()7! 5 7altodextrin 5 7annan-oligosaccharides (7!S

:olysaccharides

5 =eta-glucan o Uentinan o Sizofiran o qymosan

5 "ellulose 5 "hitin 5 8extrin ` 8extran 5 #ructose ` #ructan o )nulin 5 Falactose ` Falactan 5 Flucose ` Flucan o Flycogen 5 Uevan beta -s, 5 7annan 5 Starch o %mylopectin o %mylose

5 =iochemical familiesQ carbohydrates o alcohols o glycoproteins o glycosides 5 lipids o eicosanoids o fatty acids ` intermediates o phospholipids o sphingolipids o steroids 5 nucleic acids o constituents ` intermediates

5 proteins o %mino acids ` intermediates 5 tetrapyrroles ` intermediates

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5v 5t 5e

"ommodities and "ommoditization %griculture

5 =arley 5 "ocoa 5 "offee 5 "orn 5 "otton 5 Uumber 5 !at 5 ;ice 5 ;ubber 5 Soybean 5 Sugar 5 (heat 5 (ool

$nergy

5 "oal 5 "ompressed hydrogen 5 2atural gas 5 !il 5 Thorium 5 Xranium

)ndustrial metals

5 %luminium 5 "obalt 5 "opper 5 Uead 5 7olybdenum 5 2ickel 5 Tin 5 qinc

:recious metals

5 Fold 5 :alladium 5 :latinum

5 Silver

"ommodification

5 "ommodification of nature 5 "ommodification of water

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5v 5t 5e

#ood safety %dulterants ` food contaminants

5 0-7":8 5 %ldicarb 5 "yanide 5 #ormaldehyde 5 Uead poisoning 5 7elamine 5 7ercury in fish 5 Sudan )

#lavorings

5 7onosodium glutamate (7SF 5 Salt 5 Sugar

7icroorganisms

5 =otulism 5 "ampylobacter *e*uni 5 "lostridium perfringens 5 $scherichia coli !&./Q6/ 5 $scherichia coli !&9<Q6< 5 6epatitis % 5 6epatitis $ 5 Uisteria 5 2orovirus 5 ;otavirus 5 Salmonella

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5 2itrosamines 5 :olycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon 5 Shortening 5 Trans fat

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