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MODULE

Teaching Reading i n Primary Schools

UNESCO
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Acknowledgements

This training module resulted from a joint i n i t i a t i v e of the Primary Education Section and the Cross-cutting Project on Information and Communication Technology ( I C T )Used Training i n Basic Education f o r Social Development. W e wish t o thank the ICT project team for its contribution and co-operation.

Special thanks are due t oD r . Elaine Carter,UNESCO consultant,who prepared the draft of the module and who has been a t r a i n e ri n the series of training workshops f o r teacher t r a i n e r s on reading i n Uganda. W e are indebted t o the International Reading Association (IRA),i n particular t oD r .Charles Temple and his team for the Active Learning n the Project i n Tanzania,and Ms.Jennifer Bowser who has been a catalyst i process. This module drew on their guidebook and benefited from the wide experience ofthe IRA.
Mention must be made of M s .Mirla Olores, the Department of Education of the Philippines, D r .Tinsiri Siribodhi,St. Johns Group of o rt h e i r Institutions i n Thailand and UNESCO Office Dar es Salaam f invaluable inputs t o the review of the module,thus giving it a more global perspective.

Thanks are also due t o the following i n s t i t u t i o n sf o rt h e i r co-operation during the recording of video scenes: Uganda Ministry of Education and n Uganda,Media Plus LTD. Sports,National Commission f o r UNESCO i W e are also grateful t o the audio-visual team of UNESCO f o r their contribution t o the project.
o the educators i n Africa who Finally,w e owe a depth of gratitude t shared t h e i r ideas and experiences i n teacher-training, so t h a t the module and the accompanying CD-ROM would be relevant t ot h e i rt r a i n i n g needs.

Winsome Gordon ChiefPrimary Education Section Basic Education Division


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Akiko Takahashi Project co-coordinator

UNESCO

MODULE
Teaching Reading in Primary Schools
INTRODUCTION
P r i m a r y education is the basic education which aims a t preparing children t oa t t a i n the competence needed t o advance further i n making a worthwhile contribution t o society,which is constantly undergoing changes.I n order t o f u l f i lt h i s objective,teachers must keep abreast with current thinking,and i l l enhance the teaching - learning process. engage i n training t h a tw
Central t o the success of the teaching - learning process is the level of attainment by children i n the area of reading.Unfortunately,t h i s has created cause f o r concern i n many societies,as the high rate of i l l i t e r a c y continuest o adversely affect the progress of a technological advancing world. Since reading forms the basis f o r all other areas of learning,it is necessary t o ensure that children of the primary grades a t t a i n proficiency i n reading.This implies that teachers i n the primary grades w i l l have t o vary traditional n methods of teaching,and improve their knowledge base by engaging i training,including information communication technology ( I C T ) training.

The objective of this module, is t o provide teacher trainers with the knowledge,and strategies that w i l l enable them t o gain insight into the changing concept of the reading process,and how t ou t i l i z e the knowledge, o f a c i l i t a t e the teaching - learning process. and apply the strategies t Additionally,the module emphasizes the engagement of the children a t the different stages,thereby making the task of teaching child-centred, rather
than children being passive recipients.

The module is offered as a resource for trainers,and each unit provides information concerning the interactive process of f a c i l i t a t i n g reading i n the primary school with emphasis a t the early grades, and with a view t o modifying texts and strategies as children progress. The various aspects of
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reading that are included i n the module were intended to encourage reading across the curriculum a ta l l levels. The first u n i t provides an overview of the changing concept of the reading process, from a set of s k i l l st o be learnt i n a certain order,t o an interactive process involving the reader, the text, and the context. The interactive process of reading has encouraged a change i n the teaching of reading from the traditional approaches t o emphasis on approaches which reflect cognitive o these principles are the areas of language development, principles.Critical t childreninterest,selfconcept,emotional and physical factors.

Unit two emphasizes that fostering early literacy development i n the home helps the progress of children at school. Guidance is provided i n enhancing early literacy development,and beginning reading acquisition.

Unit three provides approaches t o the teaching of reading based on the interactive process, and reflecting cognitive principles. The approaches emphasize methodologies which can foster literacy development through the grades, and the importance of providing effective reading instruction for beginners. Unit four offers strategies for comprehending texts. Many children continue t o experience problems i n comprehending texts, and this affects their performances i n the various subject areas. This u n i t provides a variety of strategies t o enable the readers t o obtain the appropriate message intended by the authors of texts,i fthe strategies are applied appropriately.
Writing and reading are inter-related,and Unit five offers strategies t o use writing t o promote thinking, and learning across the curriculum. Additionally, children should be given the opportunity to share their writing, and t o use writing t o communicate with others. I n Unit six,guidance is provided i n the process of gathering data, i n order t o better understand the strengths and weaknesses of children.The suggestions made for assessment w i l l enable teachers to become more adept i n carrying out the process i n relation t o the method of instruction, and using information gathered t o modify instruction where necessary.

Unit seven gives examples of material and activities that w i l l be useful i n enhancing the process of teaching reading. The teaching aids can be made
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from discarded or inexpensive materials,and can be done a t home by parents and children,or a t school by teachers and students.

Unit eight emphasizes that social and physical factors are important for n literacy acquisition and creating an appropriate environment for success i development.
I n putting together t h i s module,the writer wanted t o share with educators the o be experienced as each u n i t is followed,and n e w and creative enthusiasm t ideas are revealed from the reading, as well as from the educators own thinking. I t is anticipated that this w i l l evoke creative ideas among children, thereby making the teaching - learning process enjoyable and fulfilling.

V.Elaine Carter,Ph.D.

TRAINING MODULE Teaching Reading in


Primary Schools
CONTENTS
Page

Introduction Unit 1. The Changing Concept ofthe Reading Process Topic 1 The Changing Concept ofReading Topic 2 Cognitive Principles f o r Enhancing Literacy Development Guide t o Applying Cognitive Aspects of Reading Reading Informational Text - H o w to Ascertain StudentsInterest

1 0 1 0

12 13 1 7 1 9
20 21 22 24 25 27 27 32 33 35

Unit 2. Fostering Literacy Development Topic 1 - Early Literacy Development Topic 2 Home-SchoolPartnership and Parental Involvement Topic 3 - Assessing Young Readers Literacy Knowledge - Guidelines for Recording Running Records Topic 4 A Guide t o Beginning Reading Acquisition Topic 5 Word Identification Topic 6 Sight Words Topic 7 - Developing Vocabulary Semantic Mapping

CONTENTS
Page 3 6 Unit 3. Approaches t o Beginning Reading Acquisition 37 Topic 1 - Read Alouds 3 8 Topic 2 Shared Reading 39 Topic 3 Guided Reading 4 1 Topic 4 - Language Experience Approach 46 Topic 5 IndependentReading 47 Topic 6 - Directed Listening-ThinkingActivity(DLTA) Topic 7 - Supporting the Use ofthe Mother Tongue 48 Topic 8 - Using Multiple Intelligences f o r Literacy Learning 49 51 - Multiple Intelligences Inventory

.Facilitating Reading Comprehension Unit 4 o Comprehending Text Topic 1 A Guide t Topic 2 . - Strategies t o Foster the Comprehension of Text - Semantic Webbing - Text Structure - Story Circle to A i d Sequencing - Directed Reading-ThinkingActivity(DRTA) - Questioning - Discussion Web - Information Processing - Summarizing and sequencing - Reciprocal Teaching - Note -taking

53 54 55 57 57 57 60 62 6 3 64 64 65 65

o r Teaching Writing Unit 5. Strategies f Topic 1 - Strategies for teaching Writing - Journal Writing - Story Circle - Story M a p - Acrostics - Cinquains - Diamante - Expository Writing - The Writing Workshop - The I-SearchPaper - Co-operativeTeaching Strategies - ValueLine
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66 67 67 67 67 69 69 70 70 70 7 3 7 5 7 5

CONTENTS
Page
Unit 6.Assessment ofLiteracy Learning Topic 1 Classroom Based Assessment - Observations - Assessing Writing Assessing Listening Comprehension i n Grade 1 - Sampling Student Work through Portfolios - Questions and Interviewing

76 77 78 79 82 82 82 83 84 85 87 89 90 91 92 94 95 95 96 97 100 101 101 103 105 106 107

Unit 7. Classroom and Home-madeMaterials t o Encourage Reading Topic 1 - Making Alphabet Books Topic 2 - Panorama Topic 3 Movie Screen Topic 4 - M y Senses I Smell With M y Nose - I Can Hear With M y Ears - I See With M y Eyes I Use M y Tongue t o Taste I Can Touch With M y Fingers Matching Activities f o r Young Children Rebus Stories - Suggestions for Charts

Unit 8. Classroom Environment f o r Literacy Learning Topic 1 Classroom Environment Topic 2 - School Library Topic 3 - Classroom Library Topic 4 - Materials Topic 5 Equipment Topic 6 - Accommodation,Furnishing and Lighting

References Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4

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- H i g h Frequency Words - Alphabet Checklists

SelfAssessment by Teachers
Responses t o Activities
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110 111 112 113

UNIT 1
The Changing Concept of the Reading Process

T h e purpose of t h i su n i t is t o provide information on the changing nature of the reading process and what must be done i n the teaching of reading t o meet global acceptance of literacy for the development of the individual i n society.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

B y the end ofthe unit,you should be able to:


identify the components ofthe interactive process of reading; state the current view of the engagement of the learner, based on cognitive principles; explain how readers can be assisted in interpreting written languages for a variety ofpurposes; identify the strategies supported by research findings which enable readers t o interpret text; compare and contrast aspects of the traditional approaches t o reading o reading based on the behavioral view and the integrated approaches t based on the cognitive view; n t e l l how the childrens state of language development affects reading i your class; discuss how the literacy development of young children can be fostered t o encourage and accelerate effective reading acquisition.

CONTENT
This unit includesthe following:
Topic 1: The Changing Concept of Reading Topic 2 : Cognitive Principles for Encouraging and Accelerating Literacy

Development

T o p i c 1. THE CHANGING CONCEPT OF READING


From Behavioural to Cognitive Reading forms the basis f o ra l l other areas of learning,and it is expected that children succeed i n the process. Children are able t o apply reading competencies independently as they t r yt o obtain and u t i l i z e information from a variety of sources.

o r many Unfortunately, this expectation has not become a realization f l l i t e r a c y continues t o have adverse e f f e c ti n children,and the high rate of i many nations.

There is increasing demand from societies t h a t schools meet the obligation


t o produce graduates with the required competence i n reading.The impact of

globalization, and the technological advances and social changes being experienced worldwide,are strengthening the links between knowledge and development. This global acceptance of l i t e r a c yf o r the development of the individual i n society has created the need t o ensure t h a t teachers are able t o support l i t e r a c y development i na l l children.

The changing concept of reading as a set of s k i l l st o be learnt i n a certain order,t o an interactive process involving the reader,the t e x t and the context, has led t oe f f o r t st o determine instructional processes t h a t enable children t o
f o s t e rl i t e r a c y growth. The current view of reading,based on cognitive principles, emphasizes the children as an active learner,capable of integrating informationwith existing n self monitoring procedures,thereby knowledge,and capable of engaging i making the process child-centred. Traditional approaches t o the teaching of
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reading,based on the behaviourist theory, viewed the process as teacherdirected, as skills taught i n isolation, and regarded children as passive learners. The characteristics of both theories given below provide an overview of aspects of the traditional (behavioural) and the integrated (cognitive) approaches.
A Comparison of Behavioural and Cognitive Views of the Reading Process

Behavioural

Cognitive

+ Learning i s based on the analysis of language skills + The learner reproduces meaning + Learning activated by others is
common

+ Learning i s based on the learnersstate


of language development + The learner constructs meaning + Learner-activated learning i s stressed

+ Motivation tends t o be directed by others + Learning is text driven + Learning stresses stimulus-response
+ Learning i s linear and ordered + Learning features s k i l l development + Effective comprehension requires automatic basic skills

+ Motivation is selfdirected
+ Learning is learner driven + Learning stress meta-cognitive mediation + Learning i s holistic and patterned + Learning features problem solving + Effective comprehensionrelates o prior knowledge and learning t exDerience

r-

Source: The Literacv Dictioiiani- The Vocabulani of Reading and Writing, InternationalReading Association

Interactive model of the reading process

The three basic models of the reading process, namely: bottom-up,topdown,and the interactive are summarized below. The bottom-up model emphasizes the recognition of words, and considers comprehension as information obtained solely from the text. The top-down model relates t o an extension of the language acquisition process, and views the process of reading as predictions confirmed by inspecting the text, and comprehension is obtained by reorganizing the meaning given to the reading.The interactive model views reading as involving both the bottom11

up and top-downmodels, and the process of reading comprehension as the interaction ofthe reader and the text,depending on the p a r t i c u l a r situation. Despite the context i n which reading takes place, the nature of the reading process changes as children mature. Specific processes may vary among individuals and according t o purpose. During the early stages of reading the identification of words demands greater concentration.A s readers progress o use t h e i ra b i l i t yt oi n t e r p r e t written language f o ra they should be able t variety of purposes. In order t oa t t a i nt h i s level of competence readers must use appropriate strategies before,during,and after reading,such as applying schema,o r integrating new information with p r i o r knowledge,and engaging i n meta-cognitiveo rs e l fmonitoring procedures. These strategies supported by research findings reflect cognitive views of the reading process.
Activity 1.1: The Changing Concept of Reading

1. Explain the interactive model of teaching reading t o a colleague who is not familiar with the term. 2. Identify two strategies supported by research findings which enable readers t o interpret text, and explain how beneficial these were while you were engaged i n reading the text. 3. L i s t some of the characteristics based on cognitive view reflecting the current view ofreading o r the integrated approach.

Topic 2 . Cognitive Principles for Enhancing Literacy Development

T h e changing concept of reading,which emphasizes the interactive model, has encouraged a s h i f t from traditional approaches i n teaching reading t oa
greater emphasis on methodologies reflecting cognitive principles.Research findings stress the importance of language exposure and experience t o childrensgrowth and cognitive development,helping t o arouse i n t e r e s ti n modifying reading experience of young children, and fostering literacy development across grades.
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More recently,the areas of emergent literacy (the l i t e r a c y behaviours and r i t i n g ) , concepts of young children that precede conventional reading and w and phonemic awareness (the awareness of the sounds - phonemes that make-up spoken words) are being emphasized t o encourage and accelerate the literacy development of young children. The need for rich language experiences is critical t o the cognitive and language development of young children,and while t h i s must be encouraged i n homes,teachers also need t o continue t o provide these experiences for children when they start their formal education. Utilizing cognitive aspects of the reading process include the application of elements t h a t can enable the reader t o achieve the basic function of reading which is communication,and engaging i n effective reading as a meaning getting problem - solving process requiring thinking - and reasoning.These elements include u t i l i z i n g appropriate strategiest o activate p r i o r knowledge, knowing and applying appropriate word identification strategies: interpreting graphs and i l l u s t r a t i o n s making predictions and reading t o confirm or reject them monitoring linking information t ol i f e experience responding t o the t e x t

. . . .

o In addition,aspects of affective domain (emotions and behaviour) related t reading success,which teachers should ascertain before beginning formal literacy instruction, and continue t o monitor changes include, children interests,s e l fconcept,personality o r emotional factors,and physical factors. These can be ascertained from previous teachers,parents, observation by teachers and the completion of appropriate checklists and inventories. Without the appropriate affective conditions,cognitive responses t o printed material may not occur.
Guide to Applyinp Copnitive Aspects of Readinp: Before you read elicit background information from children t o help them tie the book t o personal experiences. read the title,the authorsname and the i l l u s t r a t o r sname, and use the terms.

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As you read make sure a l l children can see the i l l u s t r a t i o n s . read with expression and joy.
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encourage children t o make predictions and l i s t e nt o confirm them. i n v i t e children t o chime i no r complete sentences t h a t are repetitive.

A f t e r you read discuss predictions. l i n k the information i n books t o real life experiences. make connectionsbetween other familiar books. re-readfavourite books a t childrensrequest. allow children t o respond through a c t i v i t i e s .
Shared ReadinP: Text - Greetinps Sun: Before Reading of Story

Teacher shows the book t o the class, and informs the children that it w i l l be read t o the class. Teacher invites individual children t o show and name the parts of the book t o reveal the following: front of book back of book cover t i t l e how t o hold book correctly when reading how t o turn pages left and r i g h t printed letters and words. directionality

Teacher points t o the title, and tells the children t o watch as the title is read and the words are pointed out. Teacher:The title ofthe story is, Greetings,Sun.
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Teacher points t o the names of the authors,and reads the names t o the children.
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Teacher:The authors are,P h i l l i s and David Gershator.


e e e

Teacher asks: How many persons wrote this book? Children respond,and teacher w i l l confirm or clarifl.

Teacher repeats the names of the authors,and comments that P h i l l i s is a female,and David Gershator is a male. Teacher asks: Do you think P h i l l i s has a last name? If the answer is yes, then the teacher w i l l ask: Do you think it is the same as Davids? Ifthe answer is yes,then the teacher w i l l ask: Do you think they are the same family?
Teacher explains that the authors became interested i n writing the book i v e about the sun because of songs of praise from Africa,but the authors l i n the Virgin Islands,i n the West Indies where the sun shines every day.
Teacher points t o the words: Synthia Saint James. Then states: The person who painted the picture on the cover and on the pages is Synthia Saint James.

Teacher shows the picture on the front cover t o the children,and asks: What do you see i n the picture?

Teacher shows the picture on the back cover, and asks the children t o describe what they see.
Teacher shows the children the words on the inside jacket of the book, and explains that the writing tells what the story is about.

Teacher reads: One sun,two children - and a whole day t o greet and
celebrate.

Teacher repeats the title of the story,and asks the children t o think about the title. Teacher shows the pictures on the front and back of the book, and thinks aloud what the story is about by saying: I wonder i f it is about two children t e l l i n g how they spend their time greeting others from sunrise t o sunset set. Teacher asks the children what they think.
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The children are expected t o share their predictions.


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During Reading

Teacher reads the short poem on the first page once.Then,reads a second time,pausing t o prompt completion of l i n e by the children.

Teacher reads the next page, and shows the picture opposite, and continues reading succeeding pages, showing the pictures and asking the children t o tell what the pictures depict.
Teacher thinks aloud about aspects of the story, making predictions, o develop an understanding drawing conclusions t o enable the children t ofthe reading process as thinking with t e x t . Teacher pauses a t predictable parts i n the text,and allows the children t o fill i n words. Occasionally,teacher asks the children,who o r what they i g h t be greeted next. think m Because the reading is i n poetic form with predictable rhymes, the teacher w i l l read a second time pointing t o words while the children read along.
After Reading:

Teacher and children discuss key ideas i n the t e x tt o reflect on reading,t o nt h e i r lives. Example: Greeting members of apply and t o relate events i the family on waking t i m e ,greeting friends and teachers on arrival a t school. Focus childrens attention on patterns i n the text. Example: Repeated words. Repeated letters, punctuation marks, and describing favourite sections.

The children w i l l dramatize greeting different individuals at different times during the day. The children w i l l engage i n Language Experience
Approach,r e t e l l i n g the story.
Readinp Informational Text

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Before Reading

U t i l i z e before - reading strategiesto: activate p r i o r knowledge set goals for reading make i n i t i a l predictions
Example: Activate appropriate background knowledge by thinking about what is known about the topic, set goals for what is t o be learned,make i n i t i a l predictions about the meaning of the t e x t by examining the vocabulary, sentence structure,sub-sections, sequence of information and graphic aids. The KWL strategy explained on page 60can be utilized.

During Reading

U t i l i z e during-readingstrategies t o conduct an interpretation ofthe authors message. Example: U t i l i z e monitoring strategies t o ascertain accuracy of predictions,and t o note new information. When there is a match between authors message and i n i t i a l predictions, the meaning-gettingprocess is continuous.When the authors message does not match the t e x t information,the meaning-gettingprocess slows down. Self questioning is done t o connect prior knowledge with new information. The prediction is now modified o r changed t o facilitate the process of obtaining meaning. During reading, unknown words o r d i f f i c u l t segment of a sentence may affect the process of obtaining the authors o apply any o r all of the message. The reader must be able t strategiesdescribed below:
Context Clue Strategy: Using what is known about the topic,the reader figures out inter-relationshipsbetween clues i n the text,sentence structure

clues,definitions,experience clues,and concepts described i n the t e x t . Breaking the unknown word apart by its structural units:prefixes,root word,suffixes,and inflectional endings.
Structural Analysis:

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Phonics: Identifying and blending known lettedsound associations a t the

beginning,middle,o r end ofthe word.


Sometimes readers experience problems during reading because of d i f f i c u l t associations i n the paragraph, such as, comparisons,casual relations, and o casual clues and d i f f i c u l t sequence of events. The reader must attend t information which is provided before and after the clues,and relating t h i s with what is known about the topic, and make an inference against the authorsmessage.
After Reading:

A f t e r reading strategies e.g. summarizing, are used t o restructure the


authors message, o r make judgement about the use of facts i n relation t o what is already known about the topic.Engaging i n research on the topic.
Activity 1 . 2 : Cognitive Principles for Enhancing Literacy Development

1. H o w can teachers determine aspects of the affective domain related t o reading success before beginning formal literacy instruction? 2.What are some of the cognitive principles that are being emphasized t o enhance the literacy development of young chi1dren?

How to Ascertain Students Interest


Both informal observation and structured self-reportmay be used t o assess interests.

1. The interest inventory can be an open-ended questionnaire which examines different aspects ofthe student's life. Suggested areas:
a. b. c. d. e. leisure activities family interactions pets visits

TV

f . children's groups o r club


g. the library h. favourite books i. wishes j. sports

2. The following activities can be used t o determine student's reading interests:


a ) observe games which children play b) observe log of daily activities c ) observe materials children l i k et o read d) observe articles which children take t o school e ) TV characters or stories f ) listen t o children's conversationswith peers g) favourite food

Activity 1.3: How to Ascertain Students' Interest:

1. Read the suggested areas listed i n Item 1. above,and develop an interest inventory f o r a specific grade i n the primary school. 2. Name the grade for which the inventory was designed,and tell how you would use it.

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UNIT 2
Fostering Literacy Development

Fostering early l i t e r a c y development i n the home helps the progress of children a t school.Teachers encounter a wide range of individual differences i f f i c u l t y ofproviding instruction t o among beginners,and t h i s increases the d meet individual needs.

This unit is intended t o develop awareness of activities t o enable children t o


succeed i n reading.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
B y the end ofthe unit,you should be able to: understand how early literacy development i n the home helps the progress of children a t school; discuss how childrensmemory of texts,their experiments i n writing and drawing support understanding about reading,writing and print; be able t o develop a balance of activities t o enhance the process of reading.

CONTENT
This u n i t includes the following:
Topic 1 : Topic 2 : Topic 3: Topic 4: Topic 5: Topic 6 : Topic 7 :

Early Literacy Development Home - School Partnership and Parental Involvement Assessing Young Readers Literacy Knowledge A Guide t o Beginning Reading Acquisition Word Identification Sight Words Developing Vocabulary

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T o p i c 1. EARLY LITERACY DEVELOPMENT


Research has shown that for many children l i t e r a c y development begins early,t h i s is ongoing,and should be encouraged t o continue throughout l i f e . This developmental perspective of literacy brings new challenges.I n any classroom,teachers encounter a wide range of individual differences among beginners,and this increases the d i f f i c u l t y of providing instruction t o meet individualneeds.
The findings of research indicate that children who have had earlier meaningful experiences with print, including: being read t o often, seeing p r i n ti nt h e i rd a i l y lives,and experimenting with writing,are b e t t e r prepared f o rl i t e r a c y learning than those who lack such experiences.Consequently,no single approach is l i k e l yt o benefit a l l children.Parents,who are oftenthe first teachers,must be encouraged tohelp prepare children f o rl i t e r a c y . o r Although there are various types of resources and degrees of support f na l l families.Since early l i t e r a c yi n many homes,conversation takes place i language development begins i n the home,and is learned through practice, learning can be fostered i nt h i s setting,and help t o accelerate the process of o school. communication when children go t r i n t and Young childrensl i t e r a c y concepts develop from experiences with p n other media showing the written words. They remember what is written i texts,and t h e i r experiments i n writing and drawing support development i n understanding about reading,writing and print,namely: + I t represents speech. + It reads from the left t o the right, i n some languages from right t o left,and from top t o bottom i n other languages. + Books have a front,back,beginning,middle and an end. + The minimal units of writing are letters, and these are grouped together t o form words.
Activity 2.1: Early Literacy Development I. Identify some early literacy activities that can be done i n the

home t o prepare children f o rl i t e r a c y learning. 2. Discuss how childrens memory of texts,their experiments i n writing and drawing,support understanding about reading.
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Topic 2 .

HOME-SCHOOLPARTNERSHIPAND PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT


Parental involvement must be fostered i f literacy and learning are t o be attained,and t h i s should begin i n the e a r l y years. f f o r t s must be made by the school t o Parents are the first teachers, and e o share l i t e r a c y activities with children,and encourage encourage families t conversation i n the home. no r a l traditions,parents can share folk tales with In cultures t h a t are rich i the children.This enables them t o appreciate story t e l l i n gi n the classroom, and helps t o foster l i t e r a c yi n the language of the school.A ta l l times,and particularly when teachers find themselves with much diversity i n the classroom,attention must be given t o what children bring with them as a framework,building on these experiences i n order t o introduce them t o more global forms of literacy.The activities of the school can be extended t o the home,where parents can become partners i n the learning process. Partnership between the home and the school can be achieved i fthere is t r u s t o establish and between teachers and parents, and efforts must be made t maintain this understanding. A n advantage of such a relationship is that teachers can know more about the home environment and the children,and be better able t o help them t o learn. Parents w i l l also be more comfortable when v i s i t i n g the school,and participating i n parental a c t i v i t i e s . Teachers must provide the structure for parents t o help their children with reading,through suggested guidelines and a c t i v i t i e s . Parents also need t o monitor homework,the selection and duration of television viewing, and listening t o radio programmes, and provide materials t o encourage reading and writing i n the home,and establish family reading t i m e .
Parental Activities: Activitv to Develop Print Awareness:

1. Before reading t o a child,the parent can ask the child t o show the front of the book,the back ofthe book,o r where the story begins.
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2. The parent indicatesby pointing that reading is done from left t o right.
3. The child w i l l identify the top and bottom ofthe page.

4. The parent must indicatethe beginning and the end ofthe story.

5. The child w i l l be asked t o point t o a word t h a t appears i n the story more than once.
Other a c t i v i t i e s are l i s t e di n Unit 7.
W h a t Parents C a n Do To Help Children To Learn:
e e
e

e e e e e e e e e e e
e e

e e e

Listen t o them and pay attention t o their problems. Read with them. T e l l family stories. L i m i tt h e i r television watching. Ensure t h a tt h e i r use ofthe telephone does not reduce t h e i r study time. Have books and other reading materials i n the house. Look up words i n the dictionary with them. Encourage them t o use an encyclopedia. Share favourite poems and songs with them. Take them t o the l i b r a r y -get them t h e i r own l i b r a r y cards. L e t them see parents engaging i n reading and writing. Take them t o the museums and h i s t o r i c a l sites,when possible. Discuss the daily news with them. G o exploring with them and learn about plants, animals, and local geography. Find a quiet place for them t o study. Praise t h e i re f f o r t s . Review t h e i r home work. Meet with t h e i r teachers. Set a reading t i m ei n weekends.

Topic 3.
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ASSESSING YOUNG READERS LITERACY KNOWLEDGE


T h e literacy experiences of young children vary according t o t h e i r s a result, it is advisable t o ascertain the experiential background. A
knowledge level of each child as it relates t o literacy by determining: concepts about print, assessing essential elements of literacy,and engaging i nn a t u r a l i s t i c observation,individual discussion with c h i l d and parents,and examining written reports. Aspects of the elements of l i t e r a c y listed below can be used t o develop a checklist t o assess each student i n each area of the early primary grades The i l l determine the strengths o r weaknesses i n outcome of the assessment w each area,and w i l l guide the teachersplan f o rt h e student.

J Richard Gentry (2000),suggests the following as elements of Literacy for


Kindergarten,but they are a l s o appropriate for Grades 1 and 2:
0 0 0 0
0

0 0 0 0 0

Listening Comprehension Exposure t o Print Reading Comprehension Phonemic Awareness Knowledge ofthe Alphabet Beginning Phonics Knowledge Word Specific Knowledge Writing Spelling Ideas and World Knowledge Attitudes about Reading and Writing

Begin the assessment a tt h e start of the school year,and follow through a t 4month intervals.Starting at the beginning of the school year w i l l enable the teacher t o establish a baseline from which t o commence individual instruction.

24

Marie Clay (1993), developed running records, a structured method of observing and noting strategies used by readers through assessment of oral reading and comprehension. See a sample below:
Guidelines for Recordinp Runninp Records:

1. Note the correct reading of each word with a check mark (

4) .

2.If a child reads incorrectly,the childs word is written above a horizontal


line,and the word i n text is written below the line. Child: clear Text:clean
3. Note a l l of a childs attempts t o read a word. Child: cl.. ... class Text: cleaner .. cleaner Child:clean er.. Text:cleaner

(One error)

(One error)

(No error)

4. When a child succeeds i n correcting an error, record as self-correction


Child:clear clean SC Text: cleaner

(W.

(No error)

5. If a child omits a word,a dash is recorded over the line. Child: Text:cleaner (One error)
6. If a child inserts a word, the inserted word is written over the l i n e ,and a dash is recorded under the l i n e . Child:w e a t Text: (One error)

7. Ifthe child is unable t o proceed,he o r she is told the word ( T )

(One error)

8. When a child appeals for help,he is asked t o try again before telling h i m as i n item 7.
In a large class. it is suggested that children work in groups.After working with a sample of children in each group. the teacher works along with the groups to facilitate peer interaction i n each group. 75

Child: -A clean Text:cleaner


9. If a child gets confused,he is t o l dt o Try t h a t again,and TTA is marked on the record.

(One e r r o r )

(One error

only,the second attempt is scored)

10Repetition is sometimes used t o confirm a previous attempt, often resulting i n selfcorrection.

Child:Inside the clean class Text: Inside the cleaner class


Steps to Conduct a Runninp Record:

(No e r r o r )

1. Use the sample above as a guide,and conduct a running record. 2. Count a l l the words i n the t e x to r passage used.D o not include the title. This gives the running record. 3. Count the number of errors and subtract the t o t a l from the t o t a l number of running words. 4. Multiply by 100 t o get percentage.
Runningwords-Errors Running words
x
100 =

Y O

Independent 95% o r above r above,the t e x t is a t the childsindependent ( I fthe percentage is 95% o

l e v e l . )
Instructional 90-94% (If the percentage is 90-94%, the t e x t is a t the childsinstructional l e v e l . )

Too difficult 89% o r below (If the percentage is 89% or below,the t e x t is too d i f f i c u l t . )

Note appropriate and inappropriatereading strategies Further assess comprehension with comprehension questions or by conducting a r e t e l l i n g .

26

T o p i c4 . A GUIDE TO BEGINNING READING ACQUISITION

If beginning reading acquisition is to be effective,there must be a balance


of a c t i v i t i e s designed t o improve word recognition.These should include: opportunities t o use the o r a l language,rapid recognition of the letters of the alphabet through association,the association of sound pattern i n speech,and phonics teaching provided i n a connected,formativemanner,often engaging the use of t e x t .Children should be able t o learn sight vocabulary i n context ol i s t e nt o rather than i n isolation. Providing opportunities for children t stories read t o them, or for them t o read t o the teacher, and reading individually, and i n groups, w i l l encourage progress i n literacy, and stimulate an i n t e r e s ti n learning the language ofthe school. Writing and spelling activities are also part of learning t o reading. Encouraging children t o make invented spellings,helps the development of phonemic awareness,and increasesknowledge ofpatterns i n spelling.

ACTIVITY 2 . 4 : A Guide to Beginning Reading Acquisition


1. Discuss a c t i v i t i e si n which primary grade students could engage t o use o r a l language.

T o p i c 5. W O R D IDENTIFICATION
Research i n word recognition emphasizes the d i f f i c u l t y of helping children t o become skilled i n identifying words.Although book reading,listening t o stories a t an early age, and learning t o read simplified stories,appear t o encourage and accelerate reading development, children must develop h a t make up spoken phonemic awareness,i.e. an awareness of the sounds t words by being able t o segment some of the sounds of words i ni n i t i a l
27

medial and f i n a l positions, understand spelling - t o sound correspondence, and progress t o apply knowledge of letter patterns and syllables. n books,on signs,and elsewhere are Literacy requires awareness that words i intended t o convey a message. Children first become aware t h a t language can be observed,and broken into words and letters, by seeing its written form i n familiar contexts i n the home o r the community. Childrenslearning of word identification involves marked developmental stages. They usually change from identifying words, one by one, t o identifying words using different approaches based on knowledge of context, letter sounds and syllable patterns. Phonics knowledge enables children t o understand the alphabet principle, t h a t the order of letters i na written word represents the order of sounds i n a spoken word.

A s children observe others read,and t r yt o read by themselves,they realize


that printed words can be differentiated on a page. They might remember words by the i n i t i a l letter,which are often words with the same letter as their names. In the i n i t i a l stage of writing they might overuse letter names, example - spelling see as C.Hearing nursery rhymes,stories,interesting words, engaging i n inventing spelling and writing, tend t o relate t o early reading performance. Context cues,provided by pictures and sentences, make it easier f o r beginners t o identify words. Another activity,that could prove helpful i n word identification, is the introduction of i n i t i a l sounds of words through the use of alphabet books for young children,highlighting the first letter i n a word,and the ending sounds of words through rhymes.Breaking spoken words i n t o syllables by clapping o r drumming could be useful f o r beginners,and individual phonemes could be introduced.
Steps in Teachin2 Initial Consonant Sound: (suggested f o re a r l y learners)

Select o r write a poem o r story,emphasizing a specific sound,repeated a t the beginning ofmost ofthe words. 1. Display the poem or story on chalkboard o r chart. 2 . Read the t e x tt o the class,emphasizing the t a r g e t words. 3. Ask individualst oi d e n t i @ words with the same sound a t the beginning. 4.Ask the children t o stand,o r raise the right hand each t i m e they hear a word with the same sound at the beginning.
28

Betty Botter

Betty Botter bought some butter, But,she said,This buttersb i t t e r ; I fI put it i n m y batter, I tw i l l make m y b a t t e rb i t t e r . i t ofb e t t e rb u t t e r But a b W i l l make m y batter better. Bought a b i t ofb e t t e r butter. Author Unknown.

Other activities could include selecting words from w o r d w a l l 2 , with same sound at the beginning. Identifying words with similar sound from t the beginning,egg.bag, storybooks.Circle the words with the same sound a
book,bell,b a l l ,bench.
Activity to Promote and Assess Phonemic Awareness: o r early Identifyiw Sounds from One-Sylla ble Words: (suggested f I earners) Steps: 1. Present a picture of a one-syllableword.

2. Ask the children t o identify the picture. d e n t i f i e s the picture,while the children l i s t e n . 3. Teacher i d e n t i f i e s the number of sounds i 4. Teacher i n the word. i l l identify other pictures prepared for the class. 5. Children w 6. Children w i l l say each word,and identify the number of sounds by clapping. Example:each word below has three sounds.

cat -

cake -

rake

Word walls are large sheets ofpaper on which the teacher and childrenwrite impoi-tant words from tests that they are reading.There are many kinds ofword walls: ABC word walls for phonemic awareness,high frequencyword walls. words from a theme. walls of fiequentlymisspelled words. and words that are used i n a particular subject.They may be placed wherever children can read them.
29

Invented Spellinp:

Young children often exhibit patterns of spelling which depict their level of development,as well as t h e i r exposure t op r i n t and opportunities t o write. When children are a t the stage where they s p e l l words by substituting a letter, or grouping of letters,o r match some of the sounds i n the words with an appropriate letter correspondence,t h i s is described as invented spelling. When children engage i n invented spelling, they develop the habit of listening t o sounds i n words,and relating letters t o sounds.This encourages young children t o think and write freely.Particularly,when they are aware t h a tt h e i r work w i l l be accepted. Childrensknowledge of phonemic awareness,and phonemic patterns can be determined by examining their invented spelling,and these are important facets of learning t o read. Example:
WritinP:

M y lit1 b r t h r is s i k Myl i t t l e brother is sick.

Writing samples can be used t o assess other facets of reading,namely: phonemic awareness,phonics patterns, word knowledge, spelling,and the mechanics of writing.Additionally,writing promotes creative thinking and learning across the curriculum.Children should be encouraged t o share t h i s writing,and t o use writing t o communicate with others.Children must spend t i m e daily engaging i n writing.

Dailv WritinP Workshop:


Share the writing time i n t o three periods, each period being about 15-20 minutes. Designate the first period t o whole-classactivity,where children and teacher can select a topic for Language Experience Approach writing. O r ,recall a story which was read t o the class, and dictate a Language Experience Approach activity.The teacher facilitates decision-makingand modeling of the way children think as they write. The teacher writes and reads while
30

observing conventions of writing, such as use of c a p i t a l letters,punctuation, and sentence structure. Another activity could include model writing of a letter, or the daily message, o r compiling a log of books which have been read, emphasizing title,author,and i l l u s t r a t o r ,and expressing feelings about the book. o Guided Writing. Here, the children The second period could be devoted t are i n small-groupinstruction,o r writing independently. Teacher guides the children i n the process of writing,helping i n the development of specific r individual t o enable children t o s k i l l so r strategies needed by the group o experience success i n the writing process. In the t h i r d period the children are encouraged t o write by recording what is personally meaningful. Recording i n journals,diaries, completing weather chart assignment,writing news,o r invitation cards t o events. Children can write their own books using a language pattern similar t o the one i n the original book oftheir choice. o enable children t o work Adequate arrangements must be made t independently while the teacher is engaged with one group.Sample charts: Example: o encourage free Guide depicting elements of story writing t writing. See page 67. Steps t o follow i n writing f o r publication.See page 98. Guide t o enable students t oe d i tt h e i r own writing. See page 96.

A c t i v i t y Based on News:
Obtaining and recording news from observation, listening t o the radio, watching television,and reading newspapers.

A c t i v i t y :
Children of d i f f e r e n t ages can be assigned activities t o observe,read o rl i s t e n t ot h e news,and report daily.

e w s Board entitled: N e w s From Around The World, with a Materials: N space f o r each ofthe following; N e w s - What,When,Who,Where
31

World map,atlas,globe. Steps: 1. Teacher w i l l assign the children t o observe, l i s t e nt o the radio,watch television,and read items of news and report daily. 2. Beginners can i l l u s t r a t e and relate news items orally. 3. Oral presentations can be written on news board by the teacher, and i l l u s t r a t i o n s can be labeled and displayed on news boards. 4. Older children can complete columns on news board. 5. Teacher and children w i l l discuss news items, noting items which exemplify positive attitudes,and suggesting ways by which other items could be improved t o give positive views. Children w i l l use maps t o n the news. locate places i N e w s : What, When,Who,Where.

A c t i v i t y 2.5: W o r d Identification 1. Each student can associate the first letter of hisher name with the corresponding letter of the alphabet; identify other activities t o encourage similar association. 2. Develop a c t i v i t i e sf o r teaching and assessing sounds of words n i n a l positions. i n i t i a l medial and f 3. L i s t the ways i n which children can i d e n t i & words as indicated n the reading.

Topic 6 .

SIGHT WORDS
Children need a set of words that they recognize instantly.These should be words used i n speech,o r frequently heard. These much used words are often irregular i n spelling o r pronunciation.These words are taught as sight words. Basic sight words lists include words as: the,and,you,was,with,they,have, in,on.

It is recommended that basic sight words should not be taught i n isolation,


r sentenceused both o r a l l y and i n written form. b u ti n a phrase o

32

TeachinP Sight Words:

Different strategies can be used i n teaching s i g h t words.For example:High o visual imagery words - house,table,tree, lend themselves readily t clues (pictures)as reinforcement.Other strategies include:the use of word family approach,games o r word cards,sentence s t r i p highlighting the word. Whatever strategy is used, the development of a sight word vocabulary n phrases o r sentences should be done through the use of natural language,i t o keep the words i n context.
Steps in Teaching Sight Words: (suggested f o re a r l y learners)

1. Teacher reads a printed sentence t o the children from a s t o r y containing the sight word. 2. The children read after the teacher. 3. The teacher reads the sentence aloud, but leaves out the word t o be supplied by the children. 4. The children read the sentence,without the teacher. 5. The children write the sentence. 6. The children write a new sentence,containing the s i g h t word. 7. The teacher develops o r selects the t e x t containing repeated use of the s i g h t word f o r children t o read. The material w i l l be added t o IndependentReading Collection.
Activity 2 . 6 Teaching Sight Words

1. Discuss reasons why words should not be taught i n isolation.

Topic 7 .

DEVELOPING VOCABULARY

I t is not possible to teach children many words in a fixed period of time.


Words must be acquired informally,and outside of the school environment, mainly through voluntary reading.Children who engage i n a wide range of reading, and other experiences, encounter many words i n meaningful context,and learn from many of them.Teachers should encourage voluntary reading,and assist and motivate children t o acquire vocabulary knowledge
33

of their own. This is important i n a l l areas of learning, since word recognition and a knowledge ofmeanings,lead t ot e x t comprehension.

A s a starting point for vocabulary learning,teachers need t o determine what p a r t i a l ,o r analogous knowledge children have relating t o the words which o learn.This could be done by brainstorming and displaying they are going t childrens knowledge of keywords or concepts. This can be followed by
i n i t i a t i n g a discussion on the relationship of words/concepts t o a larger schema (cognitive structures that are abstract representations of events o r objects stored i n the b r a i n ) . In order t o encourage and accelerate comprehension,and provide a basis f o r active reasoning about the meaning of new words relating t o various n an exposition, contexts,instruction must build on concepts.For example,i o r a field trip,words related t o the main concept would l i n k new words t o background knowledge,a larger schema and the contexts of instruction. Another learning component t o encourage and accelerate comprehension, o read many s t o r i e s and familiarize children with patterns i n the language is t t o them and discuss words and meanings i n context.Teachers also need t o know that not a l l words i nat e x t can,o r should be taught.Children must be helped t o understand unfamiliar words. After reading a story,allow children o reason about its meaning. t o look back,identify a word and guide them t o r identifying words, and for building Many strategies are needed f vocabulary knowledge. Simple processes of memorization, letter sound association,o r word meanings, are insufficient. Teachers must ensure t h a t children are fascinated with words, and are motivated t o develop their vocabulary.
Activity 2 . 7 :Developing Vocabulary

1. Describe two strategies for vocabulary learning,mentioned i n the reading; choose a partner, and take turn i n implementing one
strategy.

34

Developing Vocabulary Semantic Mapping


Take one key word, example: Water, and develop categories and subcategories of words and related words. Children can add to the m a p as they read. A sample of semantic mapping:

35

UNIT 3
Approaches t o Beginning Reading Acquisition

T h e changing concept of reading emphasizes the interactive process reflecting cognitive principles. If children are t o experience success i n reading,teachers need t o be kept abreast with current thinking,and engage i n methodologies which can f o s t e rl i t e r a c y development through the grades. This can be achieved,i fbeginning reading acquisition is effective.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
B y the end ofthe unit,you should be able to: i d e n t i f y approaches t of o s t e rl i t e r a c y development i n young children; i d e n t i @ s t r a t e g i e st o engage young children i n writing.

CONTENT
This u n i t includes the following:
Topic 1: Topic 2 : Topic 3: Topic 4 : Topic 5: Topic 6: Topic 7:

Read Alouds
Shared Reading Guided Reading Language Experience Approach Independent Reading Directed Listening - Thinking Activity (DLTA) Supporting the Use of the Mother Tongue and the o f f i c i a l Using Multiple Intelligences f o r Literacy Learning
36

language Topic 8 :

Topic 1

READ ALOUDS
Beginning readersliteracy concepts develop from experiences with p r i n t which include being read to from favourite t e x t s .Children need t o be read t o each day. In using this approach,the teacher selects a book with repetitive texts and i l l u s t r a t i o n sa t a level t h a t matches childrensreading a b i l i t y .Gradually,the selection should be at a level just beyond what children can read independently t o expand childrensengagement i n print. Selections should include folktales and different l i t e r a c y styles. Information texts can also be incorporated i n t o regular read aloud periods with the teacher modelling thinking strategies.
Steps of Read Alouds: (suggested f o re a r l y learners)

1. Discuss title and authorsname. 2. Discuss the cover picture. 3. Children w i l l identify parts ofthe book. 4 .A l l o w children t o see the text,as you read. 5. Engage children i no r a l language,as they i n t e r a c t while listening. 6. Slow down a t times,and point t o a word,as you read it aloud. 7. Children w i l l join i n on the r e p e t i t i v e language. 8. Place copies ofthe book read i n Book Box t o encourage reading. 9. Respond t o story orally,o r by writing,o r drawing,o r role playing. 10.Guidechildren t o work with p a r t s of the language - alphabet and words, o r word parts.For example:letter name association with word. 1 1 .Remakingone o r two words from the s t o r y by scrambling letters.
Extended Activities: (suggested f o re a r l y learners) I. Children w i l l retell story 2. Role-play 3. Respond t o story,both o r a l l y and i n writing

4. Responding t os t o r y through drawing 5. Sharing books with peers 6. Where possible,organize a Character Day 7. Children w i l l dress l i k e the character from a story.

37

Activity 3 . 1 : Read Alouds


1.

What are some of the advantages of engaging young children i n Read Alouds?

Topic 2

SHARED READING
Shared reading is an interactive process of reading,involving the whole class. Children participate i n the process by reading key words and phrases they know,while the teacher reads aloud.

TEXTS:Big Books and Predicable Books:


Big books are large books with large illustrations,and large print, and l i k e predictable texts,they contain strong rhythm and rhyme,repeated patterns, refrains, logical sequences,supportive illustrations, and traditional story structures.Conventional readers may share informational big books with the teacher i n reading;modelling strategies, such as story mapping, searching f o r important facts.
Steps of Shared Readiw Lesson: (suggested f o re a r l y learners)

1. Show the front of the book, and discuss title, identify author and i l l u s t r a t o r . 2. Discuss cover picture. 3. Model directionality- left t o right,top t o bottom. 4. Model concept ofword i n print. 5. Name the parts ofthe book,cover,page,and back. 6. Discuss illustrations. 7. Read the book a l l the way through. 8. Pause before a word which is heavily cued by the picture and text.Allow n the word. children t o fill i 9. Repeat reading the book,using a pointer t o each word as it is read.Have childrenjoin i n . r syllable of a word t o aid identification ofthe word. 10.Show a letter o
38

1 1.Encouragequestions and comments. 12.Model confirming answer o r prediction using pictures and o r the t e x t . 13.Discussword patterns,punctuation plot structure characterization. 14. Some children w i l l point and read along with the others. 15.Havethe children read the book with you again.
Extended A c t i v i t i e s : (suggested f o r early learners)

1. Teacher writes a sentence from guided reading on a s t r i p of paper, modelling thinking by talking aloud. For example: I a m beginning a sentence,and I must start with a capital letter. Teacher reads while writing. Children read the sentence aloud.Teacher cuts the sentence into i l l rearrange, other children w i l l approve words. Individual student w accuracy,giving reasons. 2. Children w i l l construct a sentence about the story,and t r yt o write and read it with the assistance ofthe teacher. 3 . Other shared writing activities can include collaborative writing of experience charts,composing invitations and thank you notes. 4. Dictate,i l l u s t r a t e and compile a Big Book. 5. Write a response. 6. R e t e l l a story. 7. Engage i n identification ofkey words selected i n sentences. 8. Identifjing other given words with similar i n i t i a l sound. 9.Place new key words on A B C word wall t o study lettedsound correspondences.
Activity 3.2: Shared Reading
1.

Identify the features which you expect t o see i n selecting a book f o r a Shared Reading lesson.

Topic 3

GUIDED READING
Guided reading is an approach i n which the teacher provides the structure and purpose of reading,and for responding t o the material being read.
39

Children work together i n small groups t o read,think,and t a l k about what is read.Monitoring,and evaluating processes are done during this reading. Books, with some control of vocabulary give the children practice i n o r multiple exposures. identifying words i n a variety of contexts,and allow f
Steps of a Guided Readinp Lesson: (suggested f o r early learners)

1. Teacher plans lesson designed t o help children develop reading strategies. 2. Teacher and children discuss pictures,book parts and concepts. 3. Teacher assigns groups, discusses the structure and purpose for reading. 4. Children read and discuss what they have read. 5. Readers share different opinions and perceptions. Children can read with a partner,alternating pages as the teacher monitors. 6.Readers learn s t r a t e g i e sf o r effective reading from peers,and models. 7. Teacher observes individual children's strategies,as each child reads and i n t e r a c t s with ideas from the t e x t . 8. Teacher forms small group t o work on particular strategies. 9. Teacher i n t e r a c t s with groups f o r peer demonstration,explanation and support. 1 0Teacher encourages comprehension strategy development through guided questions, discussions about words and t h e i r sounds, and nt e x t . opportunitiest o locate target words i 1 1 .Teacher engages i n ongoing assessment t o inform l i t e r a c y planning f o r guided reading and writing experiences.
Extended Activities: (suggested f o re a r l y learners) 1. Children w i l l write t h e i r own sentences about the text. 2.Teacher w i l l form groups t o work on specific areas of writing

development. For example: writing conversation, using more i n t e r e s t i n g words. 3. A group can discuss developing,beginning,middle and end of a story.
Activity 4 . 3 Guided Reading:

1. Develop two group activities t o engage children i n writing, following a Guided Reading lesson.
40

Topic 4

LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH


T h e Language Experience Approach (LEA) is a comprehensive beginning reading method which integrates childrens language and background knowledge.It provides a more natural way i n which children understand the s an excellent procedure features and functions ofthe written language.This i f o r teaching varying aspects ofreading.

In the beginning, childrensexperiences are recorded by the teacher who reads while writing, and this forms part of the reading material. These may include labels, stories, directions on how t o do activities. As children i l l relate individual experiences. Later, they can progress, each child w illustrate and write experiences, read t o the class, and display i n the classroom.
Steps of Languape Experience Approach: (suggested for early learners)

1. Provide a stimulus.For example: A fish i n a big jar. Caution children not t o touch,but they can talk about the fish. 2. Children engage i n five minutes discussion. 3. Tell children that you w i l l write what they say about the experience. 4. Ask the children to give a title. 5. Write the title at the top ofthe page,and pronounce each word. 6. Invite the children t o say something about the topic. 7. Starting a t the left margin, write the studentsname and exactly what was said,pronouncing each word naturally as you write. 8. Invite other contributions,treating each i n the same manner. 9. Teacher reads the t e x t aloud,pointing t o each word. 1O.Teacher and children choral read the t e x t twice. 11.Individualchildren w i l l read lines. 12Display the text, and repeat the reading activity next day, with the whole group,small group,and individuals.
Extended Activities: (suggested for early learners)

1. Children w i l l illustrate the experience.The title w i l l be added. 2. Children w i l l point t o words as they say them. 3. Locate specific words within a l i n e of print.
41

4. Teacher displays word card with specific word from the text.Children w i l l name the word card,and find a match i n the text. 5. Using a language experience story t o teach phonics.
Steps for Usinp a L a n m a g e Experience Story for Teachinp Phonics:

(suggested f o r early learners) 1. Teacher writes and speaks each word,dictated f o r Language Experience, emphasizing i n i t i a l ,medial, and f i n a l sounds while writing. 2. Children read story with the teacher. 3. Children read the story by themselves. 4.Children engage i n creative writing, experimenting with sound symbol o write words. relationship as they use invented spelling t 5. Children are encouraged t ol i s t e nt o sounds they hear i n the word, and associate letters t o make the sounds. 6. Children develop generalizationsabout sound symbol relationships. 7. Teacher analyzes invented spellings t o determine each students s k i l l s and needs i n phonics. 8. Analysis provides an indication of proficiency i ni n i t i a l ,medial, and f i n a l sounds. 9. Teacher plans appropriate s t r a t e g i e st o help with problem area.

A Lanpuage Experience Approach: (suggested for early learners)

A language experience approach can take the form of a structured overview


o encourage children t o contribute a t each stage, i n teaching Guided Writing t and develop a clear understanding of what a sentence is, and become aware ofhow ideas are connected t o form an interesting story. Many children of African heritage are familiar with Anancy the Spider,and i l l prompt children t ot a l k about Anancy an i l l u s t r a t i o n depicting the topic w the Spider. The teacher writes what each child says under appropriate headings.The procedure can be enhanced by the reading of the rhyme:One Two Anancy, two o r three times, and then have the children repeat numerical l i n e sa t the start.

42

Poem One Two Anancy by John Agard: O n e Two


Anancy to you

Three Four
Never trust the score

Five Six Always u p the tricks Seven Eight


C a n tplay de g a m e straight

Nine Ten
Anancy, your tricky@iend.

Steps for Teachinp Lanpuape Experience Approach Using Structured o r early and intermediate learners) Overview: (suggested f

1. Teacher provides illustration labelled: Anancy The Spider 2. Teacher reads nursery rhyme - One Two Anancy twice,pointing t o the words. 3. Teacher and children w i l l read nursery rhyme together. 4. Teacher and children w i l l read lines alternately. 5. Teacher and children w i l l repeat lines alternately and swiftly. 6. Teacher draws the attention of the children t o the illustration of Anancy the Spider,and asks the children t ot e l l what they know. 7. Teacher writes what the children say on the chalkboard. 8. Teacher and children w i l l name each group, and decide the order i n which each w i l l make up the story. 9. Teacher w i l l guide the writing by encouraging children t o give sentences using ideas from each group, and teacher w i l l read while writing these i n the chalkboard. 10.Teacherand children w i l l read story together a few times. 11 .The story w i l l be copied on a chart and used for free reading,as well as for other activities i n teaching phonics, matching words, categorizing ideas used as a model for writing,

43

Anancy The Spider

Description: Insect 8 legs no t a i l it has eyes Anancy is t r i c k y w i l l fool people the legs are sticky not a p r e t t y colour some legs look shorter l i t t l e ,but can frighten you Importance: makes you laugh always winning popular l i k e its t r i c k s

Movement: crawls makes web curls up sometimes spider web is neat traps things a f r a i d i fyou take down the web,Anancy w i l l make another web

44

Language Experience Approach - Grade 1

ar D r .carter,

Activity 3 . 4 : Language Experience Approach

1. Discuss how the Language Experience Approach could be used by n the upper primary grades. children i

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T o p i c5 . INDEPENDENT READING
Children need time t o read the appropriate text JY themselves. Each class has t o have a reading comer. There should be material for children t o read n the classroom and school independently. A wide variety of materials i library encourages reading.
Steps to Promote Independent Reading: (suggested f o r early learners)

1. Label the section which is designated for reading. 2. Determine the children's area of interest. 3. Display books of varying levels and interests. 4. Include publications from children i n the class. 5. Tape model reading of selected stories. 6.Include books,taped stories,and recorder. 7. Children w i l l read from books, while listening to stories. 8. Place writing paper, pencil, crayon, dictionary and newspapers i n the reading area. 9. Provide seating,table o r a mat t o relax.

Activity 3 . 5 Independent Reading:

1. What methods would you use t o identifL student'sinterests?

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Topic 6
DIRECTED LISTENING - THINKING ACTIVITY (DLTA)
In the primary grades,the children w i l l need direction i n processing and using information.The Directed Listening Thinking Activity provides the basis for processing and using information,and facilitates comprehension s t r a t e g i e si n reading and c r i t i c a l thinking.

The steps below are appropriate for any grade level,but vary i n the manner
i n which the teacher discusses the story.
Steps for Directed Listeninp-Thinkiw A c t i v i t v : (suggested for early t o

advanced learners) 1. Choose a story with p l o t structure and suspense. 2. Teacher reads the title,and displays the first i l l u s t r a t i o n . 3. Teacher asks what the s t o r y might be about. 4. Children are allowed t o think,and make suggestions. 5. Teacher reads t o a pre-determined point, and stops where the plot or action w i l l create excitement. 6. Teacher refers t o previous suggestion made by the children regarding what the story was about,then compares differences, and asks: Now what do w e think?teacher comments on predictions. 7. Teacher asks the children t o think,and predict what might happen,and r Why not. prompt them t o say Why,o 8. Teacher tells the children t o listen, and find out while the reading continues. 9. A t the end of the story,teacher asks questions t o find out how did they know what would happen,and what would they have done. 1O.Thechildren might be asked i ft h a t was l i k e any previous experience.

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Topic 7 .

SUPPORTING THE USE OF THE MOTHER TONGUE AND THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE
Since there is increasing support for the use of the mother tongue i n the classroom,teachersneed t o engage children i na c t i v i t i e s that supportthis. Strategies should include the following:

+ Using p r i n ti n the mother tongue i n the classroom. + Encouraging reading and writing with older children,and parents who assist younger children i n the use ofthe mother tongue. + Using tapes produced by the children,o r commercially,i n the familiar language ofthe children,and i n the o f f i c i a l language. + Engaging i n play acting i n response t ol i f e and l i t e r a t u r e .

While teachers facilitate learning through the use of the mother tongue,
o support learning i n the o f f i c i a l appropriate activities are also often needed t Language. The following activities are recommended for this purpose, but are beneficial t oa l l the children:

+ Provide opportunities f o r children t o engage i n dialogue. + Designate a period f o r reading s t o r i e st o the children. + Make children aware ofthe routine f o r specified periods. + Plan activities i n reading and writing, examples: diary writing, dialoguejournals, response t ol i t e r a t u r e ,and s t o r yt e l l i n g . + Encourage individual and group activities involving the Language Experience.Approach,where individuals o r groups relate stories,and these are written down and read by the teacher and children,and a l s o used f o r independent reading.
Activity 3 . 6 : Supporting the Use of the Mother Tongue and the official language

1. Prepare some signs i n your Mother Tongue, and i n the o f f i c i a l language,which would be appropriate t o encourage reading i na primary grade classroom.
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T o p i c8 . USING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES FOR LITERACY LEARNING


T h e Multiple Intelligences Theory is concerned w i t h differences i n the process of learning. Multiple intelligences,as outlined by Howard Gardner, include the areas of Linguistic Intelligence, Spatial Intelligence,Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence, Musical Intelligence, Interpersonal Intelligence, Intrapersonal Intelligence, and Naturalistic Intelligence.The theory forges relationship between thinking and learning,with the rationale of meeting the needs of a l l children.This can be accomplished i f teachers help children t o use their combination ofthe intelligences t o be successful i n school. In applying this theory, it is expected that this w i l l create a change from teaching and learning as a teacher-centred activity,t o a student-centredone. The varying facets of multiple intelligences help children t o understand differences i n individuals,and create the opportunity for individuals t o use their strengths t o work on weaknesses. This gives each learner an o experience success,and be motivated and creative. opportunity t
One approach that teachers could use i n teaching through the intelligences, is t o plan activities t o develop children s k i l li n particular disciplines, by r integrated units, or providing learning activities presenting new topics o through various intelligences.

Since the theory of multiple intelligences facilitates student-centred activities,children must be given the opportunity t o become involved i n the planning and execution of activities relevant t o individual strengths, and which endeavour t o use the strength i n one area t o develop competence i n others.

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LITERACY LEARNING USING

ALL INTELLIGENCES VERBALLINGUISTIC


Reading to students Individualstudent reading Choral reading Discussions/literaturecircles Journal keeping Creative writing Debates Telling stories Playing word games

LOGICAL I MATHEMATICAL
Outlining Problem solving Predicting Semantic maps Story maps Word webs Questioning Calculating

VISUAL/SPATIAL
Guided imagery Pattemddesign Paintingldrawing Mapping Visuals displays Transparencies Videos Designing

INTRAPERSONAL
Brainstorming i m e Wait t Metacognitive strategies Journal reflections Personal reactions t o stories Autobiographies Creative writing

BODY I KINESTHETIC
Role playing Creative Physical gestures

NATURALISTIC
Collection projects Working outdoors Field trips Growing plants Working with nature Nature walks Reading and creative writing on nature Exploring things Categorizing things

M i m e
Physically manipulating Cards,objects,bodies Every student response

INTERPERSONAL
Students giving feedback to others Sharing feelings Co-operativelearning techniques Partners share Partners collaborate Group projects Taking othersperspectives

MUSICAL I RHYTHMIC
Choral reading Composing and performing raps Composing original songs Composing songs to familiar tune Use of instruments,percussion Sound effects i n rhythm n rhythm Oral repetition i

50

Children engage i n the playing ofmusical instruments i n a school i n Uganda

Multiple Intellipences Inventory:

Teachers need t o develop a Multiple Intelligences Inventory t o determine the areas of strengths and weaknesses of children.This w i l l enable the use of strengths t o overcome weaknesses. Developing Multiple IntelligencesInventory:
Write ten questions pertinent t o each of the eight areas of multiple intelligences i nr e l a t i o nt o aspects as outlined i n the previous page.

Children respond t o each statement by inserting a check (4) i n the space t o which they agree.

Count and record the t o t a l number of check marks f o r each intelligence.The intelligence with the highest scores indicates the areas of greatest strength. The areas with the highest scores among the children reflect the areas of strength for the class. Activities should be planned, u t i l i z i n g these areas of strengths t o meet the needs i n the areas ofweaknesses.
Sample Statements for Linguistic Intellipence Inventory:

Books are very importantt o me. I enjoy word game l i k e scrabble. I enjoy rhymes,riddles and jokes. Words are i n my mind,before I read,speak o r write. I take notice of signs on the street more than other things. Il i k et ot a l k about things t h a t I have read o r heard. I benefit more by listening to the radio, or a cassette, than watching television o r a movie. I always volunteer t o do reading. I enjoy when I write,and people praise m y effort. Others l i k em et o write things f o r them.

Activity: 3 . 7

Read the sample statements f o r Linguistic IntelligenceInventory,and then develop ten ( 1 0 )statements f o r each oft h e intelligencest o compile an inventory appropriate f o r the grade level of your choice.
Teachers from Uganda engage i n rhythmical movements while singing a song which they composed during a session ofTraining of Trainers

UNIT 4
Facilitating Reading Comprehension

M a n y children continue t o experience problems i n comprehending texts, and t h i s affects their performances i n the various subject areas. In order t o obtain the appropriate message intended by the author of texts,the reader must know a variety of strategies,and be able t o apply them appropriately. The use of the strategy w i l l depend on whether the focus is t o gain information from the text,o r information from the readers prior knowledge, and i fthey are t o be used before,during,o r after reading.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
B yt h e end ofthe unit,you should be able to: i d e n t i f y the d i f f e r e n t strategies,and be able t o use them appropriately; state the metacognitive processes mentioned i n the reading,which can assist the reader i n comprehending the text; develop a plan f o r comprehending t e x t .

CONTENT
This u n i t includesthe following:
Topic 1: Topic 2 :

A Guide to Comprehending Text


Strategies t o Foster the Comprehension of Text

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Topic 1

A GUIDE TO COMPREHENDING TEXT


Researchers have found that competent readers are readers who actively construct meaning through an integrated process,i n which they i n t e r a c t with the words, integrating new information with pre-exiting knowledge structures.They are self motivated and self directed;they use metacognitive processes t o monitor t h e i r own comprehension by questioning,reviewing, revising and re-reading. e x t by noting p r i n t size, pictures and I n i t i a l l y the reader previews the t headings. A s reading begins,the following kinds of knowledge are used i n the processing ofthe information: + Knowledge of letters and sound correspondences. + Knowledge ofwords and word forms. + Knowledge of syntax - the grammatical structures of sentences + and their functions. + Knowledge ofmeanings and semantic relations.

The competent strategic reader follows a plan for many different kinds of texts.This e n t a i l sa c t i v i t i e s before,during and after reading.
Before reading, the reader engages in the following:

+ Previews the text by looking a t the title,the pictures,and t h ep r i n t t o evoke relevant thoughts and memories. + Builds background by activating appropriateprior knowledge through self-questioningabout what is known about the topic,the vocabulary,and the format ofpresentation. + Sets purposesfor reading by asking questions about what the reader wants t o know.
During reading, the reader engages in the following:

+ Checks understanding ofthe text by paraphrasing the authorswords. + Monitors comprehension by using context clues, to figure out new
words,and by imaging,imagining,inference,and predicting.
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+ Integrates new concepts with existing knowledge,continually reviewing


purposes f o r reading.
After reading, the reader engages in the following:
Summarizes what has been read by r e t e l l i n g the p l o t of the story, o r the

main idea ofthe text. Applies ideas i n the t e x tt o situations,broadening these ideas.

Activity 4 . 1 A Guide to Comprehending Text

1. Select an informational text, apply guidelines from Topic 1 t o do your reading,and then write a summary.

T o p i c 2. STRATEGIES TO FOSTER THE COMPREHENSION OF TEXT


T h e following categories of activities have proven t o be successful i n helping children develop comprehension abilities.
Categories:

+ + + + + + + +

Preparing f o r reading Developing vocabulary Understanding and using t e x t structure knowledge Questioning Informationprocessing Summarizing Note-taking Voluntaryhecreational reading.

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Preparing for Reading (suggested f o r early t o advanced learners)

r strategy i n which the teacher Thinking aloud:A metacognitive technique o verbalizes aloud, while reading a selection orally,thereby modelling the process of comprehension.
Preparing for Reading: The Pre-reading Plan

The teacher selects a word,phrase, or picture about a key concept i n the t e x t


o r topic. Next,the teacher i n i t i a t e s a discussion t o induce concept-related associations. Example: Topic Protecting Our Environment

Teacher: What comes t o mind when you hear the word environment? Responses are written on the chalkboard. Reflection Stage Teacher: Why do these ideas come t o mind? There is evidence that the social context of t h i sa c t i v i t yw i l l advance children understanding, expand or revise their knowledge through listening to,and interacting with peers. In the f i n a l stage children might be asked the following question: Teacher: Have you gained any new ideas about the environment?

Previewing

The teacher prepares preview of the t e x tt o motivate children by activating prior relevant experiences, builds background knowledge,and establishes framework consistent with the authorsmodel.
Anticipation Guide

Topic:Protecting our Environment Children w i l l predict the information which they believe w i l l be i n the text, and then they read the text, and compare their predictions with the information contained i n the t e x t . This active form of processing enhances the development of effective comprehension strategies.

56

Terms in Advance

W h e n w e use terms i n advance, w e give children five o rs i x terms from a story or nonfiction passage, and ask children t o use them t o construct a prediction as t o what the passage w i l l teach them.
Semantic WebbinP:

Understanding what children already know helps t o determine the focus of instruction. Semantic webbing helps children i n connecting and organizing n the meaning construction oftext. ideas i

A s pre-reading,or pre-writingactivity,the following steps can be used:


1. Write a topic on the chalkboard o r overhead transparency. Example:Tourism. 2. Children give words related t o the topic. Example: transportation,hotels,travel, land,sea, accommodation,resort, camera,entertainment. The words are recorded. n the centre,and various suggestions are 3. The topic Tourism is written i o reflect similar categories. connected by drawing lines t 4. Children read the t e x tt o refine webbing. o the web, and rearrange as Examples: A d d other words from the text t different words emerge. 5. Children incorporate words from the web t o create a review of the text. W e b is useful i n post-reading or writing activity t o organize the recall of o specific concepts. information by relating general t
o portray cause and effect, comparison / Semantic webbing is useful t contrast,events,characters,and settings. See illustration on page 34.
Text Structure

Various patterns of ideas are embedded i n the organization of t e x t .Examples are: description,narrative,story structure,cause/effect, comparisodcontrast, problem/solution,and sequence.

57

Story Circle to Aid Sequencing

Numbers enable children to develop the sequencing i n the proper direction. i l l record events outside of After reading the story,the teacher and children w the circle.

i l l illustrate appropriate events to the number of the pie-shaped Children w segments i n the Story Circle.

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Clue Words and Phrases t oA i d Comprehension ofText

t o begin with first secondly next then f i n a l l y most important a l s o i n fact f o r instances f o r example

on (date) not long after now as

before
after

when

however but as w e l l as on the other hand .. not only.. ..butalso either ...or while although unless similarly Yet

because since therefore consequently


as a r e s u l t

this led t o so that nevertheless accordingly i f ...then thus

C o m p a r e a n d Contrast:

Readers must make connections among people,facts and ideas as they read text. One way the connections can be made is t o compare and contrast information.In order t o compare,readers must note ways i n which people, facts and ideas are similar.In order t o contrast information,readers must observethe ways i n which people,facts and ideas are different.

The teacher can model the strategy by reading aloud the text t o model o comparing and contrasting.Show children how the diagram can be used t
note similarities and differences.
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Activity: The Compare-Contrast Overlay M a p

The computer and the human mind are very much alike.Both can store and recall information.However,the computer must be t o l d what t o do with the
information. The human mind can invent new and different ways t o use information.

information

recall

do with

Directed Readinp-ThinkinpActivity ( D R-TA)

(suggested f o re a r l yt o advanced learners) In the Directed reading-ThinkingActivity,the teacher follows essentially the same step as i n the Directed Listening-Thinking Activity above,with the difference that the children read individual copies ofthe t e x t .
Steps for the Direct Reading

- Thinking Activity:

Prepare the t e x t by marking four o rf i v e good stopping points.

1. Talk about the genre.Name the author.Show the cover picture,and read the title. Ask the children t o predict what the story w i l l be about. The teacher may write these predictions on the chalkboard. 2. Teacher tells the children t o read t o the first stopping point.
60

3. Teacher reviews the predictions,and asks which ones are coming true so far. Teacher asks them t o read aloud parts of the text that confirm o r contradictt h e i r predictions. 4.Teacher asks the children t o make more predictions, and presses f o r specific predictions.Teacher asks the children t o commit themselves t oa prediction before continuing the reading. 5. A f t e r proceeding t o the end,the teacher reviews the story,and asks the children what informationl e dt o the best predictions.

DR-TAChart: (suggested for intermediatet o advanced learners)


Shared writing can also be used i n connection with comprehension,and study exercises. One such exercise is the Directed Reading-Thinking o r engaging children i n reading Activity (Stauffer, 1970), a popular method f f i c t i o n a l texts f o r understanding. The Directed Reading-Thinking Activity can be plotted on a chart,such as the one found below. Divide the t e x t into three or four parts. Plan stopping points t of a l l at moments of suspense i n the story. O n the chalkboard or on chart paper, prepare a chart l i k e the one below.Explain t o the children t h a t they w i l l be reading the story,one b i ta tat i m e .Remind them t h a t it is important not t o read beyond the stopping points. They w i l l be making predictions,and reading t o confirm those predictions.

Ask the children to read the title of the story.Then ask for their prediction
about what w i l l happen i n the story. Write those predictions i n the space labelled What do you think w i l l happen? a f t e r the title. Ask the children h e i r reasonsunder Why? why they think so.Then enter t
o read on t o the next stopping point,and when they Now, ask the children t have reached it, they should go back and consider the prediction they made before,and say what actually happened.You should record t h e i r ideas i n the space called What d i d happen?

Then,the children should predict what they think w i l l happen i n the next block of text,and offer new predictions,with the evidence t h a t led t ot h e i r o be entered i n the spaces provided. Then they making that prediction t should read on,check t h e i r prediction against what did happen,make a new prediction, dictate evidence for that prediction,and read the last section.
61

Finally, they should check t h e i r last prediction against what actually happened i n the story,and dictate t h e i r findings about what happened,t o be recorded i n the space on the form.

Directed Reading-ThinkingActivity Chart


W h a t do you think w i l l happen? After reading the title After reading the first part After reading the second part After reading to the end W h y do you think so? W h a t did happen?

Direct Reading-Thinking Activity

1. Select a text, appropriate f o r Direct Reading-Thinking Activity, o r reading,then complete the DR-TA Chart. follow the procedure f

Questioning

Quest iodAnswer R e 1a tionship (OARS) QuestiodAnswer Relationship (QARs) was developed by Raphael i n 1984.An a c t i v i t y which has shown that children were capable of generating and answering questions which facilitate their comprehension,and lead t o an independent processing oft e x t . Procedure:

The teacher demonstrates the key elements of QARs,and then guides the
children t o engage i n the a c t i v i t y on t h e i r own.
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STATEGIES FOR GENERATING ANSWERS (suggested for early to advanced learners)

Thefirstquestion answering strategy,Right There is t o find the words used to formulate the question,and look a t the other words i n that sentence to find the answer.The answer i s within a single sentence. The second QAR strategy,Think And Search, involves a question that has an answer i n the text,but this answer requires r paragraph. information from more than one sentence o The third QAR strategy,O n M y Own,represents a question for which the answer must be found in the readersbackground knowledge, but would not make sense unless the reader had read the text. Thefourth QAR strategy,Writer And M e , is a slightly different n the readersown interpretative question.The answer might be found i background knowledge,but would be related to the reading ofthe text.

There

m
Search

Own

E l
Writer

Discussion W e b (suggested for intermediatet o advanced learners)

In a discussion web, the teacher thinks of an interpretive question that invites a binary (yes or no) answer. The teacher asks the children t o write the question in the middle of a chart. On the left hand side of the chart they write four blanks under the label yes and on the right hand side four blank spaces under the label no. The children,i n pairs, copy this chart for themselves.Then they list reasons t o support both a yes and a no answer. After a few minutes, they join another pair, and compile their reasons. Then they debate the issue through t o a conclusion.The teacher m a y call on foursomes t o share their answers.
A DISCUSSION W E B

I Agree (For these Reasons)


The youngest daughter should have stayed with the beast,even i fhe had remained ugly. Our Conclusion

I Disagree (For these Reasons)

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Information Processing (suggested f o r early t o advanced learners)

What W e Know, What W e W a n t To Find Out,What W e Learn And S t i l l Need To Learn (KWL). This strategy i s appropriate f o r informationalt e x t . The KWL procedure, developed by Ogle i n 1986 emphasizes the responsibility of the reader t o decide what i s known,and what needs t o be learned.It is intended t o activate,review,develop background knowledge, and t os e t useful aims and tasks that w i l l enable the student t o be an active and independent learner.

i l l activate prior knowledge t o record what they know I n i t i a l l y children w about the topic;then list what they want t o know;a f t e r reading they w i l l list what they have learnt.

A KWL Design

Summarizinp and Sequencing (suggested for intermediate t o advanced

learners)
o summarize apparently increases with age,but children i n the The a b i l i t yt middle and upper primary grades are able t o delete important information i n text,and t h i s gives practice i n sequencing.

Procedure: l o t The teacher introduces a story,the children read s i l e n t l yt o see how the p develops. The teacher guides the children t o develop story frame, and instructs the class i n writing one o r two sentence summaries for a small portion ofthe text.
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O n the second reading of the text, the children w i l l be assisted i n determining the most important ideas,and how t o combine these ideas and summarize on each page.

i l l code summaries,and cut summary statements,and mix them; Children w then they rearrange them i n sequence. Children can make their own summary s t r i p s from other texts.
Writing Summaries: 1. Look for the most important ideas t h a t help us t o know about the problem o r the solution. 2.State important ideas i n your own words. 3.Combine ideas i n t o one o r two sentences. 4. Delete anything that repeats information.
Reciprocal Teaching - (suggested f o r intermediate t o advanced learners)

Reciprocal teaching is a co-operative learning a c t i v i t y intended t o boost comprehension.In it, a group of four or five children read a t e x t together, and take turns being the teacher. After a section of the t e x t is read, one student: + summarizes what has j u s t been read; + asks two o r three good questions about the text; + clarifies details; + predicts what w i l l be said next.
Note-taking: (suggested f o r beginners t o advanced learners)

Think aloud:A metacognitive technique o r strategy i n which the teacher verbalizes aloud, while reading a selection orally,thereby modelling the process of comprehension. e x t is another form of noteThe recording of a group discussion about t o be effective during reading as a taking.Think aloudshave been found t means f o rf a c i l i t a t i n g recall, and during writing as a means f o r organizing written work.

65

UNIT 5
Strategies For Teaching Writing

writing activities promote thinking and learning,and because writing and o use writing t o reading are inter-related,children should be encouraged t r read.Through experience i n reading, respond t ol i t e r a t u r e which they hear o and practice i n writing,children learn spelling,punctuation,relationship of words t o picture,paragraph,and t e x t structure.

It is important t o plan writing activities across a l l areas of the curriculum.


Children must be given opportunities t o share t h e i r writing, and t o use writing t o communicate with others.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
B y the end ofthe unit,you should be able to: identify strategies which are appropriate f o r encouraging writing i n the primary grades; select the appropriate strategy t o satisfy specific need; integratewriting and reading i n the classroom.

CONTENT
This unit includes the following:
Topic 1 : Strategies f o r Teaching Writing
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T o p i c 1. STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING WRITING


Journal Writing (suggested f o r beginners t o advanced learners)

Children can create o r record events, personal activities, o r feelings about experiences on a regular basis. The recorded events can take the form of a story line,but the writing must be based on time and sequence. A variation on individualjournal o r diary writing could be a class recordkeeping effort on a project, examples: The Life Cycle of the Butterfly, Preparing for Sports Day Teacher can read and discuss with the class - The Diary of a Rabbit, by L i l o Hess, 1992, o r create one for the class. Teacher provides the children with materials t o make their own journals.A t a designated time each day, the teacher should encourage the children t o record i n their journals.Invite them t o write about something they learnt i n school, o r any item of news. Children w i l l share their writing with each other,and the teacher.
Story Circle - (suggested for beginners t o advanced learners) Numbers enable children t o develop the sequencing i n the proper direction. i l l record events outside of After reading the story,the teacher and children w the circle. Children w i l l illustrate appropriate events t o the number of the pie-shaped n the Story Circle. segments i Story Circle

67

Observing the use ofthe story Circle from teaching aids developed by teachers during the training oftrainers i n Uganda

Story M a p

Stories often have common structures.The teacher can show the children a story map before they read o r hear a story.The story map has the following parts: S t o n Mar, With Pictorial Guide + Setting AmroRriate for Grade 1 Children T i m e Place Character Setting + Characters + Problem TITLE Main Events + MainEvents + Climax + Conclusion

A s the children read or hear the story,they can be asked t o identify parts of the story with items from the map.A f t e r the reading,they can check i f their
attributions are correct.Children can also use story maps t o construct their o w n stories,thereby reinforcing the reading and writing connection.

Acrostics (suggested for beginners t o advanced learners)

These are probably the simplest form of poems t o use. The children write their names i n capital letters, vertically down the left side of a page. The children then go back and complete a word that begins with each letter r a short which describes the individual.Each line can be a word, phrase, o sentence.

+ + + +

Gentle i n her ways Ever listening for praise Never frowns for anything Always helping t o sing.

Cinquains (suggested for advanced learners)

i n e has a mandatory Cinquains are poems consisting of five lines,and each l purpose and number of syllables: 1. The t i t l ei n two syllables. 2. A description of the title i n four syllables. 3. A description of action i n six syllables. 4.A description of feeling i n eight syllables. 5. Another word for the title i n two syllables.

Flowers Graceful growing Sprouting among the weeds Gently awaiting the sunshine Alive Variation: The first line names the topic. The next l i n e tells the action,and the third line has action words ending i n ing. The fourth line is feeling i f t hl i n e is a one word words, which may be written as a phrase, and the f which also could have been the title,a synonym for the name i n the first line.

69

Diamante (suggested f o r advanced learners)

A diamante is a continuation of a cinquain,i n the form of a diamond. A


diamante is used when two things o r characters are being compared,o r when one has changed. Diamante poems consist of seven lines that follow the following pattern: seed small buried growing breathing living producing plenty planting material dying r o t t i n g crumbling moist r i c h s o i l

A diamante begins with one line that names the topic,followed by a twoword l i n e of describing words, and a three-wordl i n e of action (-in& words. Then come two more words describing the first topic, followed by two describing the second topic.N o w come three action (-ing)words related t o the second topic,two words t h a t describe it, and one word that names it.
Expository Writing (suggested f o r advanced learners)

This genre includes writing t h a t describes o r explains.Young writers can be helped t o write expository works by focused lessons that share good examples from l i t e r a t u r e ,and encourage their imitation.
Writers are also helped t o write descriptive and explanatory prose and graphic organizers. There are several graphic organizers that are popular with children,from second grade and higher.

The Writinp Workshop (suggested f o r beginners t o advanced learners)


Writing workshop is a guided a c t i v i t yi n which children are encouraged t o choose their own topics,write them out, share them with an audience,and rewrite them t o make them clearer and more correct.In writing workshop, the emphasis is on process rather than product. Writing is taught as a studio craft, and writing tasks are made real as possible,with emphasis on the writers own topics and purposes,and real audiences
70

The w r i t i n g workshop teaches children a writing process, which consists of these stages:
Rehearsing: This is the act of gathering information and collecting o us on a topic,and begin t o plan a thoughts.W e survey the ideas available t o write about the topic.Approaches used a t this stage include: way t

+ + + + +

Brainstorming Clusters Interviews Journals Alternative leads

Drafting: This is the act of setting ideas out on paper. Drafting is tentative and experimental.W e write down our ideas,so w e can see what w e have t o say about the topic. Once written,w e can make them clearer. Drafting is no time t o be critical about our ideas,their form,or spelling and handwriting. The time for that w i l l come later. Most young writers do not have the habit of writing more than one version of a paper. Proficient writers do. Writing is rewriting.A t this stage,the activities include:

+ + + +

Writing quickly Free writing Writing on every other line Writing that is free from worry about conventions.

Revising: Revising is rewriting parts of a piece t o make it communicate n two stages.First,w e m a y more effectively. Revising may be approached i want t o see what w e had t o say, and decide how it can be said better. Second,w e are concerned that our ideas are clear,and are presented i n the tt h i s phase ofwriting,we: right form.A

+ Share with listeners - cultivate an awareness of audience + Look for the message,and ways t o say it more elegantly + Usually involve mini-lessonst o teach traits of good writing + Use conventions of adding and subtracting and moving.
Editing: Editing is the next-to-laststage, before a paper is published. Editing is done last, because paragraphs or pages m a y have t o be cut or
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added.A f t e r the piece is i nf i n a l form,but before it is widely shared,is the time for editing. The editing habit must be taught, and consists of three points: 1. Caring that the paper be correct. 2. Being aware of errors. 3. Knowing how t o correct them.

The editing phase focuses on:

+ + + +

Refining spelling,punctuation,grammar,handwriting Using peer editors Using checklist of e r r o r st o avoid (these are pre-taught) Using mini-lessonst o help children understand errors,and how t o avoid them.

Publishing: This is the f i n a l stage. of the writing process.The prospect of sharing with an audience makes many children write, rewrite, smooth and

refine, especially i f they have seen other children work received with appreciation. Publishing enables children too see what others are doing. Publishing involves:

+ Sharing with a real audience. + Preparing the audience t o give specific responses,not broad judgment. + Many ways t o publish - authors chair,newsletter,on the wall,hung from the ceiling.
Mini-lessons are an important part of a writing workshop. They usually include these steps:

1. Present a work for review (might be a good sample of literature,o ra piece written with one feature i nd i s a r r a y ) . 2. Discuss the trait t h a t it exhibits,and clearly name the t r a i t . 3. Give clear directions f o r incorporating t h a t trait i n a piece ofwriting. 4. Provide practice i n writing f o r the t r a i t . 5. Give immediatefeedback. 6. Write up a reminder of the lesson,and post it on a chart.Add it t o the o a revising of editing checklist. childrenwriting folders,o r add it t
The I-SearchPaper
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One popular kind of research project that highlights the process of research, and stresses children personal connection t o the topic is the I-Search Paper, described by Ken MacCrorie i n 1988. The I-Search paper is developed i ns i x stages:

The children formulate questions about the topic.A f t e r they have been immersed i n a topic,the children are helped t o search their knowledge and curiosity,and formulate a researchable question.
The children make a research plan. The plan might incorporate several kinds of sources,including not only books and magazines,but interviews, surveys,and internet-basedsearches.

The children gather and record information. Children should be given l l of the ways they may do the research: ways of finding instruction i na resources i n the library,procedures f o r arranging and conducting interviews, and standards f o r discriminating between different sources on the internet. They should also be taught note-taking and outlining s k i l l s ,as necessary. o use graphic organizers as a way of visualizing t h e i r They may be taught t information before writing it up.
The children write theirpaper.The paper should be formatted t o the outline given below.
The children present their paper. The children present the written papers, and may also give o r a l presentations o r poster sessions on the papers.

The paper is evaluated.The evaluation of the paper is accounted according t o criteria i nt h a t they are tied t o the process and form ofpaper,and t h a t they are communicated i n advance.
Five components ofthe I-Searchinvestigativepaper: 1. Questions:

In t h i s section,children w i l l describe what they already knew about this question when they began t h e i r search,and why they cared about o r were interested i nt h i s question.
2. The Search Process:
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In t h i s section,children w i l l describe the sequence of steps i n the search. For example, children w i l l describe what sources they began with, and how these led t o further sources. Children w i l l describe problems o r breakthroughs i nt h e i r search,t e l l i n g when they r e a l l y got interesting. Children can also tell how t h e i r questions changed o r expanded as a r e s u l t of the search process,and they should acknowledge the help they received from others i n obtaining valuable sources.

3. What was Learned:


Here, children w i l l focus on three o r four major findings o r conclusions, r arguments t h a tw i l l help the and support them with examples, stories,o reader understand how they arrived a t those conclusions.They w i l lt r yt o connect their findings with their original questions. They might also suggest further questions t o explore i n the future.Children should include any analyses they did - cause and effect, pros/cons, compare and contrast,o r sequencing.

4. Lessons for the Writer:


This section w i l l give children a chance t o describe how they have i l l answer the question:What do you developed as a researcher. They w know about searching f o r information t h a t you didnt know before? To answer t h i s question,children w i l l describe those findings t h a t meant the most t o them.They might a l s o discuss how their newly found knowledge w i l l affect the way they act o r think i n the future.Finally,children may a l k about the s k i l l s they have developed as a researcher and want t ot writer.

5. References:

i l l contain a l l oft h e i r references. This section w

Co-operative LearninP Stratepies Reciprocal Teachiup:


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Reciprocal teaching is a co-operative learning a c t i v i t y intended t o boost n it, a group of four t o five children read a t e x t together, comprehension.I and take turns being the teacher.After a section is read,one student: ( a ) summarizes what hasjust been read; ( b ) a s k s two o r three good questions about it; ( c ) clarifies details; ( d ) p r e d i c t s what w i l l be said next.
Value Line

The Value Line is a co-operativelearning a c t i v i t yt h a t is recommended f o r evoking childrenopinions on issues t o which there can be varied responses, t h a t is, degrees ofagreement and disagreements.It proceeds as follows: The teacher poses a question on which answers may vary along a continuum. Each student considersthe question alone,and may write t h e i r answers. The teacher and another student stand a t opposite ends of the room.Each states an extreme position on the issue, and their two statements are diametrically opposed t o each other. The children l i n e up between the two extreme positions, i n an order t h a t reflects t h e i r position on the question.To do so,they must discuss with other children i n the l i n et h e i r responsest o the question. Children may continue t o discuss t h e i r responses with the children on e i t h e r side ofthem. A s an option,the formed l i n e may be folded i n the middle, so t h a t children with more divergent views may discuss t h e i r responses.

o r Teaching Writing Activity 5.1 Strategies f

1. Look a t the text The I-SearchPaper,then choose an appropriate o reading the text.Follow reading strategy,and apply the process t the format f o r writing the I-SearchPaper,and then write it. 2. In the class undertake a Value Line learning activity.

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UNIT6
Assessment of Literacy Learning

If children i n the primary grades are t o achieve l i t e r a c y learning,the process n order t o better understand the strengths and weaknesses of gathering data i n t o the classroom decision-making.Also, of children,must be integrated i teachers must become more adept i n carrying out the process,and u t i l i z i n g information gathered,t o modify instruction where necessary.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
B y the end of the unit,you should be able to: identify the different kinds of classroom-based assessment f o rl i t e r a c y learning i n the primary grades; develop reading inventories, and checklists, appropriate for specific grades i n the primary school; be aware that some aspects of the assessment process should be on-going t of a c i l i t a t e knowledge ofthe development of childrenprogress.

CONTENT
This u n i t includes the following:
Topic 1:

Classroom Based Assessment

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T o p i c 1. CLASSROOM BASED ASSESSMENT


Teachers w i l l need t o be aware that assessment procedures should be based on identified goals, the programme established f o r literacy learning, including the integration i n other areas of the curriculum, and student assessment of themselves. Some aspects of assessment procedures must be on-going, as on-off measures w i l l not facilitate knowledge of the development ofchildrenprogress. Classroom based assessment f o rl i t e r a c y learning includesthe following: 4 Observations 4 Questioning and interviewing 4 Sampling student work through portfolios 4 Listening t oo r a l reading tapes 4 Utilizing surveys,inventories and checklists 4 Selfassessment by children - Learning Logs. 4 Teacher-devisedTests
Observations

Observation for assessment purposes involves more than examining classroom behaviour. Actions and speech on the playing field, and lunchtime,can produce useh1 information. During classroom observations,teachers look for answers t o specific questions,note many attributes of individual working styles, and observe s children work i n the what children can do individually and collectively.A various contexts ofthe classroom,teachers gain insight i n t o their knowledge and strategies. Teachers cannot document a l l observations,but noting some can f a c i l i t a t e reflection, and the sharing of information with children, parents, the principal,and the grade teacher. Some of these involve examples of documentation such as: use of a checklist with appropriate statements as a guide t o the observation of childrens o school, l i b r a r y selection strategies,observe the kinds of objects they bring t
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observe a log of daily a c t i v i t i e s ,and l i s t e nt o conversations regarding current a f f a i r s . Literacy Conference Observation Record StudentsName:

Date

Action Action SelfDirected Action During Speaking During Writing During Reading Uses ofLiteracy

Some of these activities include the children i n keeping records,and some are administered by the teacher. The range of assessment activities w i l l vary according t o grade level,and the accomplishments ofthe children i n literacy,and the needs ofthe teachers f o r accountability.The outcome of these activities are ideal t o be included i na portfolio. h a t should be assessed are: Two areas ofyoung childrenreading t 1) Strategies for identifying words. 2 ) Strategies for making sense of what they read. Running records are useful f o r this purpose. Example: 1. Select and type a challenging book from a set of graded ones within the studentsrange,but unfamiliar t o the student. 2. While the student is reading,the teacher marks omissions,substitution, repeated words, prompts o r assistance given t o provide insight into the processing ofthe t e x t . 3. Teacher asks questions about the story,o r guides the children through reflection about the story t o assess comprehension.
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Analysis of miscues from the text provides insight into students knowledge ofphonics,context and semantics.Running records administered periodically can provide knowledge of childrensreading development and guidance for interventionwhere necessary. Additional Assessment of Comprehension should include the following: Story retelling orally, illustrated or by completing story map, t o determine parts of the story they attended to,t h e i r perceptions of links between character and plot,and knowledge of story structure. n invented Journal Writing. Daily journal writing documents growth i spelling and expressive s k i l l s . Record of books read and a brief review of each book, t o ascertain childrensinterest. Assessment of Writing. Example: Samples of writing by a l l children on the same topics. Assessing collection of written work selected by o determine the use ofp r i n tf o r communication, children from portfolios t spelling,punctuation and vocabulary. Self Evaluation Record: Self evaluation records reflect childrens thoughts about themselves as readers.
Assessinp Writinp:

Maurices Writing below indicates that he is aware of letters ofthe alphabet. However,the random use of the letters indicates that he is not yet able t o apply alphabet principle i nh i s writing. The teacher can ask questions t o v e r i f y the teachersfindings from the writing sample.

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Kimmones Writing

Kimmone uses basic punctuation and capitalization. She displays mastery of the spelling of words, t o the sequence of letters, and t o the sequence of sounds i n the spoken word. The spelling of brout f o r brought is evidence of spelling t o sound.Spelling meat f o r meet indicates the need t o practice the correct use ofboth words.

Assessinp Listeninp Comprehension in Grade 1 :

A shared reading activity is ideal to assess students listening o retell the story i n sequence.This comprehension.Children might be asked t could be tape recorded, and analyzed t o ascertain knowledge about the
Story Map. Example:Characters,setting,t i m e , main events,climax.

Other activities could include the following: The children can be asked t o describe one character,o r tell where the story
took place. Following Read Alouds, the children could i l l u s t r a t e the story, and the l l u s t r a t i o n . teacher asks questions about the i
Samplinp Student W o r k Throuph Portfolios

Performance based assessments of reading use written samples, such as summaries of what has been read,l i t e r a t u r e logs,o r journals.Using writing t o assess reading reflects the recognition of reading and writing as being interdependent.

Samples of childrenswork of a l l kinds complement teachersobservations, and provide a guide t o the developmental stages of the learner. Samples o f f e r concrete evidence of what children are doing and thinking.Analysis of o determine the new challenges f o r each learner, the samples helps teachers t as w e l l as guiding the teachersinstruction.
Questioning and Interviewing

Questioning and interviewing involve teacherlstudent interaction i n the classroom.Questioning denotes the interaction between teacher and children which occurs i n the classroom,while interviewing implies more structured interactions.

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UNIT 7
Classroom and H o m e m a d e Materials and Activities to Encourage Reading

T h e process of teaching reading requires a variety of materials based on the understanding of how children acquire literacy.Developing teaching aids a t home and at school provides opportunities for children t o learn while they are helping t o create. This is an inexpensive way of providing materials which are appropriate f o r the teaching - learning process.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
B y the end ofthe unit,you should be able to: Produce a variety of teaching aids,appropriate f o r use i n the classroom, o ri n the home. Think of other innovative ways of producing similar teaching aids, compile these,and share with the group. Develop a c t i v i t i e st o support the teaching aids which are your own innovation.

CONTENT
This unit provides examples of teaching aids which can be made by teachers,parents,and childrent o encourage and accelerate l i t e r a c y learning.
Topic 1: Topic 2: Topic 3: Topic 4 :

Making Alphabet Books Making a Panorama Movie Screen M y Senses


83

Topic 1.

MAKING ALPHABET BOOKS


Materials: 13 sheets of plain paper, 8x11,o r brown wrapping paper cut t o the same size. Pictures from magazines or drawings depicting familiar objects. Glue, o Zcut from construction paper scissors,s e t of l e t t e r s ofthe alphabet,A t o r shoeboxes,and marker. Method:

1. Fold each sheet ofpaper i n half,so thatthe short edges a r e together. 2. Make a crease along the fold. 3. Unfold each sheet. 4 . Stack them together,and staple along the centre fold. 5. Paste each l e t t e r of the alphabet a t the top ofthe page beginning with the l e t t e r A. . 6. Cut pictures from magazines,o r draw objects representing each l e t t e r of the alphabet,and paste on the appropriate page.
Allow the children t o help. The name of each object can be written on each page. Note: Design can be varied t o represent f l i p charts,big books,chalkboard, borders,and wall borders. Alphabet books can be made based on themes: Examples:Animals,food,f r u i t s ,vegetables. I n addition,a c t i v i t i e s can be developed t o include the names of family members o r children i n the class. Examples:Picture- Sample ofFood W e Eat.

84

Topic 2 .

PANORAMA
Practical activities,or wordless stories,illustrated scenes,and pictorials can o encourage oral discussion, writing and be portrayed on a panorama t reading among young children.
E x a m p l e 1: Observing seeds grow.

Materials: 3 empty vegetable o r milk cans, soil,bean, corn or peas, and water. Method: Children can help t o plant each grain i n a can,water and watch the growth,and draw changes from the stage of germination.
Illustrations can be transferred t o panorama.

Example 2 : Observing the stages of the butterfly's life cycle.

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Makinp a Panorama:

r carton boxes Materials: Long strips of cardboard o Brown wrapping paper o r shelving paper Ruler,pencil,paste or staples. Masking tape. Method: 1. Cut long pieces of cardboard,8 inches wide. 2. Different lengths may be tapedtogether t o form a long strip i n multiples of 1 linches depending on the length of pictorial display. Example: 44inches,55inches,88inches3.

8 .

i
3. Paste or staple brown paper o r shelving paper t o one side of the cardboard. 4. Bind edges with masking tape,i f desired. 5. Starting a t the left,measure and mark 11 spaces,top and bottom. 6.Fold the first 11 space inwards t o the right. 7.Continue folding cardboard matching dots at the top, and the bottom to look like the diagram below.

About 21.6cm

About 28 cm
112 cm. 140 cm,224 cm
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The length of cardboard is ready t o illustrate scenes from stories,o r various other sources. These can be placed on a table for discussion,o r display.They can be folded flat when they are not i n use.

Following the reading of a story, children can recall scenes which were visualized,and the scenes can be illustrated on a panorama.
Variation: Stories told by the children can be depicted with words accompanying the illustrations.

Topic 3 . MOVIE SCREEN:

A roll movie screen encourages the display of childrens writing, and


illustrated stories for viewing. Materials: Cardboard box, 18 high, and 14 wide, scissors or sharp knife, 2 wooden rollers,20 long and about 1- i n diameter,paint for outside ofthe box,o r use plain paper t o cover the outside. Brown wrapping paper or white shelving paper.

Method - How t o make a movie screen:

1. Cut offthe flaps ofthe cardboard box. 2. Paint the outside ofthe box,or cover with paper. 3. Cut a rectangular piece from the bottom of the box; leave a border of about 2on a l l sides. 4. Cut 2 holes on both sides of the box, near t o the screen area t oi n s e r t rollers.These should be evenly spaced. 5. Insert the wooden rollers i n t o the box. 6. Cut pieces of the brown wrapping paper, newsprint or shelving paper t o fit the area cut from the box.
87

7.Encourage the children t o draw pictures illustrating story told, or imagined,o r experienced,and write a description on each i l l u s t r a t i o n . 8. Help the children t o use paste t o connect each i l l u s t r a t i o nt o depict the
s t o r y from beginning t o end. 9. Tape the beginning ofthe s t o r yt o the r i g h tr o l l e r . 1O.Rollthe pictures unto the r o l l e r ,and tape the end ofthe paper t o the r o l l e r a t the left. 11.Helpthe children t or o l l the paper t o the beginning of the i l l u s t r a t i o n ,and encourage the children t o read, or tell the story while rolling the i l l u s t r a t i o nt o match the description.

A Movie Screen

Topic 4 . M Y SENSES:
cut from magazines, o r draw pictures of children engaged i n activities depicting the senses.Make five ( 5 ) books, each having s i x( 6 )pages. See directions on page 83. Examples: Looking through a pair of binoculars Smelling a rose. Tasting a lollipop. Listening t o the radio with a pair ofheadset speakers. Touching a cat.
88

~~~~

Write the t i t l e ofthe book on the cover: My Senses Paste the pictures on the outside ofthe cover. Cut from magazines, or draw a picture depicting the activity of each sense organ on the pages of the book,where possible. Write the name of the sense organ, where possible, then write the sentence below on the appropriatepage:

I can see. I can touch. I can taste. I can hear. I can smell.
G a m e of the Senses:

Example: A child is directed t o use the action word related t o the senses, beginning with the word I, and another child w i l l think ofthe word t o complete the sentence:

I see a

Poem: Hearing, Seeing, Smelling, Tastinp, Touchinp:

With m y ears,I can hear


Different sounds everywhere. With m y eyes,I can see Many leaves on the tree. With m y nose,I can smell, That I can do very well. With m y tongue,I can taste Different foods i n a haste. With m y fingers,I want t o touch The beautiful rainbow,very much.

89

I Smell With M

Nose:

Cut pictures from magazines,o r draw a picture of a child engaged i n an a c t i v i t y depicting smelling. Select one ofthe books i n which you w i l l paste pictures. Paste the picture on the outside of the cover,and write the t i t l e : I Smell With M y Nose Cut pictures from magazines or newspaper,or draw pictures ofthings i n the home which people smell.

IA c t i v i t y : Example:

1. Collect smalljars with covers. 2. Remove covers,and punch a few holes i n each cover. 3. Put a piece of cotton i n eachj a r . 4.Pour harmless liquid with distinctivesmell i n eachjar. 5. Replace the cover on eachjar. 6. Ask individual child t o smell each t i g h t l y coveredjar,and identify the smell.

E 3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : a : : : : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Write the words of the poem below on cartridge paper,read it through once o r twice.Then read and pause before the l a s t word i n each line,prompting the children t o complete the line.Encourage the children t o read along with the teacher. Poem:

I smellwith my nose
The pleasant scent of a rose. I smell when mother bakes The nice puddings and cakes.

90

Parents and children can collect pictures of different objects,and paste these on cardboard t o use as picture cards. Write the name of each picture card on the back ofthe cardboard. Write the name of each picture card on a card. Place the picture cards i n a box ,and allow the children t o play t o select and play - The Sense G a m e o f : I can Smell,I See,I can r I can Touch. Taste,I Hear, o

Game: I Smell
Student: Group: Student: Student: Group: Group:
o r the others t o see) says: (Holding a picture card f I can smell. What can you smell? I can smell.. .......(student tells the name of the object.) Am I right? Yes, you are right (If the answer is correct.) Try again (Child chooses another picture,i f the answer i s incorrect.)

I Can Hear With M

y Ears:

Select one of the books made for activities on the senses. Write the following on the outside of the cover: I Can Hear With M y Ears Paste a picture of,o r draw an ear below the title.

In the book,paste pictures ofthings that make sounds you can hear.The children can identi@ each article.

91

A c t i v i t y :

Record d i f f e r e n t sounds,and allow individual studentst o identifLthe sound by displaying the corresponding picture i n the book. Example: Tape the sound o f : horn,r a i n falling,bell ringing.

Game: I H e a r

Other:
Child:

Other: Child:
Child:

Other:
Other:

Plays a sound t h a t was taped. I hear a sound. What sound do you hear? I hear the sound of a ..........(Studenttells the sound) Am I right? Yes, you are right.(Ifthe answer is correct) Tryagain.(Ifthe response is incorrect.)

I See With M v Eves:


Select one of the books you have made. Write the following title on the outside of the

cover:

I See With M y Eyes


Paste a picture of both eyes below the title. Write t h i sa c t i v i t y rhyme on the first page: Close your eyes Open your eyes Count t o three Name things you see.
Game:

Teacher,Parent,Friend,o r Class can repeat the rhyme,and one child w i l l carry out the action ofthe rhyme.
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G a m e : ISee:

Child: Other: Child: Other: Other:


Activitv:

Looking a t a picture i n the book says, I see. What do you see? I see a ... . . ( Student tells the name ofthe object) Yes, you are right(If the answer is correct.) T r y again. (If the answer is incorrect)

Teacher o r parent can label items i n the classroom or the home, and ask children t o identifjby playing the game: I See. Variation: Take child / children outdoors,and engage i n the activity rhyme, o r any ofthe games.

M a tchinp:

Write the same sentence abo it the sense on t7 cartridge paper,o r cardboard. Example:

7 0

strips of brown paper,

I see with m y eyes.

Cut each word from one strip.


Child can match each word t o the sentence.

see

with

my

eyes.
L

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Taste: I Use M y Tongue to Taste:


0
I -

Select one ofthe books you have made,and write the title on the front ofthe cover: I Use M y Tongue t o Taste. Write the poem below on the first page of the book:
Poem: I Use M y Tongue t o Taste

Some f i u i t s are sweet But,a lemon is sour. Ice-cream, I eat But,not a flower.

A c t i v i t y 1:
Paste pictures of people eating different kinds of food on each page of the book. Read poem t o the children twice,then ask them t o read with you. Make sandwiches,without the help of the children,using different things i l l i n g :peanut butter,cheese,o r jam. f o r the f

A c t i v i t y 2:
Teacher o r parent w i l l engage the children i n the following a c t i v i t y : Teacher o r Parent:
0 0 0

Close your eyes.Put you r i g h t hand i n front ofyou. Take a sandwich from the plate t h a t is close t o your r i g h t hand. E a t the sandwich,then tell what f i l l i n g was used t o make the sandwich. One child can show a picture i n the book,and others can describe the taste ofthe food. h a t are sweet, others that are sour, Children can name the things t and those that are neither sweet nor sour.

Child:
0

I Can Touch With M v Fingers:


0

Select one ofthe books i n which you w i l l paste pictures. Collect o r draw pictures depicting the title. Write the title on the outside ofthe f r o n t cover: I Can Touch With M y Fingers Paste a picture depicting the t i t l e on the front. Paste other pictures on the pages ofthe book. Encourage the children t ot a l k about the pictures, describing how the article would feel when it is touched.

A c t i v i t y :
Collect items of different texture. Examples: piece of dried sponge,a ball, an orange,a piece of clothe,a stone,and a pencil. Place these items i n an opaque plastic bag,a brown paper bag,or laundry bag. Gather the top ofthe bag i n your hand,from the left comer t o the right, o r a childshand t o go through. leaving space f Teacher then asks f o r a volunteer t o play the game. Teacher: Child: Teacher: Child: Teacher:
Putyour r i g h t( o r left) hand i n the bag. Feel the first thing you touch,and say what it is. It is a.............. Take it from the bag,and show the other children. AmI right? Now,put it out of sight.
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Other books of i n t e r e s tt o young readers can be created and used as Home Books,or add t o the l i b r a r y collection.

Matchin2 Activities For Young Children:


A c t i v i t y 1:
Write 2 sets of labels,naming objects i n the home o r classroom.
95

Place one label on the object. Place other labels i n a shoebox. Ask a child t o find the label f o r the object you name,and match them. Children can take turns i n playing the matching game.

A c t i v i t y2 :

Write the first name of each child on a strip of cardboard o r paper i n the presence ofthe child. Name each letter as you write it. Then,pointing t o the name,say:That is your name. Give the child a bag with similar letters, and ask him/her t o match the letters t o the name.

Rebus Stories:
Activities involving art foster motivation and variation, and provide opportunities f o r children t o explore t h e i r artistic and creative abilities.

Using Rebus Stories,provide beginning readers with practice i n reading high frequency words,and t h ea b i l i t yt o choose and i l l u s t r a t e the content words i n a story. Also enable children t o see how the words support ideas and concepts users wish t o convey.
A c t i v i t y :

1. Write a rebus story using words from high frequency word list, and leave s u f f i c i e n t space f o r practice ofnouns i n the story. 2. Allow children t o write the story and draw what they desire i n the blank spaces. 3. Each child w i l l read the story t o classmates. 4.Compile a book of childrensRebus Stories for class library, o r home collection. A Rebus Story:

The .................... is shining. I want t o go and play with m y ................... May I go .................?

SugIeestions For Charts:


96

The charts described below can be prepared and used purposefully i n the
classroom. Children can read the chart below,and e d i tt h e i r writing on t h e i r own.
Chart for Editing Y o u r Writing:

Read your writing. Ask yourselfthe question:Does it make sense? Check f o r the correct spelling ofevery word. The first word,and every proper noun must begin with a c a p i t a l letter. Every sentence must end with a period,o r f u l l stop( . ) . Ask a classmate t o read what you wrote,and tell what it is about.
Chart for Recording the Date:

The following chart is designed f o r recording the date on a daily basis, by selecting and inserting s t r i p s from the pocket chart i n t o the appropriate space daily.

TODAY

Dav
T o d a y i s : F ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

/zjqm, p,
Month
Date

Year

. . .
.

. .

. .

. . .. ........

.. ... .......... . . . . . . . . .

. . . . , ......

. . . .

. .

. . . . . .

There are 20 Boys, and 24

I I 0
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Girls i n our class today.

Example of a Pocket Chart:

To keep s t r i p s required f o r the Today Chart.

Wednesday

April

22

19

27

Numbers

Days of the W e e k

Months of the Year

II
Girls

1-31
!

Boys

Makinp a Class L i s t :

Write the names of a l l the boys i n the class,i n alphabetic order, on a sheet ofcartridge paper. D o the same for the g i r l s ,and place the l i s t i n gi n the classroom,where a l l can see.

A Guide To Writinp For Publication:


Steps to follow:
- Gather information, and plan a way t o write about the topic. Rehearsing:

Drafting;: Revising:

Quickly write down ideas about the topic. Rewrite,making sure that ideas are clear,and presented i n the r i g h t form. Read,observe,and correct errors.

Editing:

Sharing with others. Publishing:

Write a Thoupht for Each Day:


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Children could help to create these,based on selected themes. Example: Positive Attitude Towards Reading,Peace, Love.

Todays Thought:
W h e n you are young Learn a l l that you can Or,you w i l l be sorry When you are a man.

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UNIT8
Classroom Environment for Literacy Learning
RATIONALE
social and physical factors are important for creating an appropriate environment f o r success i nl i t e r a c y acquisition and development.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
B y the end of the unit,you should be able to: identify factors which are important f o r creating a suitable environment f o r success i nl i t e r a c y acquisition and development; determine the purpose of establishing a l i b r a r yi n the classroom; i d e n t i & the kinds of materials you would include i nt h e classroom l i b r a r y f o r beginning readers; develop teacher-made materials appropriate for use by the children of your grade; relate a folk-taleyou would record f o r use by your children i n the listening centre;

CONTENT
This unit includesthe following:
Topic 1: Topic 2 : Topic 3 : Topic 4 : Topic 5: Topic 6 :

Classroom Environment School Library Classroom Library Materia 1s Equipment Accommodation,Furnishing and Lighting Equipment
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T o p i c1 . CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT
T h e classroom environment is of utmost importance t o motivate children, and t o encourage and accelerate their progress i n reading. It should be an environment that provides opportunities for the integration of literacy with other areas of the curriculum, and with a l l aspects of the language arts, namely: reading,writing,listening, speaking and viewing. Both social and physical factors are important for creating an appropriate environment for success i n literacy acquisition and development. The appropriate physical arrangement of furniture,material selection,and the attractive, informative appearance of the classroom offer a setting that o teaching and learning. Therefore, the classroom library, contributes t appropriate materials and equipment, adequate accommodation, furnishing and lighting are important i n enhancing literacy acquisition and development.

Activity 8 . 1 : Classroom Environment

1. Discuss how the social and physical factors of the classroom environment can affect literacy acquisition and development.

T o p i c2 . SCHOOL LIBRARY
T h e school library is a room on the school compound where books, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, cassettes, videos, tape recorders, computer programmes, CD-ROMrecords, and other media are kept and made available for daily use. The library is an essential component of educational process, and the books and other materials serve t o promote learning with emphasis on reading among students and members of staff. Chairs and tables should be provided t o accommodate different activities.
101

If a room is not available for use as school library,the traveling bookmobile


service should be i n s t i t u t e d .

Reading is a process which develops and improves with frequent practice.If students are t o become independent,knowledgeable thinkers,t h e i r reading habits must be fostered by a variety of reading materials which are readily available.It gives readers the opportunity t o make t h e i r own selection based on levels,needs and i n t e r e s t s .Additionally,a l i b r a r y which is equipped with a variety of materials including prints, non-print,electronic media and network access helps t o support the quality of instruction i na l l areas of the curriculum including the area of literacy.

If the school library is t o serve the purposes intended,then its contents f o r


reading should include materials t o satis@ the needs and i n t e r e s t s of readers of different levels.The stock must include materials which are appropriate t o entourage reading f o r pleasure,and f o r information including research.Also t o engage i na c t i v i t i e s using materials t o foster listening,speaking reading, writing and viewing i n various areas of the curriculum. Efforts should be made t o encourage borrowing,and caring,and t o prompt the return ofbooks. The administration of the l i b r a r y can be arranged by assigning a teacher t o undergo a brief period oftraining t o operate a school library. In order t o establish a school library,funds should be made available from the schoolsbudget f o r the purchase of stocks. Books can be obtained on loan from central libraries through the book mobile service.

The school library can be of benefit t o other members ofthe community,and books can be s o l i c i t e d through community efforts.

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A School Library

Topic 3

CLASSROOM LIBRARY
T h e classroom library with a catchy phrase promoting reading is an invitation t o readers,and should be a focal area ofthe room. Chairs and a table should be provided t o accommodate different forms of activities while sitting. Where possible,open-facedbook shelves are desirable. Young readers need many types of books - stories, informational books, poetry, alphabet, counting, concept and wordless picture books or drama created by the children or the teacher. Literature oriented displays,such as posters, bulletin boards, flannel boards and taped stories encourage reading,and should be i n the classroom library.

103

The selection of materials for the classroom library w i l l be dependent on the reading levels of children,their areas of i n t e r e s t ,and their curricular needs.
Books i n the classroom collection should be shelved according t o category, and classified by colour coding according t o type. They should be placed together on a shelf,and labelled with the colour coded sticker beside the label. Young children enjoy a corner i n the classroom with rugs and o l d blankets, with pillows and stuffed animals. A table, chairs,tape recorder and taped stories should be included f o r listening. Story characters from favourite n the reading corner. Teachers can u t i l i z e Mobile books can be placed i Public Libraries t o access books on loan f o r a limited t i m e . Parent Teachers' Association can request donation of books,magazines, and newspapers from publishers. Local organizations which are affiliated t o n the international bodies can request donation of books f o r the school i community. Children, teachers and parents can be trained t o write for publications,and the books and stories fom'a part of the collection f o r the reading corner.

Each class can publish a newspaper each term, with articles compiled by
parents,children and teachers.
Activity 8 . 3 : Classroom Library

1. State a catchy phrase promoting reading which a teacher could use t o encourage the use ofthe classroom library. 2. What l i t e r a r y materials would you place i n the classroom l i b r a r y t o satisfy the needs of young readers?

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A Classroom Library

Topic 4

MATERIALS
Children should be provided with a l l the books and materials they need t o interest and stimulatethe wish t o read.
Materials should include a variety of narrative and expository books of varying levels of difficulty, and those which meet the interest of the individuals, and the selections made by the children. In addition, there should be newspaper articles and collection of materials - including stories, books, maps,jokes,riddles, recipes,local proverbs,poetry, and song lyrics written by teachers and children,and which can be sung t o familiar tunes. Where possible, creative work i n writing and art should reflect a l l areas of the curriculum, and the use of local materials should be encouraged. Each classroom should maintain a bulletin board, weather chart,timetable, news
105

board,health bulletin, duty list, monthly calendar f o r the current year,and a birthday chart. A clock and environmental p r i n t such as signs,labels and charts can be used t o organize the classroom environment,and a l s o provide written language experiences.

Activity 8 . 4Materials
1. Describe some signs which would be helpful i n promoting reading i n a Grade 1 classroom. 2. Write a joke,riddle,a local proverb and a local recipe t o be used i n reading by primary grade students.

Topic 5

EQUIPMENT
audiovisual equipment accompany the teacherspresentation.Very often these gadgets provide aid t o independent learning by children.In this technological age,the use of the computer can improve the c r e a t i v i t y and knowledge base ofboth teachers and children.

L earning is accelerated when

A tape recorder enhances listening activities, which would include oral


t o r i e s and assignments i n reading,taping and listening t o folk tales, other s the listening centre. Television and radio sets enhance viewing, and listening t o educational programmes. Additionally, teachers need t o use multimedia presentations (the interaction oftext,sound,video o r graphics) whenever possible. Computer stations are unique learning areas i n the classrooms, as they provide opportunities for children t o socially construct knowledge about literacy. The computer station should be a focal area of the classroom t o encourage children t o engage i n a variety of creative and imaginative activities,including:print-outsof student work,book jackets,and classroom information. Teachers, together with their pupils, can create book boxes and reading corners,where children are able t o read from charts and read t o each other.
106

Where schools are connected t o the internet, this facilitates research, discussions and e-mailexchanges.
Activity 8 . 5:Equipment

1. Relate a folktale which would be appropriate for taping and adding t o the classroom library collection t o be used by children i n the primary grades.

T o p i c6 ACCOMMODATION,FURNISHING AND LIGHTING


Careful attention t o the physical classroom design is essential t o the success of teaching and learning. Classroom space must be adequate t o accommodate each student comfortably when writing and engaging i n whole class instruction. Additional space must be made available for small-group activities,and t o facilitate freedom of movement. Sufficient chairs or benches,and adequate space a t the table or desk must be provided t o avoid discomfort, Adequate space must also be provided t o accommodate the table and chair for use by the teacher,and additional space for conferencing. The classroom can be arranged i n centres with sections assigned t o specific activities, or content areas, such as: literacy, social studies, science, mathematics,art, music, and drama. These should include:reading,writing, listening centres for younger children.Interest centres can also stimulate oral and written activities. Centres can be separated by the cupboards which store materials. Adequate natural light or electric light is required throughout the school day.
Activity 8 . 6 Accommodation, Furnishing and Lighting

1. Design and label a diagram t o illustrate how you would arrange o acconiinodate centres and a classroom library. the classroom t

107

REFERENCES
1. Alexander J. E s t i l l ; Heathington,Betty S.Assessing and Correcting Classroom Reading Problems.Harper Collins Publishers,1988

2. Carter,V.Elaine.Enhancing Literacy Learning Through Professional Development ofInservice Teachers.Presentation made a t the 40th Annual InternationalReading Association Convention,Atlanta,Georgia,May 1997.
3. Carter,V.Elaine.New Approaches t o Literacy Learning,A Guide f o r France,2000. Teacher Educators,UNESCO,

4. Carter,V.Elaine.Utilizing Multiple Intelligences f o r Literacy Learning. Presentation,17* World Congress on Reading,InternationalReading Association,I n s t i t u t e ,Ocho Rios,Jamaica,July 1998.
5. Flood,James,Jensen,J u l i e M., Lapp,Diane,Squire,James R.Handbook ofResearch on Teaching the English Language A r t s .New York. Macmillan Publishing Company, 1991.

6. Gentry,J. Richard,The Literacy Map,Guiding Children t o Where They Need t o Be (K-3), MONDO Publishing,2000.
7. Harris,Theodore L., Hodges,Richard E.The Literacy Dictionary.The Vocabulary ofReading and Writing.Newark,Delaware:International Reading Association,1995.
8. Monahan Joy,Hinson Bess.New Directions i n Reading Instruction. Newark,Delaware :International Reading Association,1998.

9. Olson,Mary W., Homan,Susan P., Editors,Teacher To Teacher Strategies f o rt h e Elementary Classroom,InternationalReading Association,Newark,Delaware,1993.

1 O.Ruddel1, Robert B., Ruddell,Martha Rapp,Singer,Harry.Theoretical Models And Processes ofReading.Fourth Edition.Newark,Delaware: InternationalReading Association,1998.
108

1 1.Temple, Charles and Temple,Codruta with Wile,James and Hunt, George.Capacity Building i n the Teaching ofReading.A Short Book of Teaching Methods.February,2002.Unpublished.
12.Templeton, Shane.Teaching the Integrated Language A r t s .Boston. Houghton Mifflin Company,1 9 91.

13.Strickland,Dorothy S., Morrow,Leslie Mandel.Emerging Literacy: o Read and Write.Newark,Delaware: Young Children Learn t International Reading Association,1996.

109

APPENDIX: 1
Hiph

Frequency Words

a about a l l and are as a t back

fun g e t
go

got good going

had has
have

be because b i g but by
came can cat could day

he
her him h i s home house

I i f
n
is

m e mother my no not of on one o r other our out people Play said saw school see

there they things t h i s t i m e t o too truck

UP
us very want was we went were what when w i l l with would write
YOU

did do dog down f o r friends from

she
so some t h a t

it j u s t

l i k e
l i t t l e l o t make

the
them then

your
zoo

110

APPENDIX: 2
Alphabet Checklist

Students Copy:

E H L W S P I R A T Y D B G Q C J F K N U Z M X V O
e
g

h
q

l
c

p k

i n

r u

a z

t m

y x

d v

b
o

Teachers Copy:

StudentsName:

E H L W S P I R A T Y D B G Q C J F K N U Z M X V O
e g h q I
c

p k

i n

r a t u z m

y
x

d
v

b
o

Circle the letters not known.


111

APPENDIX:3
Self Assessment Bv Teacher
Place a check mark (

4 i n the appropriate column.


~

Questions

Seldom

ometimes

Jmost 4lways

lways

D o I maintain the classroom environmentwhere books, teacher and student made materials are available to interest and stimulate the wish to read?
D o I read t o the students?

D o I consider the interests and reading levels ofmy students when I selectmaterials?
D o I engage i n grouping practices that are conducive t o the development ofpositive attitudes? D o I permit my students t o make choices from among appropriatematerials? D o I work with parents in order t o help them t o assist their children i n reading and writing?

D o I encourage students to utilize the information gained from reading i n creative ways?
D o I monitor my own teaching effectiveness by practicing selfassessment through written reflections? D o Imonitor and adjust instructions in responset o students needs? D o I observe and ensure that each student experience daily success?
Are suggestionsmade by the students evaluated and incorporated i n t o the teaching?

D o I ascertain the strengths and weaknesses of the students,and plan activitiesto u t i l i z e their strengthsto overcome their weaknesses? D o I evaluate childrensself assessment. and plan individualizedinstructiont o help them overcome weaknesses? D o I utilize a variety of assessmentmethods to arrive a t conclusionregarding students learning?
I

112

Responses to Activities

U n i t 1: The Changing Concept of Reading


Activity 1.1-1: The Changing Concept of Reading The interactive model ofthe reading process,viewed as comprising the aspects ofthe bottom-upand top-downtheories,but extends the process t o include the interaction that takes place between the reader and the text,depending on the particular situation.This denotes that the process includes the interaction ofthe reader with the text,depending on the social,cultural and situational factors.Aspects would include: Language development Phonemic awareness Word recognition Ability to constructmeaning Text characteristics . Teacher interaction Cultural differences Experiences ofthe reader - Relevant situation,or related subject

The bottom-upmodel emphasizes the recognition of words and views comprehension as information that comes from the text alone.

The top-downmodel reflects an extension ofthe language acquisitionprocess,and views the reading process as making predictions and confirming these by examining the text.In this model,the reader rearranges the meaning given to the reading i n order to facilitate comprehension.
The interactive model includes a l l ofthe aspects outlined in the bottom-upand top-down models,but includes the interaction that takes place between the reader and the text, depending on the particular context.
Activity 1.1-2:The Changing Concept of Reading

T w o strategies which enable readers to interpret text,and which are supported by research findings are: 1. Schema (integrating new information with prior knowledge). i l l state the extent to which the new information which was obtained The reader w while reading,caused the activation ofwhat was known before engaging i n reading the text,and how helpful the previous knowledge was in comprehending the material.

2. Meta-cognitiveprocedures (Selfmonitoring procedures) The reader w i l l state i fhe/she focused on the meaning-gettingprocess,rather fre-readingwas done a t anything t o comprehend than the decoding process,and i h i s or any strategy. the text,and how was t
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Activity 1.1-3: The Changing Concept of Reading

Characteristics which are based on the cognitive principle, and reflecting-thecurrent view r Integrated Approach are listed below. of reading,o - Emphasizes the child as an active learner. - The child is capable of integrating informationwith existing knowledge. - The child is capable of engaging in self-monitoringprocedures - The process ofreading is student-centered - The interactive process involves the reader,the text,and the context.
Activity 1.2-1 :Cognitive Principles for Enhancing Literacy Development

Teachers can ascertain aspects ofthe affective domain related t o reading success i n the following ways: - Obtaining informationfrom previous teachers and parents - Observing the students at play - Observing students while they are engaged in the classroom - Determining studentsinterests,self-concepts,and attitude by questioning,and completing appropriate checklists and inventories.
Activity 1.2-2: Cognitive Principles for Enhancing Literacy Development

Cognitive principles t o enhance literacy development ofyoung children include: - Language exposure and experiencesto childrensgrowth and development. - Attention to emergent literacy. - Awareness of sounds.
Unit 2: Early Literacy Development Activity 2.2-1: Early Literacy Development

Experiences with print,experimentsi n writing,and drawing enable children to develop the following: - It represents speech - The minimal units ifwriting are letters,and these are grouped together to form words - Books have a front,back,beginning,middle and an end - You can read from the leftto right,and from the top to bottom
Activity 2.4-1: A Guide to Beginning Reading Instruction

The following are some ofthe activities i n which primary grade children could engage t o use oral language: - Dictating stories for Language Experience,and reading these - Retelling storiestold,or recorded on cassettes - Describing Howt o do activities - Engaging in choral reading,and rendition ofpoems
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Repeating an incident that occurred on the way t oo r from school,or on the playfield o be an adult i n a particular profession,example:news reporter,sports Pretending t commentator,meteorologist

Activity 2.5-1: W o r d Identification

Activities t o encourage association of l e t t e r s ofthe alphabet with familiar objects: - Making an alphabet book,and including pictures - Labeling objects Encouraging identification ofenvironmentalprint, example:road signs

Activity 2.5-2:W o r d identifications

I n i t i a l sound:Write a sentence,a verse or a short paragraph with many words having the same sound a t the beginning. i l l read what was Example: Bob bought a big b a l l for bowling. Teacher and children w written.Children w i l l identify a l l the words which have the same sound a t the beginning ofthe word.
Activity 2.5-3:W o r d identifications

Ways i n which children can identify words as indicated i n the text: - Phonemic awareness - Highlightingthe first letter in a word,and the ending sound ofwords though rhymes Breaking spoken words into syllables by clapping - Introduction ofinitial sound ofwords though the use of alphabet books Understanding spelling t o sound correspondence

Activity 2.6-1: Teaching Sight W o r d s

It i s recommended that sight words be taught i n a phrase or sentence both orally,and i n written form t o keep the words i n context.High imaging words example:house. table,tree can be associated with clues such as pictures t o reinforce them.However, w i t h should only be taught and reinforced through oral and words like other,and written phrases o r sentences. Many ofthese words are irregular i n spelling and pronunciation yet they are used i n speech,and occur i n writing frequently.Readers need t o recognize them instantly t o enhance the process of reading.Ready recognition is retarded i fthey are taught i n isolation.
Activity 2.7-1: Developing Vocabulary

T w o strategiesfor vocabulary instruction,mentioned i n the reading:


115

Brainstorm to ascertain childrensknowledge of keywords o r concepts t o a larger schema.Take one keyword,and develop categories and sub categoriesof words and related words.This is an example of semantic mapping. Read menu stories t o children,and discuss words and meanings i n context.

Unit 3:Approaches to Beginning Reading instruction A c t i v i t y 3.1: Read Alouds

Some advantages of engaging young children in Read Alouds: - Read Alouds aid in developing literacy concepts ofyoung children from experiences i n print. - Enhances retelling of stories - Encourages responses to story orally,in writing and illustrating - Children w i l ljoin i n on the repetitive language

A c t i v i t y 3.2: Shared Reading


Features t o look for i n selecting books f o r a Shared Reading lesson: - Big books with large illustrations and large print. - Books which reflect strong rhythm and rhyme - Books which have repeated patterns,refrains,and logical sequences. - Predictablebooks
Activity 3 . 3 : Guided Reading

1. Children w i l l form three groups representing beginning,middle and end of story. Each group w i l l retell the story representingthe specific group name given.A Language Experience Story w i l l be written,following the retelling ofthe story by
group name. 2. Children w i l lt e l l ways i n which the story could be end differently and engage i n writing their version.
Activity 3.4: Language Experience Approach 1. Following a presentation to the class by a resource person,the children could write a report. 2. Write the procedure for an experiment,or a Hoe T o do It activity,and describe the outcome i n writing.

Activity 3.5: Independent Reading


The following methods can be used t o identify childrensinterest: - Develop and administer Students Interest Inventory - Observe the articles they take to school - Observe their selectionofbooks from the library - Encourage Teacher-Studentconference

116

A c t i v i t y3 . 6 : Supporting the U s e of the Mother Tongue and English


Signs i n English: - Reading is Fun - Read to Succeed - Reading Takes You Places - The More You Read,The More Y o u W i l l Learn
Unit 8: Classroom Environment for Literacy Learning A c t i v i t y8 . 1 :The Classroom Environment

Both social and physical factors are important in creating an appropriate environment for
success i n literacy acquisition and development. Furniture and space should be adequate to the needs of students and teachers.Appropriate physical arrangements of furniture,adequate reading materials and space to promote literacy development across the curriculum w i l l enhance the attractive quality classroom.
o prevent discomfort i n reading.Ifthese facilities Adequate lighting must be availablet are inadequate,then progress i n literacy developmentw i l l be adversely affected.

A c t i v i t y 8.3-1:The Classroom Library

Read more,and read for fun Read more,information i si n store

A c t i v i t y 8.3-2:The Classroom Library


There are a variety of books reflecting the interests of children.These include:Alphabet, Counting,Wordless Picture Books,stories.poetry,nursery rhymes.and informational books.
A c t i v i t y 8.4-1: Materials

Signs t o promote reading i n a Grade 1 classroom: 1. Read and Have Fun 2. Read and Learn 3. Books are Friends 4. C o m e L e tU s Read
Activity 8.4-2: Materials

A Joke
Dan:Who got the first prize i n the race? Bob:The winner

A Riddle
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A l l the letters i n the alphabet were invited to tea.Name the ones were late.
Answer: u,v,w,x,y,z. A n African Proverb A long rope must have an end. (Meaning:In life,life,famine,drought,sickness,poverty,richness or suffering, dictatorship must have an end.) Recipe (Serves 2)
Banana-MilkShake 1 hlly ripe banana 1 cup m i l k Sugar t o sweeten

Sweeten milk to taste. Chill.Mash banana and beat quickly with a rotary beater until very smooth.Add milk.Serve icy cold.A scoop of vanilla or strawberry ice cream may be added when serving.

118

Notes

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