Running Head: THE IMPACT OF ONLINE LEARNING ACTIVITIES

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Intervention Students Reading Comprehension Andrianna D. Gervais California State University, Sacramento

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

Abstract 150-250 words The purpose of this research study was to determine the impact of online learning activities on intervention students reading comprehension. The study sought to explore the relationship between web-based reading comprehension and vocabulary activities and students scores on the EZCBM comprehension and Acce lerated Reader STAR assessments and the relationship between web-based reading comprehension and vocabulary activities and students oral reading fluency scores. The participants were 20 reading intervention students enrolled in a middle school class in Stockton, CA, overseen by the Lodi Unified School District. The study was conducted using a time series design over the course of one school year, with data points from Fall 2013, Winter 2013, and Spring 2014. The research indicated a statistical correlation between the implemented intervention and the students scores. 95% of the students involved did not comprehend grade level text in the Fall of 2013, scoring only a 50% average on the multiple choice reading comprehension assessment given and by the Spring 2014 assessment, the median had risen to 70%, an increase of 20%. Therefore, it suggests strongly that the intervention works for reading remediation in reading comprehension for comparative groups of students. An implication of this research is that more is needed to ensure that they students get the best education possible. Keywords: middle school, reading comprehension, fluency, passage reading, online reading

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of online learning activities on the reading comprehension of intervention students in Stockton, CA. The research began by assessing students baseline reading skills and comparing these baselines to national norms (Hasbrouck and Tindal, 2006). All students who participated in the study are seventh grade students whom have been determined to have a reading deficit of some kind. Because CST (California Standards Test) data was not available at the beginning of the school year for the students 6th grade year, the school district placed them into the class based on their 5th grade English Language Arts test data. The baseline assessment was done by assessing all students oral reading fluency rate and their reading comprehension with two different measures, the STAR reading assessment produced by Renaissance Learning for Accelerated Reader, and the EZCBM online reading comprehension assessment produced by the University of Oregon in conjunction with Hasbrouck and Tindals research. Both reading assessments were administered online. Students w ho scored below the 50th percentile were determined to have a reading deficit and were kept in the class, referred to as Strategic Language Arts. Thus, all students in the class had oral reading fluency (ORF) rates between 100 and 149 CWPM (Correct Words Per Minute). Because these students all had a reading deficit, and because students need more access to technology and they need to learn how to apply it strategically to advance their literacy skills (Biancarosa and Griffiths, 2012), this study focused on meeting the students in the middle- that is, using the technology with which they chose to spend time, to teach a skill that they had historically avoided. Students were leveled into groups in the eSolutions web-based software program created by Sopris West in 2012. In this program, they were given attentional cues to

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

reading comprehension and practiced vocabulary while online (OShea, OShea, and Sindelar, 1985). The Research Questions: 1. What is the relationship between web-based reading comprehension and vocabulary activities and students scores on the EZCBM comprehension and Accelerated Reader STAR assessments? 2. What is the relationship between web-based reading comprehension and vocabulary activities and students oral reading fluency scores? Definitions: CST-California Standards Test, given each Spring to California students in grades 2 through 11, between 1998 and 2013. CCCSS-California Common Core State Standards, the new standards that replace the CSTs as of 2014. Assessments will be given in 2014 in the Spring, but will be used for norming and schools, teachers, and students will not get results. CWPM-the number of words a student reads correctly in one minute from a grade level reading passage. EZCBM Comprehension (MCRC)- Easy Curriculum Based Measure of Comprehension, the online assessment part of the EZCBM fluency assessment. Accelerated Reader STAR Assessment-a proprietary reading assessment that requires students to answer questions about passages that they read, and uses the time taken to answer and the answer itself to determine a students instructional reading level , reading ability level, and ZPD.

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

ZPD-the zone of proximal development, a range of numbers associated with developmental and instructional level. The lowest number in the range represents what the student should be able to do without frustration and without support, and the highest number represents what the student can only do when aided by an adult or more capable peer. Fluency- reasonably accurate reading at an appropriate rate with suitable prosody that leads to accurate and deep comprehension and motivation to read (Hasbrouck and Glaser, 2012). EZCBM-an enhanced district assessment system designed by researchers at the University of Oregon as an integral part of an RTI model, that contains multiple curriculum-based, standardized reading passages for assessing student fluency. RTI- Response to Intervention eSolution- combines fluency practice with vocabulary and comprehension strategies to create powerful instruction in the foundational skills essential for successful reading development. This supplemental resource is a blend of print materials and digital components and updates and extends the Six-Minute Solution fluency paired reading to include complete vocabulary expansion and comprehension lessons (Sopris Learning, 2014). ORF/PRF- Oral Reading Fluency Rate, the number of words a student reads correctly in 60 seconds to an adult examiner. Also referred to as passage reading fluency. Lexile-a reader measure and a text measure. A texts Lexile level measures the book on the Lexile reading scale. A students Lexile level is the Lexile at which they can read without frustration, analogous to a ZPD (Metametrics, 2013).

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

Review of Literature

The purpose of this study is to determine whether a web-based reading intervention software designed to remediate reading comprehension and vocabulary in secondary students will have a measurable impact on the reading comprehension and vocabulary understanding. Data from research (Goldman, 2012; Biancarosa & Griffiths, 2012; Anderson-Inman & Horney, 2007; OShea, OShea & Sindelar, 1985; & Leu et. al, 2011) shows that students who are under performing in the area of reading need even more support than their peers who are not. Further, these students are also more likely to be from households with a low socioeconomic status, and therefore less likely to have out-of-school access to technology. One study posits that the meaning of literacy changes rapidly, and that it is the cruelest irony of our public policies that the students in the U.S. who most need to be prepared at school for an online age of information are precisely those who are being prepared the least (Leu, McVerry, OByrne, Kiili, Zawlinski, Everett-Cacopardo, Kennedy, and Forzani, 2011 p. 11). Anderson-Inman & Horney (2007) and OShea, OShea, and Sindelar (1985) found that repeated readings with electronic texts were more effective in reading instruction. The problem of reading comprehension is significant in Stockton, CA. Many of the students involved in this study are analogous to the students in the previous studies and their performance can be extrapolated as representative of such students. The research was performed with these students because they are most needy of the most effective intervention possible, for their time is short and their dedication limited.

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

Methods This quasi-experimental study was conducted in a seventh-grade double-blocked reading and language arts intervention class in Stockton. The school is managed by the Lodi Unified School District. The school district purchased licenses for students to be able to use the online version of Sopris Learnings eSolution curriculum through the Student Center, a web-based reading and vocabulary intervention. Students in this reading intervention class were also responsible for the California Common Core Content Standards and independent reading in addition to their reading intervention curriculum. Setting This research study was conducted in a seventh grade classroom in Stockton, CA that is managed by the Lodi Unified School district. This school opened in 2004 and serves approximately 980 of the districts 29,800 students enrolled. The school serves a population that is 66.49% socioeconomically disadvantaged, 28.2% Hispanic, 17.27% White, 16.96% Black or African American, 11.24% Filipino, 26.01% two or more races, and 0.31% American Indian or Alaska Native. 10.51% of the schools students are receiving special education services. 50.57% of the students are female and 49.43% are male. Participants Over the course of the year, the student enrollment in this two period block fluctuated between 28 and 20. Only 20 students participated in all three assessments throughout the year, beginning in August as baseline data, and going through March. All students (N=20) were assessed three times on each assessment. 15 of the students were male (n=15) and 5 of the students were female (n=5). 30.43% of the students were identified as Hispanic, 21.74% as

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

African American, 21.74% as White, 13.04% as Filipino, and 13.04% as 2 or more races. 13.04% of the students were receiving special education services via an individual education plan (IEP). 13.04% of the students had been suspended from school in the past three years, and both of these same were suspended for a period of time during the treatment. One of these, a male, student 9, was also the subject of an unrelated behavioral intervention done through the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of the Pacific. This research was unrelated to the behavioral intervention implemented with student 9, which focused on positive behavior reinforcement and work completion under the direction of another graduate student researcher. 82.61% of the students were designated as socioeconomically disadvantaged. It is this researchers belief that this was determined using statistics from the Federal School Lunch program, but the label was discussed with reticence and a final determination was not made as to from whence the statistic had come. This researcher was the classroom teacher of record for these students during the entire course of the study throughout the year and was also responsible for non-study related instruction. Permission to do the research was obtained from the administration, and subsequently the district office by means of an approval process under the direction of the Assessment, Research and Evaluation Department. Once this approval was obtained, the researcher sought and obtained the parental permission and student assent from each of the twenty students via parent permission slip and student assent forms sent home with the student or exchanged in person with the researcher. Any and all questions were fielded directly by the researcher about the project.

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

Measures Three different reading measures were used throughout the year. Students were assessed in August, in December, and in March. Approximately 9 weeks passed between each assessment, and the same assessments were given, and in the same manner, each time. Student data was compared to their own performance on the same assessment from 9 weeks earlier, using the August assessments as a baseline for the first comparison. The August assessment will be considered Pretest 1, as the students were not yet using the program. EZCBM ORF Measures 1-9 (PRF). Students read three different reading passages retrieved by the researcher from the database of Behavioral Research and Teaching at the University of Oregon. Each of these passages was written to stand alone, tell a story, and contain no dialogue. They are written with readability scores between 7.4 and 7.6 on the Flesh-Kincaid Readability Index installed on all Microsoft Word programs. Students read each passage for sixty seconds aloud to an adult examiner. This examiner listens for mispronunciations and incorrect words and marks them on the exam copy. If a student waits more than three seconds to pronounce a word, the examiner then supplies the word and marks it incorrect. If the student corrects themselves, the words are not marked incorrect (Saez, Park, Nese, Jamgochian, Lai, Anderson, Kamata, Alonzo, & Tindal, 2010 p 6-7). For each of the three assessment points in this study, students were given three passages to read from. Their median score was used as the ORF score, to eliminate outliers. This is a nationally norm-referenced assessment. EZCBM Reading Comprehension (MCRC). Students read an original narrative passage and then answer questions based on the story they just read online. The passages are scored at a 7.5 on the Flesh-Kincaid Readability Index. There are twenty items, which consist of seven literal,

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

10

seven inferential, and six evaluative reading comprehension questions. The questions consist of a stem and three answers, two distractors and one correct answer. There is no time limit in which students must finish the test (Saez, Park, Nese, Jamgochian, Lai, Anderson, Kamata, Alonzo, & Tindal, 2010 p 6-7). This is a nationally norm-referenced assessment. Students were given this assessment three times: in August, December, and March. Accelerated Reader STAR Reading Assessment. Students log into a computer equipped with a web browser and log into the Accelerated Reader Enterprise software using a schoolprovided username and password. They are then presented with three practice items, which show them how to operate the multiple choice assessment and which keys to press on the keyboard. Students are next presented with 34 adaptive items from an item bank of 5,000 items that are ranked according to difficulty and grade level. The longer a student takes to answer a question, the lower their score. The more incorrect responses a student chooses, the lower their score. The Accelerated Reader Enterprise STAR Reading Assessment employs IRT, or Item Response theory, to measure an items difficulty. Figure 1 shows student reactions to three items of varying difficulty:

Figure 1: Illustration of a Students Reactions to Three Test Items of Varying Difficulty (Renaissance Learning, 2014)

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

11

The items in the assessment automatically move up or down in difficulty depending on the students responses to them. The STAR assessment is a CAT, or a computer adaptive test, as shown in Figure 2:

Figure 2: How Computer Adaptive Technology Works (Renaissance Learning, 2014)

Students were given the Accelerated Reader Enterprise STAR assessment three times throughout the year, in August, in December, and in March.

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

12

Procedures The August assessment data was used as the baseline assessment data, or pretest. For the remainder of the first quarter, the intervention was not applied, and students were taught core academic standards for language arts. In the middle of September, the treatment was applied. Students were taught to listen to a partner read out loud, as in the passage reading fluency assessments given them in August. The partners would then follow the same procedures as student and examiner, marking each others words when they were wrong and correcting pronunciation as necessary. Students also listened to the researcher read the passage through one time fluently, so they could hear the words pronounced. Key vocabulary was discussed in a small group setting. Students would then repeat the partner reading process once a day for all five days in the week, with one day of small group instruction with the teacher. Independently, on a rotating schedule (as not enough computers were possessed to have all students do this at the same time), the students logged in to the Student Center via a link on the schools internet splash page using a teacher -generated username and password that was the same as their existing school username and password. Students would log on and would see the same passage as they had been practicing fluency with. The system would then ask them reading comprehension questions with cues and vocabulary questions about what they were reading. Students were presented with between eight and eleven questions, some multiple choice, some short answer, and some fill-in. When students were finished answering all questions, they would electronically submit their work. The system would check their responses, and when these same were incorrect, students would be sent back to correct their mistakes. Questions answered correctly the first time would earn ten points each, questions answered correctly on the second try would earn five points each. Students could then spend these points to play games related

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

13

to the same reading passage and vocabulary for the week. Many, but not all students took advantage of the games. Limitations/Delimitations. The students involved in the study are all students who were found to read between 100 and 150 correct words per minute on the initial assessment in August, when the whole school was assessed. These students also had scored Far Below Basic or Below Basic on their fifth grade CST assessments, the most recent data available at the start of the year. The size of the sample is a possible limitation because only twenty students were involved in the data collection. The sample is demographically representative of the school, which may prove a limitation as well, as the school is pretty well balanced among races, with each making up approximately a quarter of the student population. Another possible limitation is the pre-existing negative behaviors of some of the students15% of them had been suspended in the last three years. One delimitation of this study is that it took place in a classroom equipped with fifteen working laptop computers on a daily basis and weekly access to 33 iPads. Students were able to use both machines, and occasionally Samsung Chromebooks, to access the Student Center. Another delimitation of this study is that it was performed in Stockton, CA, a city where 30.2% of the people who live in poverty did not graduate high school. An additional delimitation of this study is that the Lodi Unified School District was willing and able to pay for the student licenses for the program at approximately twenty dollars per student. Therefore, the results of this study could be generalizable to a) classes containing about 80% socioeconomically disadvantaged students who are Hispanic, African American, and Caucasian, or some combination therein; b) classes where the classroom teacher performs the

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

14

reading intervention and supervises the reading progress of the students; and c) where the teacher has some control to make decisions about the best way to structure the intervention. Timeline. Administrative permission was sought and granted in the middle of the 2012-2013 school year. The researcher then was required to request permission from the Assessment, Research, and Evaluation Department of Lodi Unified School District, and this was received on Thursday, April 25, 2013 via district email. Over the course of the summer between the 20122013 and 2013-2014 school years, the parent permission and student assent forms were created and copied for dispersal. Students were given their first permission slip copies at the beginning of August before the first assessments began. Student assessments in August were done with a site team (as the treatment group was assessed with the rest of the school). The December assessment was much the same; a progress monitoring assessment for fluency was given to all students receiving any type of reading intervention at the school. The students in the treatment group received an additional assessment, the MCRC EZCBM Reading Comprehension assessment. The researcher was the primary administrator of the March assessments. The treatment was applied daily over a period of approximately seven months, excluding holidays, and six weeks total for time out of school on breaks. The time spanned from midSeptember to mid-March. Validity and Reliability. In an effort to increase validity and reliability, a quasi-experimental time series design was used to analyze multiple measures on the same assessments over time. Student data was only compared to their own data from the previous assessment points, instead of comparing individual student data to the class as a whole, or to their peer group, in order to control for preexisting and undetermined variables. Though data was analyzed by the

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

15

participants classroom teacher, only quantitative data that was scored by someone other than the researcher was used. In two of these instances, the scoring medium was an online software interface and in the final instance, participants read to an adult who marked their passage reading errors. A single-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the EZCBM MCRC and the null hypothesis was rejected. The null hypothesis could not be rejected with the EZCBM reading fluency passages; however, variance was controlled for because the students did not read the same passageseach time they were assessed, students were given a new passage that met the same criteria as the previous one. Variables such as teacher, class, group, and ability level were reduced to a constant because, though students of four ability levels were involved in the treatment, and the intervention was performed at their instructional reading level, all students, regardless of ability level, were in the same class with the same teacher, the same period, 5 days a week. In addition, all students were given the same assessments, regardless of instructional reading level.

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

16

Results Baseline reading ability data was collected in August, about two weeks into the 20132014 school year. This data was collected school-wide as part of an RTI plan to instruct students based on their individual reading needs. All study participants were included. Multiple assessment measures were given, including both fluency and both CAT comprehension and online non-CAT comprehension assessments. At the time, there were 25 students enrolled in the course. After school transfers and expulsions, only twenty of these remained involved in the study. One student was added later. Of these twenty, at the baseline assessment, 46% of students could read at the 50th percentile or higher for correct words per minute on a 7 th grade level passage, as shown in Figure 3 Below:

Baseline Reading Fluency Scores

46% 21% 10th Percentile 25th Percentile 33% 50th Percentile or Higher
Figure 3: Baseline Reading Fluency Scores

Though almost 50% of the students could read out loud correctly on a grade level text, they did not understand what they read. Only one of twenty students, or 5%, was able to pass the EZCBM MCRC assessment at the initial testing, as shown in Figure 4:

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

17

EZCBM MCRC
5%

Proficient 95% Not Proficient

Figure 4: EZCBM Multiple choice Reading Comprehension Assessment Baseline

Furthermore, when assessed with the computer- adaptive AR STAR Reading assessment, not a single student read at grade-level. In this situation, the treatment was applied. eSolutions contained all of the recommended reading comprehension cues that literature suggested, and would allow students to a) use a computer to practice and b) earn rewards for trying, whether success was earned or not. Given this particular point, it is this researchers opinion that lack of motivation was somewhat negated by the karat of the games. Participants would meet once weekly with their teacher, and would review both the passage and its fluent reading, and would review vocabulary as well. Students would then log on to the Student Center, where they would see the same passage theyd been practicing with and the related questions for ascertaining reading comprehension, as below in Figure 5.
Reading Comprehension Cue

Multiple Choice

Figure 5: eSolution Student View

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

18

Fill-In

Figure 6 Fill-In Student eSolutions View

The cognitive level of these questions was higher, requiring students to use a different kind of reading comprehension- and to increase their interaction with the text. This researcher had the most students ask for help on these questions- they seemed to be less comfortable when the crutch of the multiple choice answer was not provided, but that is a consideration for another study at another time. Due to the implementation of the eSolutions program, mean total oral reading fluency, or passage reading fluency scores measured by the EZCBM ORF screens increased by 14% over the course of the treatment. Mean total reading comprehension as measured by the EZCBM MCRC online improved by 19% over the course of the treatment overall for the whole group. Students mean scores on the AR STAR reading assessment increased by 29 points.

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

19

Participants scores were then compared to national norms set by the original EZCBM studies at the BRT lab at the University of Oregon. Their passage reading fluency results are shown in Figure 6 by student.

Passage Reading Fluency Progress

ORF Score # 1 Linear (ORF Score # 1 ) 250 ORF Score # 2 Linear (ORF Score # 2 ) ORF Score # 3 Linear (ORF Score # 3)

Correct Words Per Minute

200

150

100

50

0 8541443 2028038 8553104 8544526 8539575 8543057 8536697 8542073

Figure 7 Passage Reading Fluency Progress with Target Line (Black) by Student

A single-factor ANOVA was used for all three measures. Using an alpha coefficient value of 0.05, there was a significant impact on passage reading fluency, t (20) = 0.14 p > 0.05 when the online reading curriculum was implemented, causing the researcher to fail to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis of t (20). Figure 7 shows the ANOVA for the ORF Scores.

8559283

Student Number

2017643

8541143

8540635

8541176

8542960

8544167

2028097

2017021

8552967

8546373

2034587

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension ANOVA Source of Variation Between Groups Within Groups Total
Figure 8 ANOVA for ORF Scores

20

SS 4729.03 65561.90 70290.93

df 2 57 59

MS 2364.52 1150.21

F 2.06

P-value 0.14

F crit 3.16

For reading comprehension, two assessments were given, the EZCBM MCRC and the AR STAR. For the EZCBM MCRC, an alpha coefficient value of 0.05 was also used, and it was shown to have a strongly statistically significant impact on reading comprehension as assessed by that measure, t (20)= 0.000675812 p <0.05 when online reading curriculum was implemented, causing the researcher to reject the null hypothesis for this data point. Figure 8 shows the ANOVA for the EZCBM MCRC.
ANOVA Source of Variation Between Groups Within Groups Total

SS 163.6333333 560.55 724.1833333

df 2 57 59

MS 81.81666667 9.834210526

F 8.319596825

P-value 0.000675812

F crit 3.158842719

Figure 9 ANOVA for the EZCBM MCRC

For the AR STAR, the alpha coefficient value was also applied, and this researcher was unable to reject the null hypothesis for t(17)=0.64 p >0.05 when the online reading curriculum was applied. One possible explanation of the large amount of variance in the AR STAR scores is that the test is a) computer adaptive, while the other two measures are not, and b) the assessment includes items that assess abilities other than reading comprehension, such as vocabulary. Figure 9 shows the ANOVA for the AR STAR Reading assessments.

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension ANOVA Source of Variation Between Groups Within Groups Total
Figure 10 ANOVA for AR STAR CAT

21

SS 12226.26 721200.7 733427

df 2 53 55

MS 6113.13 13607.56

F 0.449245

P-value 0.640517

F crit 3.171626

Discussion The goal of this action research study was to study the impact of online learning activities, specifically those designed to aid in reading comprehension, on intervention students reading comprehension. Fluency improvement was not a target of this study, but as a 1985 study found, if students were provided repeated readings and cued to comprehension, they should [have been]able to increase fluency as well as comprehension (OShea, OShea, & Sindelar, p. 131). As Figure 3 showed, approximately half of the students (46%) read with grade-level appropriate fluency at the the 7th grade level at the start of the year; however, Figure 4 showed that only 5% of the same class of students was able to comprehend what they read on grade level. Therefore, their needs lay in that area. Figure 5 denotes the beginning of the intervention/treatment, wherein the students were each given accounts for the software program, and they were cued to comprehension, as shown in the diagram. The students could see the same passage with which theyd practiced fluency and vocabulary in small groups. Some questions were multiple choice, as shown in Figure 5, and some were other kinds of questions, as shown in Figure 6. All questions contained a reading comprehension cue. Student reading comprehension can be said to improve based on the implementation of the intervention.

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

22

References "About EasyCBM.com." About. Web. 19 Apr. 2014. <http://easycbm.com/info/about.php>. Alonzo, J; Park, B; & Tindal, G. (2008). The development of middle school passage reading fluency measures for use in a progress monitoring assessment system (Report No. 40). Eugene: Behavioral Research & Teaching University of Oregon. Anderson-Inman, L. & Horney, M. (2007). Supported eText: assistive technology through text transformations. Reading Research Quarterly,42(1). 153-160. Doi:10.1598/RRQ.42.1.8. "American FactFinder - Results ." American FactFinder - Results . Web. 17 Apr. 2014. <http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS _12_5YR_S1501>.References Biancarosa, G., & Griffiths, G. (2012). Technology tools to support reading in the digital age. The Future of Children, 22(2), 139-160. doi: 10.1353/foc.2012.0014. Goldman, S. R. (2012, 12). Adolescent Literacy: Learning and Understanding Content. The Future of Children, 22(2), 89-116. doi: 10.1353/foc.2012.0011 Hasbrouck, J. & Tindal, G. (2005). Oral Reading Fluency: 90 Years of Measurement (Report No. 33). Eugene: Behavioral Research and Teaching Univeristy of Oregon. OShea, L., OShea, D. & Sindelar, P. (1985). The effects of repeated reading and attentional cues on reading fluency and comprehension. Journal of Literacy Research, 17(2). 129142.

The Impact of Online Learning Activities on Reading Comprehension

23

Saez, L.; Park, B; Nese, J.; Jamgochian, E.; Lai, C. Anderson, D. Kamata, A. Alonzo, J.; & Tindal, G. (2010). Technical Adequacy of the easyCBM reading measures (Report No. 1005). Eugene: Behavioral Research & Technology University of Oregon.