Diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction.

The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today, which is a crystal of semiconductor connected to two electrical terminals, a P-N junction. Diode identification European diodes are marked using two or three letters and a number. The first letter is used to identify the material used in manufacturing the component (A - germanium, B - silicon), or, in case of letter Z, a Zener diode. The second and third letters specify the type and usage of the diode. Some of the varities are: A - low power diode, like the AA111, AA113, AA121, etc. - they are used in the detector of a radio receiver; BA124, BA125 : varicap diodes used instead of variable capacitors in receiving devices, oscillators, etc., BAY80, BAY93, etc. - switching diodes used in devices using logic circuits. BA157, BA158, etc. - these are switching diodes with short recovery time. B - two capacitive (varicap) diodes in the same housing, like BB104, BB105, etc. Y - regulation diodes, like BY240, BY243, BY244, etc. - these regulation diodes come in a plastic packaging and operate on a maximum current of 0.8A. If there is another Y, the diode is intended for higher current. For example, BYY44 is a diode whose absolute maximum current rating is 1A. When Y is the second letter in a Zener diode mark (ZY10, ZY30, etc.) it means it is intended for higher current. G, G, PD - different tolerance marks for Zener diodes. Some of these are ZF12 (5% tolerance), ZG18 (10% tolerance), ZPD9.1 (5% tolerance). The third letter is used to specify a property (high current, for example). American markings begin with 1N followed by a number, 1N4001, for example (regulating diode), 1N4449 (switching diode), etc. Japanese style is similar to American, the main difference is that instead of N there is S, 1S241 being one of them.

Semiconductor identification codes

Semiconductor diode color code system

Semiconductor diode markings

Transistors Transistors are active components and are found everywhere in electronic circuits. They are used as amplifiers and switching devices. As amplifiers, they are used in high and low frequency stages, oscillators, modulators, detectors and in any circuit needing to perform a function. In digital circuits they are used as switches. There is a large number of manufacturers around the world who produce semiconductors (transistors are members of this family of components), so there are literally thousands of different types. There are low, medium and high power transistors, for working with high and low frequencies, for working with very high current and/or high voltages. The most common type of transistor is called bipolar and these are divided into NPN andPNPtypes. Their construction-material is most commonly silicon (their marking has the letter B) or germanium (their marking has the letter A). Original transistor were made from germanium, but they were very temperature-sensitive. Silicon transistors are much more temperature-tolerant and much cheaper to manufacture.

Transistor symbols: a - bipolar, b - FET, c - MOSFET, d - dual gate MOSFET, e - inductive channel MOSFET, f - single connection transistor The second letter in transistors marking describes its primary use: C - low and medium power LF transistor, D - high power LF transistor, F - low power HF transistor, G - other transistors, L - high power HF transistors, P - photo transistor, S - switch transistor, U - high voltage transistor. The Junction Transistor The n-p-n junction transistor consists of two n-type semiconductors (called the emitter and collector) separated by a thin layer of p-type semiconductor (called the base). The transistor

action is such that if the electric potentials on the segments are properly determined, a small current between the base and emitter connections results in a large current between the emitter and collector connections, thus producing current amplification. Some circuits are designed to use the transistor as a switching device; current in the base-emitter junction creates a lowresistance path between the collector and emitter. The p-n-p junction transistor, consisting of a thin layer of n-type semiconductor lying between two p-type semiconductors, works in the same manner, except that all polarities are reversed. The Field-Effect Transistor A very important type of transistor developed after the junction transistor is the field-effect transistor (FET). It draws virtually no power from an input signal, overcoming a major disadvantage of the junction transistor. An n-channel FET consists of a bar (channel) of n-type semiconductor material that passes between and makes contact with two small regions of p-type material near its center. The terminals attached to the ends of the channel are called the source and the drain; those attached to the two p-type regions are called gates. A voltage applied to the gates is directed so that no current exists across the junctions between the p- and n-type materials; for this reason it is called a reverse voltage. Variations of the magnitude of the reverse voltage cause variations in the resistance of the channel, enabling the reverse voltage to control the current in the channel. A p-channel device works the same way but with all polarities reversed. The metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is a variant in which a single gate is separated from the channel by a layer of metal oxide, which acts as an insulator, or dielectric. The electric field of the gate extends through the dielectric and controls the resistance of the channel. In this device the input signal, which is applied to the gate, can increase the current through the channel as well as decrease it.

TRANSISTOR IDENTIFICATION Transistors can be identified by a Joint Army-Navy (JAN) designation printed directly on the case of the transistor. The marking scheme explained earlier for diodes is also used for transistor identification. The first number indicates the number of junctions. The letter "N" following the first number tells us that the component is a semiconductor. And, the 2- or 3-digit number following the N is the manufacturer's identification number. If the last number is followed by a letter, it indicates a later, improved version of the device. For example, a semiconductor designated as type 2N130A signifies a three-element transistor of semiconductor material that is an improved version of type.

Transistor pin outs for low to medium power type transistors TO-92 TO92A TO92B TO-92C C B E E C BE B C TO-18 B E C TO-39 B E C E-LINE E C B

HIGH POWER NPN Transistor pin outs for high power type transistors - viewed from below TO-126 B C E TO-220 B C E TO-218 B C E TO-3 E C

Thyristor Thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating N and P-type material. They act as bistable switches, conducting when their gate receives a current pulse, and continue to conduct for as long as they are forward biased (that is, as long as the voltage across the device has not reversed). A transistor having a thyratronlike characteristic; as collector current is increased to a critical value, the alpha of the unit rises above unity to give high-speed triggering action. A semiconductor component that is unidirectional like a diode, but is switched like a transistor. It is widely used to control high currents and voltages in motors, lighting, heating and power applications. Once turned on at the gate, it allows current to flow until it falls below a certain threshold. In an AC circuit, it stops conducting each time the wave crosses over zero and can rectify AC to DC. See diode, PN junction and n-type silicon.

Resistor Color Code Identification

Variable Resistors Potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side and the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. A potentiometer is a manually adjustable resistor. The way this device works is relatively simple. One terminal of the potentiometer is connected to a power source. Another is hooked up to ground (a point with no voltage or resistance and which serves as a neutral reference point), while the third terminal runs across a strip of resistive material. This resistive strip generally has a low resistance at one end; its resistance gradually increases to a maximum resistance at the other end. The third terminal serves as the connection between the power source and ground, and is usually interfaced to the user by means of a knob or lever. The user can adjust the position of the third terminal along the resistive strip in order to manually increase or decrease resistance. By controlling resistance, a potentiometer can determine how much current flows through a circuit. When used to regulate current, the potentiometer is limited by the maximum resistivity of the strip.

Thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with temperature. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements. A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor that exhibits a change in electrical resistance with a change in its temperature. The resistance is measured by passing a small, measured direct current (dc) through it and measuring the voltage drop produced. The standard reference temperature is the thermistor body temperature at which nominal zeropower resistance is specified, usually 25C.

Thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert heat into electric power. They are inexpensive and interchangeable, are supplied fitted with standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures.

Base metal thermocouples Maximum Temperature (oC) Thermocouple Continuous CopperConstantan Spot

400

500

Iron-Constantan 850 ChromelConstantan

1,100

700

1,000

Chromel-Alumel 1,100 Nicrosil-Nisil TungstenMolybdenum* 1,250

1,300 -

2,600

2,650

Photoresistor or light dependent resistor or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a photoconductor. A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons

enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals. Capacitor codes Like resistors, capacitors are generally manufactured with values to two significant digits. Also, small capacitors for general purposes have practical values greater than 1 pf and less than 1 f. As a result, a useful convention has developed in reading capacitance values. If a capacitor is marked "47," its value is 47 pf. If it is marked .047, its value is .047 f. Thus, whole numbers express capacitance values in picofarads while decimal fractions express values in microfarads. Any capacitor manufactured with a value of 1 f or greater is physically large enough to be clearly marked with its actual value. A newer nomenclature has developed, where three numbers are printed on the body of the capacitor. The third digit in this case works like the multiplier band on a resistor; it tells the number of zeros to tack onto the end of the two significant digits. Thus, if you see a capacitor marked "151," it is not a precision component. Rather, it is an ordinary capacitor with a capacitance of 150 pf. In this nomenclature, all values are given in picofarads. Therefore you might well see a capacitor marked 684, which would mean 680000 pf, or 0.68 f.

Different types of Capacitor

The photograph shows a variety of capacitors:

There are a variety of other capacitors including: Ceramic capacitors that are suitable for use in high frequency applications. They have a low capacitance, but are stable at high frequency. They can also work in hot environments. Tantalum bead capacitors, which use an electrolytic principle. They are very small in size, but can have values of up to 10 F.

We can sum up the advantages and disadvantages of each type in the table below:

Electrolytic Advantages: High capacitance Can have high working voltages

Non electrolytic Advantages: Do not lose charge Polarity does not matter Stable up to 106 Hz (or more)

Disadvantages: Polarity important

Disadvantages: Low capacitance

High leakage current Not stable above 10 kHz Can be damaged by AC

The electrolytic capacitor depends on the polarity to make the aluminium oxide layer. It can be damaged by reverse polarity, which makes the capacitor less suitable for use with alternating currents. In high frequency applications, the oxide layer doesnt have time to form. Therefore the capacitor takes an unpredictable value, which leads to poor stability in the capacitor and the associated circuitry. The variable capacitor consists of several plates in two stacks. One stack is fixed, while the other can be moved. The effect of this is that the overlapping area can be altered, hence the capacitance. The variable capacitor is used in tuning a radio Inductor or a reactor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units of henries. Typically an inductor is a conducting wire shaped as a coil, the loops helping to create a strong magnetic field inside the coil due to Faraday's Law of Induction. Inductors are one of the basic electronic components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents.

Inductance formula The standard inductance formula for close approximation - imperial and metric is: imperial measurements L = r2 X N2 / ( 9r + 10len )

where: L = inductance in uH r = coil radius in inches N = number of turns len = length of the coil in inches metric measurements L = 0.394r2 X N2 / ( 9r + 10len ) where: L = inductance in uH r = coil radius in centimetres N = number of turns len = length of the coil in centimetres or L = (d2n2) / (l + 0.45d) where d is the coil diameter in meters, n the number of turns and l the coil length in meters.
nH, H nH, H nH, H nH, H

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.3 4.7 5.1 5.6 6.2

10 11 12 13 15 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33 36 39 43 47 51 56 62

100 110 120 130 150 160 180 200 220 240 270 300 330 360 390 430 470 510 560 620

1000 1100 1200 1300 1500 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 3900 4300 4700 5100 5600 6200

6.8 7.5 8.2 8.7 9.1

68 75 82 87 91

680 750 820 870 910

6800 7500 8200 8700

Integrated Circuits are usually called ICs or chips. They are complex circuits which have been etched onto tiny chips of semiconductor (silicon). The chip is packaged in a plastic holder with pins spaced on a 0.1" (2.54mm) grid which will fit the holes on stripboard and breadboards. Very fine wires inside the package link the chip to the pins.
The pins of the IC are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC (chip) starting near the notch or dot. The diagram shows the numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the principle is the same for all sizes.