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Magnetism is the property of a material that enables it to attract pieces of iron.

THE NATURE OF MAGNETISM


Magnetic Definitions Permeability refers to the ease with which a material can pass magnetic lines of force. Reluctance is the opposition that a material offers to the magnetic lines of force. Temporary magnets easily lose most of their magnetic strength after the magnetizing force is removed. Permanent magnets are made from substances such as hardened steel and certain alloys that retain a great deal of their magnetism. Webers Theory A magnetic substances are composed of tiny molecular magnets, each with a north and south pole. The two poles form a dipole. A magnetized material has most of its molecular magnets lined up. If a magnet is split in have it becomes two magnets each with a north and south pole. The poles are in the same orientation as the original magnet.

Domain Theory
lectrons orbit the nucleus of an atom. They also spin, revolving around an a!is, as they orbit. The polarity of magnetic field is determined by the direction of electron spin. An atom is magnetized when it has more electrons spinning in one direction than in the other. Atoms do not act independently but are bound in groups called domains. "hen materials are heated they lose there magnetic characteristics. The #urie point is the temperature that a material becomes nonmagnetic.

How magnets are produced


An unmagnetized material can become magnetized by insertion into the coils of a temporary magnet $nown as an electromagnet. Another way to produce magnetism is to stro$e an unmagnetized material with another material which is already magnetized.

MAGNETI

FIE!DS

The space surrounding a magnet where magnetic forces act is $nown as a magnetic field. The pattern can be seen by using iron filings. !ines of Force %ines of force are imaginary lines used to illustrate the pattern of the magnetic field. They are also called flu! lines. The lines emanate from the north pole and enter the south pole of a magnet The Ma"#e$$ &ne Ma!well is e'ual to one magnetic flu! line The Weber The weber represents ( times () raised to the * th Ma!wells.

A microweber is ()) Ma!well

1. Magnetic lies of force are continuous and always form a closed loop. 2. Magnetic lines of force never cross each other. 3. Parallel magnetic lines of force traveling in the same direction repel one another. If
traveling in the opposite directions they tend to unite with each other and form into single lines traveling in a direction determined by the magnetic poles creating the lines of force.

4. Magnetic lines of force tend to shorten themselves. 5. Magnetic lines of force pass through all materials 6. Magnetic lines of force always enter or leave magnetic material at right angles to the
surface. Magnetic Attraction an% Re&'$sion

1. %i$e magnetic poles repel each other 2. +nli$e magnetic poles attract each other 3. The attraction or repulsion between magnets varies directly with the product of their
strength and inversely with the s'uare of the distance between them.

!ASSIFI ATION OF MAGNETI

MATERIA!S

Ferrognetism
Iron, cobalt, nickel (and various alloys) are called ferromagnetic materials. erromagnetic materials s!o" a #ermanent, s#ontaneous magneti$ing effect in t!e absence of a magneti$ing field. %!is effect is greatest at absolute $ero. It is reduced by tem#erature. erromagnetic materials "it! !ig! retentivities, are called !ard, and are used for #ermanent magnets.

Paramagnetism
&aramagnetic materials include aluminum, #latinum, manganese, and c!romium. %!ey !ave mild attraction to a magnetic field. Diamagnetism 'iamagnetic materials include bismut!, antimony, co##er, $inc, mercury, gold, and silver. %!ey can become "eakly magneti$ed, but! t!eir magnetic field is in t!e o##osite direction from t!e magneti$ing field.
T()ES OF MAGNETS

Permanent Magnets
A permanent magnet retains its magnetism ,high retentivity- even when the magnetizing force is removed. %oss of magnetism may occur through high temperatures, physical shoc$, or a strong demagnetizing force.

Application for Permanent Magnets


%oudspea$ers are a common use for permanent magnets.

Temporary Magnets
A temporary magnet is a piece of soft iron that is magnetized while in the presence of a magnetizing field but demagnetizes the moment the iron is ta$en away from the magnetizing force. .oft iron possesses low retentivity. Electromagnets A coil produces an electromagnet field around a core. .oft iron is often used for the core to concentrate the flu! lines and create a stronger magnetic field. Applications for Electromagnets lectromagnets are used for lifting ob/ects, buzzers, bells, relays. lectromagnets are used for tape recording. 0lu! in an air gap creates a fringing field that e!tends from the core. This magnetizes the tape passing by the magnet. This is analog. 1is$ drives are similar but use binary, ones and zeros to represent data.

Ferrites
0errites are nonmetallic materials that e!hibit the ferromagnetic properties of iron. Applications for Ferrites 0errites are used as magnetic cores. ddy currents cannot form because the core is nonmetallic. 0errites also come in the form of small toroid ,doughnut shaped beads- that bloc$ high fre'uency currents from passing through. This is $nown as filtering. MAGNETI SHIE!DING There is no $nown insulator for magnetic flu!. 0lu! penetrates nonmagnetic materials. If a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the flu! is redirected. MAGNETI *UANTITIES
Magneto+oti,e Force -++f. Magnetomotive force is the magnetic pressure that produces flu!. This is analogous to voltage in an electric circuit. Re$'ctance Reluctance is the opposition that a material offers to the magnetic lines of force. This is e'uivalent to resistance in an electric circuit. F$'" Density 0lu! density is e'ual to the number of magnetic lines of flu! per s'uare meter. Fie$% Intensity 0ield intensity is a measurement of the mmf needed to establish a specified flu! density in a unit length of the coil. )er+eabi$ity Permeability is the ease with which a material passes flu! lines. It is the electrical e'uivalent of conductance.

Air and other nonmagnetic materials are assigned a permeability of (. Magnetic materials have a value much greater than (.

THE /0H H(STERESIS UR1E


The two most important 'uantities are flu! density ,2- and the magnetizing force ,3-. Their relationship can be graphed as the 243 hysteresis curve. "ith iron 2 and 3 are directly proportional. The induced magnetization eventually saturates when further magnetizing force does not produce an increase in flu! density. This is when all magnetic dipoles have become aligned.

THE HA!! EFFE T


The 3all effect was discovered by . 3. 3all in (*56. "hen a magnetic field is brought close to a gold strip carrying current a voltage is produced. The 3all effect sensor is used to measure flu! density ,2-. The gaussmeter uses the 3all effect.

INDU TORS AND INDU TAN E


#apacitors are capable of storing a charge in an electrostatic field. Inductors are capable of storing a charge in an electromagnetic field. The ability to induce a voltage across itself with a change in current is $nown as self4inductance or simply inductance. Inductance also opposes a change in current. Inductors have no opposition to steady 1#. % is the symbol for inductance. The basic unit of inductance is 3 henry named after the American physicist 7oseph 3enry. Inductance in electrical circuits is similar to inertia in mechanical operations. It re'uires more energy to start or stop current in an inductor than it does to $eep it flowing.

INDU TOR /ASI S


An inductor is a coil of wire. A coil of wire is an electromagnetic when current is passed through it. Inductors are also called cho$es, impedance coils, and reactors. The core of an inductor may be a magnetic material such as iron or an insulated material. The term air4core is used for any inductors that do not have a magnetic core. Inductance is greater with more coils, larger cross4sectional area, and shorter coil length.

SE!F0INDU TAN E

(ny conductor !as some inductance because it #roduces a magnetic field around it. )!en t!e current c!anges t!e magnetic field c!anges. )!en t!e magnetic field c!anges an electromotive force is induced in t!e conductor. %!e #olarity of t!is induced force is in t!e o##osite to t!e a##lied voltage of t!e conductor. %!e effect is t!at inductance o##oses a c!ange in current magnitude. *en$+s la" states t!is. %!e induced emf in any circuit is al"ays in a direction to o##ose t!e effect t!at #roduced it. )!en (, ((lternating ,urrent) is #assed t!roug! an inductor t!ere is a continuous c!ange in current. %!e effect of t!e o##osition to current is t!en continuous. )!en ', ('irect ,urrent) is #assed t!roug! an inductor t!e o##osition to current is only #resent "!en t!ere is a c!ange, suc! as starting, sto##ing, or a c!ange in current flo".
The Se$f0In%'ce% 1o$tage E2'ation

( 3 ,3enry- of inductance is seen when a change in current of (A per second causes an induced voltage of (8.

FA TORS AFFE TING

OI! INDU TAN E

1. -reater number of turns increases inductance 2. ( larger diameter coil !as greater inductance 3. Inductance decreases as t!e coil lengt! increases 4. ( !ig! #ermeability core increases inductance

The Inductance Equation


* . (u/2(0l)
MUTUA! INDU TAN E Mutual inductance is when two coils are located so that the magnetic flu! from one coil lin$s with the turns of another coil. The coils are referred to as coupled. The transformer for A# circuits is a common e!ample of mutual inductance.

Factors Affecting Mutual Inductance


Tight coupling refers to a high degree of mutual inductance such as a transformer with two coils wound around the same magnetic core. %oose coupling is when two coils are far apart or at right angles to each other.

Air Core
#oils with hollow or non4magnetic cores are called Air4core coils. They have low values of inductance and are generally used for high4fre'uency applications.

Iron Core
Iron4core inductors use iron or an alloy for a core. %arge values of inductance are possible. 3ysteresis and eddy4current losses limit iron4core to low fre'uencies such as power line and audio. %aminated sheet material is often used to reduce eddy currents. .oft iron material such as silicon steel may be used to reduce hysteresis losses.

Powdered Iron Core


Powdered4iron is mi!ed with a nonconductive binder reduce eddy current losses. 3igher current flow is possible before the inductor saturates.

Ferrite Core
0errites are good magnetic conductors but poor electrical conductors. This reduces eddy current losses.

Toroidal Core
2ecause of the shape most of the flu! flows within the core resulting in very little flu! lea$age loss.

Mo!a"le #$aria"le% Core


These are variable inductors which can be turned.

Printed Circuit &oard Core


A spiral of copper on a printed circuit board may be used as a coil. &nly small inductance values are possible which limits its usefulness to high fre'uency applications. INDU TOR OM/INATIONS
In%'ctors in Series "hen inductance are not coupled ,far enough apart to not influence each other- and connected in series the total inductance is the sum of the individual inductances. %T 9 % ( : % ; : % < : = : % > "hen two mutually coupled coils are connected in series the total inductance is affected by their fields either series4aiding or series4opposing each other. %T 9 %( : %; :?4 ;%M In%'ctors in )ara$$e$ "hen inductors are not coupled and connected in parallel the total inductance is found in a similar manner to total resistance of resistors in parallel. %T 9 ( ? , (?%( : (?%; : = : (?%>Mutually coupled inductors in parallel@ Aiding fields@ (?%T 9 ( ? ,%( : %M- : ( ? ,%; : %M&pposing fields@ (?%T 9 ( ? ,%( 4 %M- : ( ? ,%; 4 %M-

ENERG( STORED IN AN INDU TOR


O&ening the irc'it "hen a circuit with an inductor is opened the magnetic field collapses and voltage is induced. The voltage dissipates over time due to I;R loss.

STRA( INDU TAN E


All conductors in a circuit possess some inductance. At high fre'uencies stray inductance can become significant. To reduce stray inductance lead lengths should be $ept short. #arbon resistors are preferred over wire4wound resistors. 3owever, some wire4wound resistors are made non4inductive by winding ad/acent so that the magnetic fields cancel each other.

INDU TOR !OSSES AND FAU!TS


In%'ctor !osses Inductor losses are hysteresis and eddy currents. 0lu!4lea$age is another type of loss. This is magnetic flu! outside the path for which it will do useful wor$. .$in effect is another cause for loss. Most of the current flows along the outside of the conductor or s$in. 3ollow wire can be used to minimize the s$in effect. Tro'b$eshooting In%'ctor Fa'$ts Inductors can change value ,including open- and shorts can develop between windings.

.horts cannot normally be detected with ohmmeters because the change in resistance is so small. A ringing test can be used which creates a magnetic field and then chec$s the number of rings as the field collapses.

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