Geomorphology 159-160 (2012) 3749

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Geomorphology
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Morphotectonic evolution of triangular facets and wine-glass valleys in the Noakoh anticline, Zagros, Iran: Implications for active tectonics
Shahram Bahrami
Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Geography and Environmental Science, Sabzevar Tarbiat Moalem University, Iran

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
The Noakoh anticline is located in Kermanshah province and is part of the Simply Folded Belt of Zagros. Boundaries of 97 triangular facets and 67 wine-glass (W-G) valleys, which formed on anticline limbs, were delineated using Quickbird satellite imagery. The strata dip (D), area (A), base length (BL), topographic slope (S) of facets, the maximum width (M), outlet width (O) and ratio of maximum width to outlet width (W index) of W-G valleys were analysed in detail. Noakoh anticline was subdivided into 9 tectonic zones on the basis of dip, topographic slopes and width of limbs. Results show that there are strong positive correlations between means of D-BL and S-BL pairs. Poor positive correlations exist between means of D-A and S-A pairs. Among W-G valley metrics, the W index has strong relations with D and S parameters. Based on the results, steep facets with long bases and well developed W-G valleys with narrow outlets and wide upper parts are associated with more rotated limbs having steep slopes. Facets on the northeastern slope have more forest cover, micro-organism activity, karstic features and soil cover, whereas facets on relatively drier southwestern slope are characterized by physical weathering processes and minor karstic landforms. This study demonstrates that, apart from tectonic activity as a major control on the morphometry of facets and valleys, climate and slope aspect have also acted as secondary factors on the development of the studied landforms. 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 29 September 2011 Received in revised form 2 March 2012 Accepted 4 March 2012 Available online 9 March 2012 Keywords: Noakoh anticline Morphometry Triangular facets Wine-glass valleys Zagros

1. Introduction Active tectonics in the uplifting anticlines of Zagros structural zone, especially in Simply Folded Belt, has produced various landforms. Quantitative measurements of such landforms help to identify and to analyse tectonic deformation in an area. Some geomorphic indices such as hypsometric integral (Hi), stream lengthgradient index (SL), drainage basin asymmetry (Af), ratio of valley oor width to valley height (Vf), transverse topographic symmetry factor (T) and basin drainage shape (Bs) have been used extensively to detect tectonic displacements at different places around the world (Hack, 1973; Wells et al., 1988; Cox, 1994; Keller and Pinter, 2002; El Hamdouni et al., 2008; Dehbozorgi et al., 2010; Delcaillau et al., 2010; Figueroa and Knott, 2010; Delcaillau et al., 2011; Gioia et al., 2011). In recent decades, the availability of geographic information systems (GIS), Digital Elevation Models (DEM) and satellite images provides useful information to carry out geomorphological studies of active tectonics (Singh and Jain, 2009; Font et al., 2010). Based on the above-mentioned geomorphic indices, El Hamdouni et al. (2008) developed the Iat index (index of relative active tectonics) and divided the southwest border of the Sierra Nevada (southern Spain) into four classes of relative tectonic activity. They
Tel.: + 98 5714003231; fax: + 98 5714003270. E-mail addresses: s.bahrami@sttu.ac.ir, shahram_bahrami2003@yahoo.com. 0169-555X/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.03.003

noted that areas with moderate to high and very high Iat index correspond with areas where prominent fault scarps, triangular facets, hanging valleys, deformed alluvial fan deposits, and deep narrow river gorges incised near mountain fronts exist. Iat mapping has also been used to study tectonic deformation in the Rudbar Lorestan dam site in Iran (Alipoor et al., 2011). The study was carried out through integration of SL, Af, Hi, Vf, and T indexes in a GIS environment using an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) (Saaty, 1977). Drainage pattern and drainage density have the potential to record information about the evolution of folds and faults, and may be particularly useful in detecting the tilting, growth and propagation direction of anticlines (Delcaillau et al., 1998, 2006; Jackson et al., 1998; Delcaillau, 2001). Drainage evolution of Zagros mountains in Fars province has been used to study the lateral growth of anticlines in the Iranian Zagros (Ramsey et al., 2008). However, little work is available on the use of morphometry of triangular facets and wine-glass valleys as indicators of active tectonics. Triangular facets are geomorphologic features frequently observed in a variety of tectonic settings, such as scarps of normal and thrust fault, and fronts of anticlines (Wells et al., 1988; Bull, 2007). Triangular facets or faceted spurs are triangular to polyhedral shape landforms and lie between two adjacent drainages within a given mountain front escarpment (Wells et al., 1988). The triangular facets are formed due to uvial erosion concurrent with uplift of the mountain fronts (Zuchiewicz and McCaplin, 2000; Petit et al., 2009a).

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The high proportion of continuous undissected escarpments, high percentage of undissected facets and high values of faceting suggest a relatively rapid tectonic uplift (Wells et al., 1988; Ramrez-Herrera, 1998). A preliminary study by Hamblin (1976) on triangular facets along the Wasatch fault in the Basin and Range province in the northern and central Utah revealed that periods of vertical movement separated by periods of stability have resulted in the formation of three generations of triangular facets. Hamblin (1976) refers that the slope angle of facets decreases as age of facets increases due to progressive slope retreat. Menges' (1987) study in the Rio Grande rift of northern New Mexico showed that major characteristics of basal triangular facets, such as size and slope steepness, the degree of internal dissection, the number and size of facet benches, and the thickness of colluvial mantles, correlate better with the position of the facet relative to fault segments than other parameters such as bedrock lithology and piedmont dissection. Menges (1990) suggested that tectonic activity is a major control on the facet's height, steepness as well as on drainage development, and amount of colluviation and soil development on facets, while bedrock acts as a secondary control on facet and is related to outcrop patterns, size of colluvium, and mechanical and chemical weathering properties. DePolo and Anderson's (2000) study on facets in the Great Basin, USA revealed that the height of facets is a function of fault slip rate. Geometric analysis of faceted spurs on an active normal fault in the Central Wasatch Fault, Utah reveals that the height of facets is a function of uplift and that facets are frequently modied by resistance to erosion and bedrock structure (Zuchiewicz and McCaplin, 2000). Petit et al. (2009a) developed a simple coupled SPM (earth surface model) and tectonic model to determine the conditions of growth of faceted spurs at normal fault scarps on the central portion of the Weber segment of the Wasatch Fault, close to the Great Salt Lake. They showed that there is a strong dependence of facet slope angle on throw rate for throw rates between 0.4 and 0.7 mm/a. Facet height also appears to be linearly dependent upon the fault throw rate. Petit et al. (2009b) determined long-term throw rates on normal faults based on height of faceted spurs in the North Baikal Rift (NBR), eastern Siberia. Their study revealed that long-term throw rates of the NBR faults range between 0.2 and 1.2 mm/yr. Although triangular facets result from the combined effects of tectonics, climate and lithology, their characteristics are associated with active tectonics in mountain fronts. Facets are large, steep, and less internally dissected in tectonically active mountain fronts whereas they are fewer, smaller and more internally dissected in less tectonically active mountain fronts. As streams dissect the range front they leave behind narrow W-G valleys between triangular facets or at irons (Piccardi et al., 1999; Goldsworthy and Jackson, 2000; Monaco and Tortorici, 2000; Palumbo et al., 2004; Hubert-Ferrari et al., 2007; Catalano et al., 2008). Most of above-mentioned studies on valley morphometry have been focused on valley-oor width-to-height ratio and valley asymmetry. Fewer studies have been carried out on the metrics of valleys such as ratio of maximum width to outlet width of valleys. Erosion of triangular facets creates individual valleys that are known as wine-glass valleys (W-G) due to their wide upper parts and narrow outlets (Burbank and Anderson, 2001). W-G valleys between faceted spurs are often established by a combination of footwall uplift and uvial incision (Benedetti et al., 1998; Goldsworthy and Jackson, 2000). Although W-G valleys are known as a tectonic landform, a quantitative investigation of this landform is currently lacking. This paper presents a systematic geomorphic analysis of triangular facets and W-G valleys in the Noakoh anticline, and highlights role of active tectonics on landform characteristics. 2. Study area The Noakoh anticline lies within Simple Folded Belt of Zagros. It is situated between the towns of Sarpol-e-Zahab and Kerend-e-Gharb in

Kermanshah Province, in western part of Iran. The study area covers an area of 195 km and is located between 34 10 N to 34 23 N and 45 58 E to 46 14 E. The highest elevation is about 2480 m a.s.l., while the minimum elevation is about 800 m a.s.l. in the northwestern part (Fig. 1). The climate of the study area is of semi-arid to Mediterranean type with cool winters and dry summers (Karimi et al., 2005). Mean annual precipitation and temperature of Noakoh anticline are respectively 580 mm and 12.8 C. (Safari, 2008). Hydrologically, all streams formed on anticline limbs are ephemeral except Kerend river, which is located on the Kerend syncline at northeastern part of study area.

2.1. Geology Zagros belt is part of ArabiaEurasia collision zone and extends for 1500 km from the Taurus Mountains in southeast Turkey through southwest Iran, and terminates near the Hormuz Strait at the mouth of the Persian Gulf. Berberian (1995) divided the Zagros belt into ve morphotectonic units on the basis of topography, seismicity and exposed stratigraphy. These ve parallel units from northeast to southwest are the High Zagros Thrust Belt, the Simple Folded Belt, the Zagros Foredeep, the Zagros Coastal Plain and the Persian Gulf Mesopotamian lowland. The Zagros belt is tectonically active and has been shortening and uplifting (Berberian, 1995). Lees and Falcon (1952) showed that the course of a Sasanian canal on Shaur anticline between shushes and Ahwas has been uplifted about 4 m in 1700 years. It implies an uplift rate of 2.35 mm/yr in the Shaur anticline. Uplift is migrating from the suture zone (northeast) towards the foredeep or southwest (Berberian, 1995). GPS data suggest that present-day NESW shortening across the central part of the Simple Folded Zone of Zagros is c. 10 mm/yr (Tatar et al., 2002). Blanc et al. (2003) suggested that, if the Simple Folded Zone deformation has taken place since c. 5 Ma, this corresponds to a shortening rate of c. 10 mm/yr which is a substantial part of the present ArabiaEurasia convergence rate. Based on a few stations located in the Zagros, Nilforoushan et al. (2003) and Vernant et al. (2004) showed that the rate of shortening increases from 4 2 mm/yr in the NW to 9 2 mm/yr in the SE Zagros. GPS measurements and analyses of the 35 stations in and beside the Zagros Mountain belt also showed that the current rate of shortening across the SE Zagros is about 9 3 mm/ yr, whereas in the NW Zagros it is about 5 3 mm/yr (Hessami et al., 2006). The Zagros structural zone is one of the most seismically active belts, with frequent earthquakes of up to Ms 7 (Talebian and Jackson, 2004). Nevertheless, signicant earthquakes of Zagros in the 20th century and the earlier historical record have been occurred on or near the Main Zagros Reverse Fault in the northeast edge (High Zagros Thrust Belt) of Zagros mountains (Talebian and Jackson, 2002). Tavakoli and Ghafouri-Ashtiani (1999) prepared the seismic hazard zonation map of Iran based on probabilistic seismic hazard computation using the historical earthquakes data, geology, tectonics, fault activity and seismic source models. Based on their map, having low, medium, high and very high classes of seismic hazard, the study area is located in a high class of seismicity. Two ancient earthquakes in April 958 and April 1150 have been reported by Ambraseys and Melville (1982) in Sarpole-Zahab in the northwestern part of the study area. The sedimentary column of the Zagros Simply Folded Belt comprises a 12 km-thick section of lower Cambrian through Pliocene strata (Falcon, 1969; Colman-Sadd, 1978). The stratigraphic column of Zagros is divided into the ve structural divisions (Colman-Sadd, 1978); the Basement group, the Lower Mobile group, the Competent group, the Upper Mobile group and the Incompetent group (Fig. 2) (for stratigraphic details of Zagros, see Colman-Sadd, 1978; Alavi, 2004).

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Fig. 1. Location map and SRTM DEM of the Noakoh anticline in the Zagros Folded Belt. AB and CD are topographic proles along the fold crest, shown in Fig. 9. The lower case letters show the location of photographs of Fig. 3.

Evaluation of the morphometry of the drainage system and the geomorphic indexes also reveals the effect of tectonic activity and its spatial differences in Zagros mountains (Ramsey et al., 2008; Dehbozorgi et al., 2010; Alipoor et al., 2011; Piraste et al., 2011). Although the northwestern part of Noakoh anticline is eroded and some older lithologic units have been exposed, the study area has only one lithological unit (AsmariShahbazan; Limestone and Dolomite). The length of the anticline is 30 km and its width is 3100 m in the southeast, 7500 m in the center and 7150 m in the northwest. It plunges towards the southeast and its southwestern limb is steeper

than northeastern limb. The southeastern nose has gentle-gradient topographic slopes. According to Colman-Sadd (1978), structures in the competent group of Zagros Simply Folded Belt are typical of parallel folds formed by buckling and developed by a combination of exural-slip and neutral-surface mechanisms. In the Zagros folding, the maximum principal stress is normal to the fold axes and tangential to the earth surface while the intermediate principal stress is parallel with the fold axes. In exural slip, the maximum relative movements of the layers and the maximum strain of the whole multilayered sequence occur in the fold limbs, and the

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and 800 m-wide polje has been formed along the Noakoh hinge at 1885 m a.s.l. (Fig. 3d). The existence of some very important springs in northern and northwestern borders of the study area, with mean ow rates up to 3300 l/s, indicates development of karstication process in the carbonate aquifers (Karimi et al., 2005). Caves with stalactites and stalagmites (Fig. 3e, f) are frequent in different elevations. In addition, physical weathering is also an important process, especially on drier southwestern slopes. Exposed rock surfaces have experienced frost action due to daily temperature changes, which has resulted vast talus slopes with angular rock fragments on the southwestern limb (Fig. 3g). Drainages are mainly oriented perpendicular to the fold hinge, although there are some minor southeastward owing streams parallel to fold hinge. In the southeastern nose of anticline, streams are short and developed in parallel pattern (Fig. 4). The steeper southwestern limb consists of parallel and rst order streams, while the northeastern limb has sub-parallel and second order streams. Towards the northwest, trellis and dendritic drainage patterns are common on southwestern limb, and a dendritic drainage pattern is developed on the northeastern limb. From a phytogeographical point of view, the study area lies within the Kurdo-Zagrosian sector of the Irano-Turanian territory and is dominated by Quercetum Brantii (dominated by oak) in the forest and Artemisia in the highland steppes (Zohary, 1973: 199). The steppe-forest comprises two classes, namely (a) Quercetea Brantii, which occurs between 800 and 2000 m asl, and (b) JuniperoPistacietea (Juniperus-Pistacia-Amigdalus steppe-scrub). The forest density of Noakoh anticline is dependent upon slope aspect so that northeastern aspects have denser trees than drier southwestern aspect, receiving more solar energy (Fig. 3h, i). Slope aspect also has a considerable effect on the growth of microorganisms such as lichens and mosses. Lichen cover is greater in cooler, wetter and shaded northeast-facing slopes than in drier and sunny southwest-facing slopes (Fig. 3j). 3. Materials and methods To evaluate the relationship between tectonics and morphometry of triangular facets and W-G valleys, the southeastern part of Noakoh anticline with a single lithological unit was selected. A DEM of the study area was prepared using ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) software after digitizing 20-m contour lines from 1:50,000 topographic maps of Iranian National Geography Organization. Geological data, such as lithology, faults and cross-sections, were derived from 1:100,000 geological maps of Geological Survey & Mineral Exploration of Iran. Boundaries of 97 triangular facets were delineated on the Quickbird satellite imagery, which was supported with eld observations. Borders of triangular facets were imported into ILWIS software to estimate the area of facets. Further, the DEM of the study area was superimposed with polygons of facets to calculate topographic slope of triangular facets and subsequently the mean topographic slope for each facet was obtained. Base length of triangular facets was also measured as the length of straight line between two ends of facet base (Fig. 5). For every facet, the dip of strata was measured at mountain front by clinometer. Borders of 67 W-G valleys were identied by means of Quickbird satellite imagery. For each W-G valley, maximum width (M) and outlet width (O) were determined and measured. Based on M and O parameters, the W index (M to O ratio) were established and calculated for every W-G valley. The Noakoh anticline was subdivided into 9 tectonic zones based on dip of strata, topographic slope and width of limbs. The means of base length, area, topographic slope and dip of triangular facets and also means of M, O and W index parameters were calculated in each zone, and subsequently linear relationships between means of these parameters were prepared.

Fig. 2. Major stratigraphic units of Zagros Simply Folded Belt (Colman-Sadd, 1978; Casciello et al., 2009).

minimum strain is in the hinges. Therefore, in asymmetric folds, the thrusts may form across the steepest limbs (e.g., southwestern limb of Noakoh). In the neutral-surface mechanism, strain is greatest in the fold hinges and least in the fold limbs, and hence normal fault and extensional fractures develop on the hinge. It is likely that northwestern parts of Noakoh anticline are consistent with the neutral-surface mechanism whereas southeastern nose (e.g., part with thrust fault) is compatible with exural slip. 2.2. Geomorphology The study area is an asymmetric anticline bordered by steep slopes, deeply incised by consequent streams. It is uplifted to a maximum height of 1280 m above the Neghareh-kub synclinal plain located along its southwestern border. The mountain front is characterized by at irons or facets that are separated by W-G valleys. Due to the outcropping of carbonate rocks, karstic features are the dominant landforms of the study area. The most typical karstic features are karrens, dolines, poljes and caves. Although karrens are very frequent smallscale landforms over the whole area and in all elevation levels, they are more frequent and larger in northeastern limb than southwestern one (Fig. 3a). Dolines have been developed on elevations between 1800 and 2500 m a.s.l., which are more dominant on northeastern slopes (Fig. 3c). Field work in this study shows that a 2200 m-long

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Fig. 3. Photographs of main landforms and processes of study area: (a) the honeycomb karrens on wetter and shaded northeastern limb; (b) small rillenkarrens on the drier southwestern limb; (c) 4 m-deep doline on the northeastern slope (at 2200 m asl); (d) a polje formed along the Noakoh hinge (at 1885 m asl); (e) caves on the southwestern limb; (f) inactive stalactites and stalagmites probably formed during wetter glacial periods of the Quaternary; (g) talus slope on the southwestern limb; (h) a facet on the northwestern limb with relatively dense tree (oak) cover; (i) a facet on the southwestern limb with sparse tree cover; (j) lichen cover on the wetter northeastern limb; (k) active (ood prone) fan surface with fresh, small and lighter color (unvarnished) clasts at the base of the southwestern mountain front; (l) inactive (ood free) fan surface with large weathered boulders (e.g., small-scale karren on calcareous boulders and varnished clasts) at the base of the southwestern mountain front.

4. Results 4.1. Triangular facets Triangular facets have evolved from the long-term combination of erosion and uplift of resistant limestonedolomite rocks on the Noakoh anticline. 97 triangularpolyhedral facets were identied on the mountain front of the study area (Fig. 6). There are larger and higher relief facets in the central parts of anticline with high amplitude, while there are gentler and smaller ones in the southeastern end of anticline with low amplitude. Facets 1 to 53 are located on northeastern limb while facets 54 to 97 are located on southwestern limb. In the central part of anticline, the northeastern limb has larger facets whereas the southwestern one has smaller facets with longer bases. Dip (D), area (A), base length (BL), and topographic slope (S) of facets are indicated in Table 1. Data show that the means of D, BL and S parameters are higher in the southwestern limb than the northeastern one, whereas the mean of A is higher in the northeastern limb. The anticline was subdivided into 9 tectonic zones on the basis of facet's dip, area, slope, and on width of limbs. Zones 1 to 5 are located in the

northeastern limb and zones 6 to 9 are located in the southwestern one. Table 2 represents the means of A, BL and S of facets in tectonic zones. Zone 1, which has no facets, is located in the southeastern part of anticline. Zones 3, 4 and 8 have two generations of facets in which younger facets are located in lower elevations and older ones are associated with higher elevations. Zone 3 has the highest number (22 facets) and zone 5 and 6 has the lowest number of facets (each 5 facets). The highest and lowest values of mean D are associated with zone 7 (66) and zone 2 (9), respectively (Table 2). The highest and lowest values of mean facet's area are respectively 0.271 km2 in zone 4 and 0.062 km2 in zone 2. The mean of R value ranges from 58 m (zone 2) to 312 m (zone 5). Zone 7 has the highest value of mean base length (981.2 m), while the lowest value of mean base length (238 m) is associated with zone 2. Linear relationships between means of pairs D-BL, S-BL, D-A, and S-A in tectonic zones are also analysed (Fig. 7). There is a strong positive correlation between mean D and mean BL of facets with an R value of 94% (Fig. 7a). Positive correlation also exists between mean S and mean BL of facets with an R value of 76% (Fig. 7b). Although there are positive correlations between means of D-A and S-A pairs,

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Fig. 4. Drainage map of the study area, locations of faults, and three geological crosssections across Noakoh anticline. Two set of drainage orientations are trending NE SW and NWSE. Parallel drainage pattern is observed in southeastern nose, trellis and dendritic drainages are associated with the central and northwestern parts. The black rectangle shows asymmetric forked tributary patterns. The upper reaches of drainages are deected towards the NW demonstrating the lateral growth of anticline towards the SE. (Source of geological data: 1:100,000 geologic map of Kerend (sheet 5258). Geological Survey & Mineral Exploration of Iran (Azhdari and Shaverdi, 2005)).

poor R values exist between aforementioned parameters of facets (Fig. 7c, d). R values for means of D-A and S-A pairs are 33% and 24%, respectively. Overall, results show that facet base lengths in the study area are affected by the dip and topographic slope of facets, while the facet areas are not strongly affected by facet dip and topographic slope. 4.2. Wine-glass valleys Borders of 67 W-G valleys on limbs of Noakoh anticline were delineated (Fig. 6). For every W-G valley, the maximum width (M), outlet width (O) and W index were measured. Table 3 represents the M,

O, W, D (dip of facets on the left hand side of valley) and A (topographic slope of facet on the left hand side of valley) parameters. The morphometric characteristics of W-G valleys vary in different parts of the anticline. Central parts with steeper limbs have larger and wider valleys. The highest and lowest values of M parameter are 3715 and 187 m, respectively. The widths of W-G valleys range from 28 to 333 m. The minimum value of W parameter is 1.21, while the maximum value of W is 68.2. Data analysis shows that characteristics of W-G valleys are different in the southwestern and the northeastern limbs. The mean of the M parameter is 1006.1 m in the southwestern limb, whereas it is 713.9 m in the northeastern limb. Means of O parameters in the northeastern and southwestern limbs are 103.2 m and 97.8 m, respectively. Because of the higher values of the M metric in southwestern limb, the mean of the W parameter is higher in the southwestern limb (14.7) than the northeastern one (8.55). Table 4 represents the means of M, O and W parameters in tectonic zones of the study area. As Fig. 6 shows, there is no W-G valley in zone 1. W-G valleys are denser and narrower in zones 2, 3, 8 and 9 and wider in zones 7, 6, 5 and 4. Overall, in southwestern limb, W increases from the southeastern end towards the central part of anticline. Also, in the northeastern limb, the rate of W increases from the southeast towards the northwest (from zone 2 towards zone 5). Fig. 8 shows the linear relationships between means of pairs D-W, S-W, D-M, S-M, D-O and S-O. The correlation between means D and W metrics is positive, with an R of 88% (Fig. 8a). A positive relation with an R value of 83% also exists between mean S and mean W parameters (Fig. 8b). There is a positive correlation between mean D and M, with an R value of 72% (Fig. 8, c). Also, a positive correlation exists between mean S and M with an R of 67% (Fig. 8d). Negative correlations exist between means D and O as well as between means S and O, with poor R values of 32% and 52%, respectively (Fig. 8e, f). Overall, the above relations reveal that among morphometric parameters of valleys the W index is more affected by the dip and topographic slope of facets. 5. Discussion The asymmetric Noakoh anticline has probably been formed by shearing in a detachment zone (Hormoz evaporates), which has separated the Competent group from the basement by a thinner mobile layer (Colman-Sadd, 1978). Studies on Zagros Belt reveals that faultbend and fault-propagation folding mechanisms can also develop in addition to detachment folding (McQuarrie, 2004; Burberry et al., 2010). Fault propagation through the fold from the detachment surface may produce the asymmetry of many Zagros anticlines (McQuarrie, 2004). Unfortunately no seismic proles are available for the study area to exactly determine the folding mechanism. As Keller et al. (1999) noted, lateral propagation of a fold produces characteristic geomorphic features in the direction of propagation such as the decrease in dip of the forelimb, the decrease in relief of a topographic prole along the fold crest, the development of characteristic asymmetric drainage patterns, and the occurrence of a series of wind gaps with decreasing elevation in the propagation direction. The presence of at least two wind or wind and water gaps can be very strong evidence of lateral propagation of a fold (Keller et al., 1999). The decrease in height of a topographic prole along the crest (Fig. 9a) and the decrease in dip of limbs (Table 2) towards southeast demonstrate the lateral fold propagation of Noakoh towards southeast. The topographic prole along the divide shown in Fig. 9b reveals the presence of a wind gap and a water gap in the southeastern nose of Noakoh anticline, showing the lateral growth of the anticline towards southeast. The formation of wind gaps depends on the balance between the tectonic uplift rates of growing folds and the incision rate of the streams (Bretis et al., 2011). The stream had sufcient power to incise and to temporarily maintain a

Fig. 5. Illustration of Facet's border and base length, W-G valley's border, maximum width (M) and outlet width (O) on northeastern limb of Noakoh anticline.

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Fig. 6. Borders of triangular facets, W-G valleys and tectonic zones. The study area has been subdivided into 9 tectonic zones (zones 1 to 5 in the northeastern limb and zones 6 to 9 in the southwestern limb) based on dip of strata, topographic slope, width of limb. Zone 1, with no facet and W-G valley, and zone 2 and 9, with small facets and valleys, are associated with gentle-gradient slopes (southeastern plunge). Towards the northwest, zones have larger facets and valleys. Nevertheless, very steep facets with long bases and well developed W-G valleys are characteristic of steep slopes or more rotated limb of anticline (zones 7), whereas large facets are associated with moderate-gradient slopes such as zones 4 and 5 (see Fig. 10 for explanation).

channel at the nose of a fold, which resulted a gorge (water gap). When the fold started to propagate laterally and the incision rate of the river became smaller than the uplift rate of anticline, the river was diverted, leaving behind a dry valley (wind gap). The development of distinctive asymmetric forked tributary patterns shows the direction of fold propagation (Ramsey et al., 2008; Bretis et al., 2011). The presence of asymmetric forked tributary patterns on the southeastern plunge suggests the lateral growth of anticline toward the southeast (Fig. 4). The higher reaches of drainages are deected northwestwards, signifying the growth of anticline towards the southeast. The cores and northwestern parts of the Noakoh anticline have dendritic, trellis and deeply-incised drainages, representing more mature and older areas, whereas parallel and less-incised drainages in the southeastern nose show a younger or recently uplifted part of anticline. Triangular facets of study area have evolved during tectonic uplift concurrent with millions of years of erosion of limestone rocks. Previous studies (e.g., Wells et al., 1988; Ramrez-Herrera, 1998) revealed that tectonically active mountain fronts display well developed, large facets whereas less tectonically active mountain fronts contain fewer, smaller and more internally dissected facets, due to the combined effects of the formation of more drainages across the front, the internal entrenchment of existing facets, and the lateral migration of drainages crossing the front. In the study area, dip and topographic slopes of facets are higher in the southwestern limb, particularly in zone 7, and lower in northeastern limb, especially in zone 2. The higher values of facet's base length and slope coincide with more rotated limbs, such as those of zones 7, 6 and 5. An increase in the dip of limb (D) causes the increase

in the BL and S of facets (Fig. 7). Although D and S are positively correlated with BL, the R of the BL-D pair is higher than that of the BL-S pair. Due to its gentle topographic slope, zone 1 has no facet. In the southeastern nose of the anticline, zones 2 and 9, with low values of mean D and S, have the lowest values of mean BL, 238 and 244.5 m respectively. The value of mean BL in the northeastern limb increases towards the northwest due to increase in dip of strata or limb rotation. Among zones of the southwestern limb, the highest value of mean BL is associated with zone 7 (981 m), with the highest value of mean D (66). Although the facet area increases with increasing D and S, there are poor R values between certain parameters. It is observed that the facet with largest area (A) is not the one with largest dip and slope. It should be noted that, on the moderate-gradient slopes of the anticline, such as zones 4 and 5, facets have elongated and therefore have more area in plan view (Fig. 10b). In the steep slopes of anticline (zones 6 and 7) the slope tends to become vertical and hence the area of a facet decreases in plan view (Fig. 10a). For a better understanding of the tectonic effects on the formation of facets, 3 geological cross-sections of Noakoh anticline were prepared (Fig. 4). Cross-section AB represents the southwestern limb (zone 7) is steeper than northeastern one (zone 5) in the northwestern part of the anticline. Facets in zone 7 with steeper slopes have lower area but longer bases whereas facets of zone 5 have lower area but shorter bases. The left-hand side of cross-section CD shows that a thrust fault has been formed in the southwestern limb in zone 8 (Fig. 4). Two rows of facets have been formed, in which older facets have been developed above the thrust line (hanging wall) and younger ones have been formed under thrust line (footwall). The right-hand side of crosssection CD reveals that a small exure or minor fold has been

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Table 1 Values of dip (D), area (A), topographic slope (S) and base length (BL) of facets in the study area. Facet no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 A (km2) 0.11 0.03 0.19 0.025 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.06 0.17 0.24 0.17 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.13 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.11 0.06 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.30 0.13 0.03 0.06 0.17 0.29 0.29 0.10 0.13 0.09 0.20 0.13 0.14 0.36 0.06 0.13 1.47 0.66 0.41 0.22 D degree 6 8 8 9 10 10 12 19 22 25 23 28 28 30 31 33 32 28 36 34 29 17 16 17 19 22 22 23 25 29 28 30 31 33 30 34 31 29 30 33 29 30 32 25 28 27 30 32 35 S (%) 9.74 12.10 16.73 10.87 11.94 14.62 16.24 17.45 19.00 32.69 43.75 56.82 49.25 48.80 50.69 58.82 58.52 31.00 51.03 38.99 44.87 17.90 15.41 19.64 23.70 31.30 33.33 34.25 31.62 36.26 25.87 29.05 43.00 53.14 52.78 50.32 42.22 27.41 34.65 34.21 22.13 38.50 38.13 21.46 40.76 42.35 34.52 37.24 40.79 BL (m) 302 150 450 132 232 257 143 288 451 430 500 660 530 724 223 463 350 229 532 206 320 308 314 373 380 380 141 224 207 749 200 250 297 628 739 610 430 634 502 661 441 650 844 220 416 1385 868 695 754 Facet no. 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 A (km2) 0.09 0.28 0.19 0.31 0.05 0.06 0.30 0.09 0.05 0.22 0.18 0.09 0.09 0.12 0.05 0.11 0.20 0.44 0.08 0.29 0.53 0.17 0.25 0.06 0.13 0.07 0.22 0.17 0.16 0.04 0.07 0.03 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.15 0.04 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.13 0.06 0.15 0.08 0.05 0.04 D degree 32 39 38 43 35 36 39 40 44 52 65 78 76 80 61 65 55 64 59 62 75 20 25 23 24 19 20 20 19 19 21 19 17 19 29 23 22 22 19 18 25 23 20 19 19 17 16 15 S ( %) 38.59 47.62 41.21 53.01 53.02 65.00 61.59 44.19 47.50 64.85 70.56 46.25 46.72 71.43 28.57 40.59 56.04 78.59 35.43 82.11 93.33 33.37 36.65 20.27 43.03 28.76 26.96 28.39 24.51 31.79 39.15 37.81 32.93 22.77 58.62 34.22 29.23 34.96 29.79 33.79 43.90 44.37 28.43 29.96 28.27 30.90 24.54 23.54 BL (m) 297 748 584 888 387 508 1100 674 365 1230 1410 700 610 1100 424 59 985 1629 424 1300 1904 398 569 209 548 445 407 403 479 178 391 115 248 176 190 179 358 147 215 320 300 263 387 83 410 232 177 178 -

developed. This small exure in the northeastern limb of anticline has resulted in the formation of two generations of facets in zones 3 and 4. Cross-section EF reveals that the southeastern end of anticline has low-gradient slopes in which the southwestern limb (zone 9) is a little bit steeper than the northeastern one (zone 1). It seems that the lack of

Table 2 Number and mean values of dip (D), slope (S), area (A) and base length (BL) of facets in tectonic zones of the study area. Tectonic zone no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Number of facet 7 22 19 5 5 12 21 6 D Degree 9 25.4 30.1 37.4 38.8 66 21.2 17.7 S (%) 13.18 36.77 37.05 44.24 54.26 59.54 34.06 27.61 A (km2) 0.062 0.085 0.271 0.220 0.111 0.199 0.096 0.085 BL (m) 238 374.23 590.47 654.2 606.8 981.25 311.33 244.5

facets in zone 1 is due to the gentle slopes while the presence of small facets in zone 9 is due to an increase in slope gradient. Morphometry of W-G valleys are correlated with facet metrics. The widest W-G valleys (numbers 38, 40 and 44 valleys with high values of M) are located in the steeply-sloping southwestern limb. The smallest W-G valleys (numbers 65, 2, 64 and 59) are developed in the young southeastern end of anticline with low gradient slopes. Zones 6 and 7, with steeper slopes, have the wider valleys, whereas zones 9, 2 and 3, with low gradient slopes, have narrower valleys. Overall, the results demonstrate that widest valleys have been developed on steep and more rotated limbs, coinciding with zone 7 and 6 in southwestern limb. The outlet width (O) of W-G valleys decreases with increase in the dip of strata (Fig. 8). The maximum width (M) and ratio of M to O (W) of W-G valleys increase with the increase in dip as well as in topographic slope. Nevertheless, the effect of strata dip on W, M and O parameters is stronger than the effect of topographic slope. Although valleys in the younger part of the anticline (southeastern nose) have wider, U-shaped outlets, compared to valleys with narrow, V-shaped outlets on steep slopes (Fig. 11), variation in valley's outlet

S. Bahrami / Geomorphology 159-160 (2012) 3749

45

Fig. 7. Linear relationships between mean values of facet's metrics: (a) D and BL; (b) S and BL; (c) D and A; (d) S and A parameters.

probably arises from differences in drainage basin size. For example, the low value of mean O in zone 9 (56.2 m) is probably due to its shorter limb and, hence, due to its small basins.

Results show that more rotated limbs (e.g., zones 7 and 6) have the highest values of W index. It means that W-G valleys in high-gradient mountain fronts have wider upstream segments with narrow outlets

Table 3 Values of maximum width (M), outlet width (O), ratio of maximum width to outlet width (W) of W-G valleys, topographic slope (S) and strata dip (D) of facets between W-G valleys in the study area. W-G valley no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 M (m) 358 207 1311 290 450 535 571 540 582 472 700 533 444 303 565 536 397 394 715 404 917 600 759 1177 438 1673 1026 461 1606 825 782 2046 493 600 O (m) 193 171 320 170 140 76 128 50 90 87 88 77 55 52 80 100 50 80 109 31 73 71 73 48 46 78 108 74 333 122 139 104 89 53 W 1.85 1.21 4.10 1.71 3.21 7.04 4.46 10.80 6.47 5.43 7.95 6.92 8.07 5.83 7.06 5.36 7.94 4.93 6.56 13.03 12.56 8.45 10.40 24.52 9.52 21.45 9.50 6.23 4.82 6.76 5.63 19.67 5.54 11.32 D degree 6 8 8 9 10 31 33 32 28 36 34 29 16 17 17 19 22 22 29 28 30 31 33 30 34 31 29 30 33 29 30 32 35 32 S (%) 9.74 12.1 16.73 10.87 11.94 50.69 58.82 58.52 31 51.03 38.99 44.87 15.41 17.9 19.64 23.7 31.3 33.33 36.26 25.87 29.05 43 53.14 52.78 50.32 42.22 27.41 34.65 34.21 22.13 38.5 38.13 40.79 38.59 W-G valley no. 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 M (m) 1276 2199 1153 3715 1039 2520 914 1441 1035 2513 1430 1631 1484 607 1030 613 939 1196 435 932 538 712 494 360 288 488 466 433 465 252 187 384 301 O (m) 55 61 78 59 28 37 45 120 107 87 85 51 80 88 257 65 91 279 98 176 120 97 87 39 88 81 322 123 72 45 52 53 59 W 23.20 36.05 14.78 62.97 37.11 68.11 20.31 12.01 9.67 28.89 16.82 31.98 18.55 6.90 4.01 9.43 10.32 4.29 4.44 5.30 4.48 7.34 5.68 9.23 3.27 6.02 1.45 3.52 6.46 5.60 3.60 7.25 5.10 D degree 39 39 40 78 76 80 61 65 55 64 59 62 75 20 25 23 24 19 20 20 19 19 21 19 17 19 29 23 20 19 19 17 16 S (%) 47.62 61.59 44.19 46.25 46.72 71.43 28.57 40.59 56.04 78.59 35.43 82.11 93.33 33.37 36.65 20.27 43.03 28.76 26.96 28.39 24.51 31.79 39.15 37.81 32.93 22.77 58.62 34.22 28.43 29.96 28.27 30.9 24.54

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Table 4 Number and mean values of M, O, W, S and D of W-G valleys in tectonic zones of the study area. Tectonic zone no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Number of W-G valleys 5 13 14 3 2 10 15 5 M (m) 523.2 505.5 559.2 789.6 1676 1772.2 635.4 317.8 O (m) 198.8 77.9 100.6 65.6 69.5 69.9 134.07 56.2 W 2.42 6.79 11.36 13.35 25.42 30.64 5.71 5.6 Dip degree 8.2 25.8 28.4 35.3 39.5 67.5 21.1 18.2 S (%) 12.3 36.5 37.7 42.3 52.9 57.9 33.3 28.4

and, hence, higher values of W index. The morphometry of valley 41, with a high value of W (20.3) on a high-gradient slope, and valley 67 with low value of W (5.1) on a low-gradient slope are compared in Fig. 12. Although most studies on facets (Menges, 1987; Wells et al., 1988; Menges, 1990; Ramrez-Herrera, 1998; Zuchiewicz and McCaplin, 2000; Petit et al., 2009a, 2009b) have focused on tectonic controls on facet development, the combined effects of tectonic and climatic processes on facet characteristics along uplifting anticlines have been less studied. Bull (2007) suggested that climatic constraints profoundly affect the degradation and internal morphology of triangular facets. For example, the minimal degradation of Saline Valley facets in southeastern California is due to an arid, thermic, strongly seasonal

climate, whereas deep dissected facets in the Southern Alps of New Zealand are because of an extremely humid, mesic, weakly seasonal climate (Bull, 2007). The deformation and shortening in the Simply Folded Belt of Zagros started between 8 Ma (Homke et al., 2004) and 5 Ma (Blanc et al., 2003). Tectonic uplift in conjunction with long-term erosion processes has created special landforms on the Noakon anticline. However, some recent geomorphological landforms of study area can be attributed to colder and wetter glacial periods of Quaternary. Brooks (1982) suggested that crenulated and steep cliffs, bedrock slopes covered by taluses and continuous talus cones are related to cryonival process of colder glacial periods. Further, the most karstic landforms in Zagros have been formed during colder glacial periods of the Quaternary (Brooks, 1982). As Fig. 3g shows, the extensive cover of talus on the southwestern limb, and different scale karstic landforms especially on higher elevations and the northeastern limb can be attributed to colder and wetter glacial conditions, coinciding with the Brooks (1982) study. It seems that the present-day semi-arid climate is unable to create large dolines, poljes, deeply entrenched and wide valleys on southwestern limb on the Noakoh anticline, hence the formation of most landforms can be assigned to climate changes and to previous colder and wetter glacial periods. Extensive development of alluvial fans has also been observed in the eld at the base of the southwestern mountain fronts. Most of fans are characterized by inactive (ood free) surfaces. The development of small-scale karren on calcareous boulders and the presence of varnished clasts are prevalent on these inactive surfaces (Fig. 3, l). The larger boulders on inactive parts of fans may represent a changed hydrologic regime from more intense ooding in the past to the

Fig. 8. Linear relationships between mean values of W-G valley's metrics: (a) D and W; (b) S and W; (c) D and M; (d) S and M; (e) D and O; (f) S and O parameters.

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47

Fig. 9. (a) Topographic prole along the fold crest of Noakoh anticline from the peak (A) towards southeast (B). (b) Topographic prole along the SE part of anticline (CD) showing a wind gap and a water gap. Location of proles is shown in Fig. 1.

present-day lower magnitude ooding. Field observations also revealed that active parts (ood prone), having lighter color (unvarnished) clasts with an absence of small-scale karren and pitting (Fig. 3k), are located on fan-heads near the mountain front. As long as the amounts of uplift exceed the amounts of river down-cutting, fan deposits will tend to be accumulated near the fan apex or adjacent to the mountain front (Bull, 1977). The development of the active part of alluvial fans in the study area near the fan apex (Fig. 3k) can

Fig.10. Schematic representation of the impact of limb dip on facet area. The facet A, with a steep-gradient slope in the more rotated southwestern limb, tends to become vertical and hence the area of a facet decreases in plan view. The Facet B, with a gentle-gradient slope in the less rotated northeastern limb, is elongated and, therefore, is larger in plan view.

Fig. 11. (a) Narrow and V-shaped outlet of a valley in zone 7 with a steep slope and more rotated limb. (b) Wide and U-shaped outlet of a valley in zone 1 with gentlegradient slope.

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Fig. 12. Comparison of W-G valleys of number 41 with higher values of M and W and narrower outlet (O), and number 67 with lower values of M and W and larger outlet.

be indicative of tectonically active mountain fronts, particularly the southwestern fronts. The extensive abandoned fan surfaces can be attributed to previous wetter periods of the Quaternary. Due to the small-scale microclimate variations, there is a considerable contrast between the northeastern slopes with relatively dense tree cover, microorganisms such as lichens and mosses, and the southwestern slopes having sparse tree cover, little or no lichens and mosses. Overall, the geomorphology of southwestern bare facets with steeper slopes is characterized by physical weathering processes producing rockfall and talus cones. Facets on the northeastern slope are characterized by chemical, biological, and karsticaton processes, producing more soil rather than talus. Therefore, micro-landforms and processes on the facet's surfaces can be attributed to microclimate differences associated with slope aspect. Earlier uplifting of northwestern segments of Noakoh and, hence, earlier exposure of rock surfaces to erosion, has resulted in the deep entrenchment and widening of W-G valleys and in more internal entrenchment of facets (Fig. 13a) particularly in southwestern limb. The younger southeastern nose was later uplifted and exposed to erosion. Therefore, facets in the southeastern part have experienced less erosion and internal entrenchment (Fig. 13b) and W-G valleys are not well developed.

Fig.13. (a) Deep internal entrenchment of facet 69 (zone 7) in an earlier uplifted or older part of anticline. (b) Fresh surface of facet 8 (zone 3) with minimal degradation in the young and recently uplifted southeastern nose.

the ratio of maximum width to outlet width (W) is strongly inuenced by dip of strata. The northeastern limb's facets are characterized by chemical, biological, and karsticaton processes, with thick soil cover, whereas bare facets of southwestern limb are characterized by physical disintegration. Northwestern parts of anticline were earlier uplifted and exposed to erosion than the southeastern nose. Hence, facets of the northwestern part are more extensively eroded and internally entrenched than those of the southeastern ones. Moreover, the long-term erosion on W-G valleys in the earlier uplifted parts has resulted in lateral erosion and the upstream widening of valley. Therefore, the higher values of W index on the steep slopes of the northwestern part of anticline can be attributed to the higher tectonic activity as well as to long-term erosion. Results reveal that, apart from tectonics (e.g., dip of strata) as a major control on the morphometry of facets and valleys, climate and slope aspect have also acted as secondary factors on landform development. Acknowledgments

6. Conclusions This study has focused on the morphometry of triangular facets and W-G valleys, and highlights their relation with tectonic activity of the asymmetric Noakoh anticline. The presence of a wind gap and a water gap in the southeastern nose, the development of asymmetric forked tributary patterns on the southeastern plunge, decrease in the dip of strata, and decrease in relief of the topographic prole along the crest towards the southeast are suggestive of lateral growth of anticline toward southeast. Findings from the study area conrm that dip and topographic slope are the most important controlling factors of facet characteristics, particularly the base length of facets. Very steep facets with long bases are characteristic of the more rotated southwestern anticline limb. Large facets with moderate-gradient slope are associated with intermediate rotated limbs in the central parts, and facets with small and gentle-gradient slopes are observed in less rotated limbs in the southeastern nose. W-G valleys are associated with more rotated limb, especially in the southwestern one. Among morphometric indexes of W-G valleys,

The author would like to thank Dr. Reza Alipoor and Dr. Vikrant Jain for their helpful discussions about the work. Dr. Pedram Jam is thanked for his helpful and constructive comments. Thanks also to Sadeq Bahrami and Shahriar Bahrami for their support to my research in several eld observations. I am highly indebted to the unknown reviewers for their constructive suggestions for improvement of the earlier versions of the manuscript. References
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