Review: What is Nationalism and Why Should We Study it? Author(s): Ernst B. Haas Source: International Organization, Vol.

40, No. 3 (Summer, 1986), pp. 707-744 Published by: The MIT Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2706824 . Accessed: 03/07/2011 16:41
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What is nationalism and whyshould B. Haas we studyit? Ernst

Reflectionson the Origin Benedict Anderson. Imagined Communities: and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso Editions & NLB, 1983.

University Ithaca:Cornell Nationsand Nationalism. Ernest Gellner. Press,1983.

Dudley Seers. The Political Economy of Nationalism. New York: Oxford

Press, 1983. University

Century.New York: AnthonyD. Smith.Nationalism in the Twentieth

New YorkUniversity Press, 1979. Nationalism and modernization

thatthe conceptis as Most essays on nationalism beginwiththe lament Studies of arediverse. to describe itis supposed fuzzy as thestatesofmind theanimal'sappearance elephant problem: nationalism pose theproverbial persons. seemstodiffer itis touched bya group ofblind depending on where Our authors are no exception to thisrule. For DudleySeers nationalism the Anderson policy, whileforBenedict typesofeconomic refers to certain considers Anthony Smith linguistic identity. term connotesmanufactured based on preindustrial ideology of solidarity nationalism to be a particular princiindustrial as a distinctly Gellner treats thephenomenon roots.Ernest and social organization. ple of socialevolution As Arthur N. No single term should be madeto bear so heavya burden. myeffort: Waldron notedin a review paralleling
from Robert H. Jackson, Kenneth received comments thehelpful I gratefully acknowledge andWayneSandholtz. Ian Lustick, PeterKatzenstein, Jowitt, 1986 InternationalOrganization40, 3, Summer Peace Foundation and theWorld Institute ofTechnology C 1986bytheMassachusetts

Organization 708 International nationalism thewayin which definitely existsbetween A disproportion capacity of and theexplanatory and politics, is used to explainhistory foundations The intellectual by itstheorists. theconceptas outlined structheexplanatory willnotsupport simply provided by thelatter is a powerin general Nationalism tures thathave been placedon them. it general situations, fuland comprehensible idea. Yet, whileit defines specific events.In cases wheresuch in explicating is notveryuseful we will nationalism, by invoking eventshave in thepastbeen explained analysis.1 have to searchforanother which aspectsof"specific to specify He is quiteright, unlesswe are careful and withthehelpof theconcept events"we are interested in explicating No concept to capture. is supposed situations" theconcept which"general without lumbers around doing As ofnow,theelephant cancovereverything. work. muchuseful so boundaries. It overlaps of nationalism has verypermeable The study of ideologies, ofmodern political withthestudy of modernization, heavily as to suggest and of political anthropology economicand social history, is no at all? For me there and nationalism Whystudy nations redundancy. no speof historical patterns requires self-evident answer.The description embedded thetheories andbeyond already cialfocus, no theory, from apart onlyifthepurpose of in therelevant A specialfocusis justified disciplines. know. whatwe already theinquiry differs from somehow Nationalism and politicalrationalization is to exploreits role as a typeof nationalism My purposein studying harand international domestic whichhelps or hinders "rationalization" comconfusion theconceptual Thispurposeenablesme to sidestep mony. the task that mon to mostof the authorsunderreviewand to attempt nation we use in thesocialsciences, Waldron outlines. Like mostconcepts and nationalismare cognitive to mark off an intellectual artifacts we invent innate validwillfollow haveno more later, universe. which Mydefinitions, onlyby mybasic purpose.My itythananyoneelse's; theyare justified
WorldPoliExplanation," 1. Arthur N. Waldron, "Theories ofNationalism andHistorical of that thevagueinvocation tics 37 (April Waldron's coreargument 1985), p. 427.I agreewith

becausethe is unsatisfactory, world events in thenon-European "nationalism" in explaining ina waythat andsentiments to people, movements, has beenattached "adjective 'nationalist' from some is taken meaningfully without as distinguishing each ofthem explanation) (usually andto undercomesfirst, and then other nationalism, Indeed,as he says,struggle variety." is stand source however, (p. 433).That, we must understand itspolitical is a struggle why there ofrationalizanotwhat a single situation-patterns me.I am concerned with general interests of selftionin thepost-Enlightenment events, i.e., thebehavior world-and manyspecific such one)wayinwhich identified incoping with that world. Nationalism is one(andonly groups general claimis suggested. themselves. No more groups do identify

Whatis nationalism?709 ofwhatI takenationalism demarcation beginswitha rough description to The twoare of rationalization follows. A on the mean. statement meaning between to inquire intotherelationship thenconjoined in an attempt harthe the as to at levels. mony national, opposed international, Nationalism is theconvergence ofterritorial andpolitical loyalty irrespectiveof competing fociof affiliation, such as kinship, profession, religion, economicinterest, race, or even language.Nationalism is "modern"because it stressesthe individual's searchforidentity withstrangers in an impersonal world,a worldno longer animated by corporate identities. All nationalisms imply a principle ofidentity based on impersonal ties,remote ties,vicarious ties-all ofwhich are mediated bya setofcommon symbols embedded in a certain pattern of communication. Successful nationalism also implies a minimum ofsocialharmony, an acceptance ofthevaluesthat thesymbols communicate sufficient to maintain social peace and peaceful socialchange. Legitimate authority under conditions ofmasspolitics is tied up withsuccessful nationalism; whenthenational identity is in doubt, one propsupporting legitimacy is knocked away. is also a civilreligion, Nationalism often in conflict with butoccasionally drawing strength from realreligions. Thatcivilreligion contains a setofcore valuesthat, whether forobjectivist or subjectivist reasons, cometo be accepted bythepopulation ofa state;they becomethedefiners ofselfhood. In successful nationstheyremainin thatrole untilchallenged by the next sourceoftension; no civilreligion is graven in stone.As longas thecore valuesprovide theframework for socialaction, peopleknowwhat to expect oftheir fellows, understand and respect authority, are secureintheir views of theschemeof collective life.Such a society is temporarily rationalized its size, impersonality, despite and vicarious nature of impersonal ties.As Weber taught us, rationalization neednotbe thebureaucratic kind (though it usually is); butitmust be in a formula that fits theconditions ofa commercializedand industrialized society. The kindof identity we seek to understandis an issue onlysincetheonsetoftheindustrial revolution.2 The crispest formula forsumming up therelevant conception ofrationalizationwouldrunlikethis:rationalization refers to modesofbehavior that reston a materialist ontology, a procedural epistemology, andan empirical
Thebestdiscussion from MaxWeber. is adapted 2. Theconcept ofcourse, ofrationalization, is Stephen treatment of theconcept of Weber'soften and contradictory confusing Kalberg, of Rationalization fortheAnalysis ProCornerstones "Max Weber'sTypesof Rationality: is especially 85 (March1980).Kalberg cesses in History," American Journal of Sociology his four between in showing therelationship Weberestablished helpful typesof rationality and thefourtypesof social action(traditional, (theoretical, practical, formal, substantive) we are concerned means-end affectual, value-rational, rational) (p. 1161).Strictly speaking, initsvarious is that itcombines, fornationalism with thetypes matters ofsocialaction.What thefinal callinto that mixtures invarious volatile all four ofsocialaction types, types question definition for thecrisp Jowitt to Kenneth ofanyrationalization formula. I amindebted victory ofsocialaction. ofthecombined rational formula valuerationallend-means

Organization 710 International of things are views of the nature Magicaland prescientific methodology. not assumed; are sought, amongphenomena causal connections banished; Anmethods. to verification bystandardized ends-means chainsare subject in the modem idea distinguishing thesame derson andGellner optformuch rationalization forthepast. Weber'spremodern world from ofnationalism remain relevant even though ofsocialaction mulasandtheassociated forms typeis giventhepivotalrole. Nationbuilding, onlythe "formal-rational" in myargument, on thevicdepends, identity, a sense of national infusing The factthat competitors. form overitspotential tory of thelegal-rational ofstudies be complete givesus thestuff never thisvictory may,inpractice, ofnationalism. oftransofhowandwhya vicarious principle Ourtaskis theexploration understress. can give shapeand orderto a society identification personal while together idea is thatnationalism can hold a society The underlying by ofmodernization. Rationalization bythestrains buffeted peoplearebeing can stress peopleunder ofcourse,can taketwoforms: wayofnationalism, canalso look butthey with theexisting state, itbyidentifying seektoresolve of on principles it. Each courseis predicated forhelp by secedingfrom societywithpredictable rational choice. The desireto live in an ordered actionson thepartof calls forreciprocal one's demands rulesthatsustain with the stateor not, one identifies existing one's fellow citizens. Whether and valuewith for links of interest thechoiceimplies search thedeliberate in the involved search evokes The situated. others "bargaining" similarly the collectivand for predictability thespecification ofcorevaluesoforder that willcome,but benefits ity.Each "bargain"is based on theexpectation Some actor for maywellhaveto notnecessarily at thesametime everybody. fora set of runin orderto gainacceptance in theshort delaygratification who the fortheone makes conceswillproduce other benefits rules,which ofcourse,that preferperson'sor party's sionsat a latertime.Eventually, ences also have to be met. itself on thebasis ofrecipA rationalized that orders is a society society members accepta common Its among itsmembers. rocalexchange relations expectthat that is, they contingency, Theypractice norm ofbasic fairness. these bad. In addition, with good,and bad with is rewarded goodbehavior be delayed, rewards can that expectation dependon the further features in socialbarconcessions and thattruly equivalent notindefinitely, though of the rearrangement The refer to bargains are not necessary.3 gaining A the modem world. society characterizes andpowerwhich wealth, status, thatresults in internal bargaining is rationalized if it managesto practice reciprocity itself apart;it practices theserearrangements without blowing
InternationalOrganization40 (Winter1986).

inInternational Relations," 0. Keohane, 3. Myreasoning owesa lottoRobert "Reciprocity

Whatis nationalism?711 when itresolves internal strain bycontinuous adaptation. Nationalism refers to theparticularlegitimating principle that makessuchadaptation possible, theperhaps uniqueprinciple each modern society seeksto agreeon forits members whilealso marking itself offfrom othersocieties.The formalrational variant ofthisconstruct is byno meanstheonly possible one,butit maywellbe themostsuccessful type.4 Now comestheparadox.Is a world madeup ofrationalized societies-of successful nation-states-an inherently bellicoseworld?Since thevarious national selfhoods arearrived at bymutual exclusivity andoutright hostility, theanswer wouldseemtobe yes.Is national rationalization therefore inconsistent with to conceiveofan interinternational harmony? Is itimpossible nationallyrationalized society?The paradoxcan be resolvedonlyif we breakopen thebox labeled"nation"and inquire aboutthevarious beliefs that makeup thecivilreligion at various points initshistory. Ifwe discover someevidence ofan evolutionary pattern, theparadox canbe laidtorest.In a dominant short, concern withinternal and international harmony (or its absence), under modernconditions, justifiesa scholarly concernwith nationalism despite itspermeable intellectual boundaries. Spotting such an evolutionary pattern is not easy. Whattimehorizon as the shouldone adopt,a hundred yearsor twenty? One might surmise, literature of"social turbulence" suggests, that a breakpoint for thesuccessfulnation-state internal deals can be struck. is reachedwhenno additional Domestic legal-rational formulas for further adaptation which satisfy important threshold ofinternagroups mayno longer be possiblewhena certain we tionaltechnological is crossed,though and economicinterdependence Atthat we maybe entitled tospeakofthe cannot thethreshold. specify point obsolescence of nationalism and thenation-state. It is thisreasoning ofnationalism: to discover that leads me to thestudy howrationalization and to maycome aboutin times ofrapidsocialchange thelimits rationalizer. explore of nationalism as a successful
4. In Weber'sworkthe "formal to othertypesof rational"typeis usually juxtaposed One as corefeatures oflegitimate rationalization which feature tradition andreligion authority. as flatly "rational" ofsocialorder is totreat (overly simplified) wayofreading Weber principles with rationalization toreligious is totally ones.Does itfollow that opposed religion incompatible that four nation-states relieson nationalism? examined Terrance G. Carroll ideal-typical (libeachis ableto inorder todetermine whether eral, Marxist, socialdemocratic, andconservative) one ofthe with is strongly identified thekind ofadaptation I discuss, ifitspopulation practice withliberal and/or identified thatnations majortraditional religions. He concludes strongly hold whiletraditional Marxist valuescannotat the same timepractice adaptation religions theweak he also confirms thestrong ofWeber'sthesis. sway.He confirms version However, with Shi'a Islamand Catholicism. version by showing thatmodernization can be compatible is heldto be incomwhile Sunni Islamoffers is neutral, Buddhism more difficulties, Hinduism WorldPolitics andStatesofModernity," with "Secularization patible modernization. Carroll, 36 (April1984).

Organization 712 International of nationalism in discussions Embeddedconventions The studyof is not everybody's. nationalism My purposein studying no comacknowledge becausestudents nationalism has beenso elephantine by a number of underlying monpurpose.Instead,theyhave been divided rethefour books under dichotomies. These also characterize conceptual the scholarly attention, monopolize view. As long as these dichotomies on the books withus. Beforecommenting will remain elephant problem I summarize theunresolved debate. themselves, that nations, thebeliefs of whether question First,thereis the nagging thebeliefs, are good or from thepoliciesthatderive inspire their citizens, and as progressive advocatednationalism bad. In the 19th century liberals up to a it as reactionary; in ourera therolesare reversed Marxists decried nationalistic; butMarxists, for being denounce Gaullists point. Liberalsstill of LatinAmerican laud thenationalism withthis judgment, whileagreeing Yet theydefreedom fighters. of dependency and of African opponents Hitler,and Tojo, of the Argentine of Mussolini, nouncethe nationalism Thatcher and RonaldReagan.Whyis one exmilitary juntas,of Margaret ofthehistorgood?The quality bad andanother pression ofsocialsolidarity to oris expected itproduced oftheoutcomes ical processisjudgedin terms as as such,butcapitalism is notnationalism produce. The issue,therefore, as opposedto and popular participation democracy, opposedto socialism, authoritarian rule. the issue, not onlyin the sense thatthe ideological Ideologyconfuses butbecause ofnationalism, thephenomenon define preferences ofstudents of a the phenomenon refers to thebeliefs scholarsdo not agreewhether it is theproperty "people" of an entire movement or a party, or whether Smith them, Anthony among that maybe). Forone setofscholars, (whoever with fascism; socialism, that liberalism, competes nationalism is an ideology For anit is theproperty in conflict with other movements. of movements other ideologies other nationalism or subsumes sidesteps however, group, a on what a givenunit-a "people" or a "people claiming by focusing to otherunits.Anderson in distinction goes to state"-believes of itself once they can be good nationalists to show how Marxists greatlengths nationalism-as-ideology transcend rigidclass analysis.Scholarsfavoring than as rather socialprocesses, policies then on particular go on to comment does Seers. ifwe optforthenationalism-asBut confusion is by no meansbanished the deep division among We mustthenconfront formula. group-identity as opposedto those thosewho find an "objective"basis forthisidentity, the"subwhosee identity in self-conscious actsofindividual identification, school defines a nation(in The objectivist jective" basis of nationhood. of stable community evolved, as "a historically famous formulation) Stalin's in manifested lifeand psychological makeup, economic territory, language,

Whatis nationalism?713 Unlessa given peoplepossessesall thesevirtues, a community ofculture." it cannotlegitimately be considered a nation.ErnestRenan,on theother as thedefiner ofthesubjectivist "dailyplebiscite" hand,coinedhisfamous movedbyincentives with a givenunit approach. People chooseto identify as AlbertHirschman says, exit, voice, and loyalty, and disincentives; by Gellner. define theoptions, an approach also favored of formula liketo workwithan objectivist Most writers on nationalism thegoodnations a handle distinguishing somekind. for For someitprovides theorizing forstructural however, a preference from thebad. For others, thechoice.A strucaccounts for overcognitive andvoluntaristic constructs to policyresponseas a reaction turalist likes to explaina "nationalist" of division economic locatedin theinternational deeplyembedded stimuli in domestic upheavals. to find their explanations labor;voluntarists prefer entails further controversy. Whatever thereason,thechoiceofformula How did thiswe-feeling identity. Suppose we opt fornation-as-group whourgesome among those is divided initsanswer originate? The literature aboutthe is skeptical ifthewriter primordial ties-usually labeledculture with the whoarefascinated criteria-and others entire catalog ofobjectivist The second school stressesthe manipulative artificiality of thisfeeling. and comofmarkets it,theimportance policiesused by statesto inculcate in that resulted accidents infacilitating it,andthesheer munication channels a given than another. The distinction up in one nation rather region winding that"that havoc ArnoldToynbeeremarked has additional implications. of 'nationalstates' has of the western institution whichthe application is incomparably worked in [Africa and Asia] whereit is an exoticimport has done in Britain, greater than the damage thatthe same institution ithas been,notan inwhich westEuropeancountries France,and theother growth." "Early" (i.e., innovation, buta spontaneous artificially introduced is artificial "late" nationalism WestEuropean nationalism is natural; liberal) features Primordial-cultural inaddition tainted byauthoritarianism. to being the denies Western nations; theabsenceofsuchfeatures legitimate theearly restoftheworld thesamelegitimacy. Thewideacceptance has taken itstollinexplanatory ofthesedichotomies entities are or should prediction. Concern overwhich rigor and normative emphasis on nationbuilding become nationshas resulted in a scholarly of withstatebuilding) at the expenseof treatments (sometimes confused that old and successful The literature takesforgranted nation maintenance. are model.Newerentities that theproper explanatory nationalisms provide oftheir ability toliveup tothe notyetsuccessful arestudied interms nations model;and since theylack the objectivequalitiesurgedby some, their successis heldto be in doubt. to dealwith thepresCommitment to thisdichotomy thestudent compels entexclusively thesearch for novelmodesof ofthepast.It neglects interms despite theabsence that might bring aboutnationhood manipulation byelites

Organization 714 International of theenergies it stacks In addition, validated conditions. ofthehistorically its but not the rise of nationhood of explaining scholarsin the direction in Europeduring of "micronationalisms" thegrowth decline.Fortunately, on thefragilofsomescholars theattention has oncemoreriveted the1970s what us to study forces Thisphenomenon nations. successful ity oferstwhile to makepossiblethe nationalism went"wrong"withFrenchand British Studiesof the policies,atits finality. challenging of movements growth becomesalient. a nation and processesthatmaintain titudes, in doubt. remains ofthedailyplebiscite All thismeansthattheoutcome populafor the entire whether legitimacy, nationalist to Variousclaimants Nationalto compete. continue within it, for some region tionofthestate or is goodreason as well.Andthere visions cosmopolitan istsstruggle against compeideological theordinary overlap with to supposethat thesestruggles comthereligiously against secularists against liberals, tition of socialists populists. against authoritarians mitted, Four authorsin search of a singletheme of thesedichotomies? to theprevalence authors respond How do ourfour theeternally them andto recognize probto transcend Do they makeefforts authors do. Allfour In many formation? waysthey lematic nature ofidentity that claims to "authentic" to demonstrate theconcept, areoutto demystify nations. are no "true"or "legitimate" that there are untenable, nationhood theintegration ofnationalAtleastitmakespossible Thatis a stepforward. and and withchangesin intercultural ism withstudiesof modernization this very evenifnoneofourauthors carry integration international relations, nationalism authors concedethat maywellbe a rational far.Finally, all four to nota throwback social upheavalsand frustrations, responseto certain as a makes it possibleto treatthe phenomenon barbarism. This insight somewhat Anderson does thisexplicitly, Gellner speciesofrationalization. would But Smith hesitantly. Seers wouldsee his workin thesame spirit. with failed on its head and equate nationalism stand the argument rationalization. failto is that ourauthors Thatis thegood news.The bad news,however, the or use, leave alone integrate, to acknowledge makeany seriouseffort his own each from workon the subject.Theywrite, of existing plethora ofsocial hadbeendoneon thedynamics work as ifno previous perspective, since all four One cannothelp wondering, and fragmentation. solidarity of nationalism whether a smattering keptthemfrom are British, authors of American studieslargely and empirical provusingprevioustheories inspiration. enance,or at leastmethodological

Whatis nationalism?715 The mostglaring omission is the neglect of Karl Deutsch. Anderson, Seers,and Smith ifthey hadacknowlcouldhaveenriched treatments their edgedDeutsch'streatment of idenof therelationship between sentiments tityand massive socio-economic change. Gellner'sneglectof Deutsch is even moreseriousbecause Gellner's is based on the impressive theory same cybernetic assumptions as Deutsch'sand makescopioususe of the Deutschian everusing mobilization-assimilation balance/imbalance without the label. Smithfailedto take advantageof the exhaustive studiesof nationalist ideologies whichcontrasted with theWestern "liberal"variant Eastern notso liberal ones.6Anderson's treatment World nationalofThird ism ignores the seminal workof Rupert Emerson and others on the same All theauthors disdaintheuse of statistical serieselaborated by subject.7 others in order to maphistorical sequencesandpatterns.8 None makesuse oftheelaborate and quitesatisfactory andhistorical studies comparative of nationalist thought.9
5. Karl W. Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication (Cambridge:MIT Press, 1953); Nationalism and Its Alternatives (New York: Knopf, 1969). Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism (New York: R. R. Smith,1931); Nationalism: A

6. The typology of nationalist ideologies developed by Carlton J. H. Hayesinfluenced the one used in thisreview.See hisEssays on Nationalism (New York:Macmillan, 1926);The

Religion (New York:Macmillan, 1960).Among themany works of Hans Kohn,TheIdea of Nationalism (NewYork:Macmillan, 1944) pioneered many ofthedichotomies still that characterize theliterature. Thesharpest andofnon-Western juxtaposition ofWestern national(early) ismis Elie Kedourie, Nationalism (London:Hutchinson, inAsia and 1960), andNationalism Africa (New York:Meridian Books, 1970). 7. Rupert Emerson, FromEmpire to Nation(Cambridge: Harvard University Press,1960);
Self-Determination Revisited in the Era of Decolonization (Harvard University,Center for ogy of the Nation-State (Chicago: Aldine, 1974); CrawfordYoung, The Politics of Cultural

International Occasional Affairs, PaperNo. 9, 1964);LloydA. Fallers, TheSocialAnthropol-

BuildingStates and Nations, 2 vols. (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1973); International Interactions11,

Pluralism (Madison:University of Wisconsin Press, 1976).The classic statement of Third World national interms identity ofcultural encounters between Western settlers andindigenous intellectuals is Albert Memmi, TheColonizer and theColonized (Boston:Beacon,1967). 8. Typicalworksinclude:Karl W. Deutsch,"Social Mobilization and Political Development," American PoliticalScienceReview(September 1961);Karl W. Deutsch and William Foltz,eds., Nation-Building (New York:Atherton, 1963);LeonardW. Doob, Patriotism and Nationalism (New Haven:Yale University Press,1964); S. N. Eisenstadt andS. Rokkan, eds.,

2 (1984),entire issue.Publicopinion dataon issuesrelating to nationalism arepublished reguinEurobarometre larly (Brussels: European Communities). Forexamples ofstudies combining quantitative and qualitative treatments mosteffectively see Eugen Weber,Peasants into Frenchmen (Stanford: Stanford University Press,1976),and MichaelHechter, Internal Colonialism (Berkeley: ofCalifornia University Press,1975). 9. Forexample, BoydShafer, Nationalism: Myth andReality (NewYork:Harcourt Brace, wood, 1982).The problem of thecompatibility of socialism and nationalism is exhaustively
explored by J. L. Talmon, The Mythof the Nation and the Vision of Revolution(Berkeley: 1955); Louis L. Snyder, Varietiesof Nationalism: A ComparativeStudy(Hinsdale, Ill.: Dryden, 1976)and Global Mininationalisms: Autonomy or Independence(Westport, Conn.: Green-

ofCalifornia University Press,1981), and HoraceB. Davis,Nationalism and Socialism (New York:Monthly ReviewPress,1967).

716 International Organization The puzzle overwhatnationalism "reallyis" can be illustrated with the

is impossible to tellwhether nationalism refers to an "ideal," the actual modalbeliefs ofa "movement," a typical historical pattern ofdevelopment, oran inescapable stateofaffairs, becausetheauthor uses all thesemeanings interchangeably. He says thatnationalism is "a doctrine ofthehistory and destiny ofthe'nation', an entity opposedtoother important modern collectivities likethe'sect', 'state','race', or 'class'" (p. 13; italics mine). Smith's notion ofthe"real" nationalism-ascontrasted with other doctrines thatmerely look like it-is an amalgam of thewritings of Herder, Burke, Jefferson, andRousseau:nationalism is a doctrine offraternal ethnic to Smith. He extracts this from thewritings of solidarity, according meaning ideologists; he is less concerned withwhatnations and nationalist movementsactually do. The task Smithsets himself is the exploration of the compatibility ofnationalism (as an ideal,a modalbelief system, a historical with themajorpolitical ofthemodern era. He devotes pattern?) ideologies separate chaptersto religiousreformism, fascism,communism, panthecontemporary inEurope,"beaureaucratethnic movements Africanism, ism," and internationalism. and themodembureauand communism Religious reformism, fascism, but theyare in fact craticwelfare statemake use of nationalist themes, inconsistent with therealthing and actually abuse it. Populist-participatory and chiliastic; are otherworldly, religious protest movements escapist, they with butitstypical clientele appealto sects.Fascismoverlaps nationalism, is notthesameas thenationalist public.Fascismstresses race,nationalism the ethniccommunity. the heroand the use of force, Fascism venerates neutral of course,is at nationalism remains on thissubject.Communism, bottom and appealsto classes,notnations, cosmopolitan though pragmatic willbendtherulesoccasionally to advancetherevolution Communists by thecomrades. ethnic exploiting primordial feelings among Nationalism, by is revolutionary backto ethnic traditions. The Western and harks contrast, the to speakfor bureaucratic state, finally, abusesnationalism bypretending entire its citizensresentits impersonality, people even though coldness, and excessiverationality. elitism, theemotional reassurance ofirrationBecausemost peopleseemtoprefer auand political Smith thecurrent movements forcultural considers ality, in Scotland,Wales, Brittany, tonomy Spain, and Corsica(amongothers) and neto be authentic So are pan-Africanism of nationalism. expressions that and Communists who stillthink the To thebenighted gritude. liberals thedemiseofnationalmodern world'sincreasing interdependence implies has thisto say: ism,Smith it The veryattempt to eradicate nationalism actually helpsto entrench and to provoke and itwouldappear itsperiodic further, resurgence,

confusionthatpermeatesSmith's Nationalism in the Twentieth Century.It

Whatis nationalism?717 itsexcesses it,taming to try to livewith and appropriate moresensible theconjuncfrom be derived and appeal must nationalism's persistence long-standing thatshapedit originally: tionofthethree setsofforces charofnew secularideals,and thepeculiar traditions, thebirth ethnic (p. 196) and its social concomitants. ofmodernization acteristics

and legitimations.... More importantly, mutualrecognitions through

nations. and legitimates todayguarantees system The veryinternational that nationalism ensuring each other, forces reinforce and internal External aliveand well. remains arephony. thosethat nationalisms from Smith authentic wants to separate that Ur-template to discoversome mystical He comes close to wanting and Barbarossa, to shakeother liketheEmperor in time ofperil, reemerges abouttheorigin intoline.He failsto ask himself ideologies more ephemeral whysomesurvive Nordoes he inquire traditions. ofthesealleged primordial is notjust an and others fadeaway. He avoidsthefactthatmodernization formalto escape from combats in order evil thattheauthentic nationalist is also associated thought ofnationalist thevery origin that legalrationality, in andretains thisquality with thedemand forsucha rationality powerfully have that theappealsofnationalism recognize many places.Nordoes Smith itis usedto is Janus-faced: places.Nationalism fadedinother demonstrably reasonone should Solelyfor this modernity. advocateas wellas to obstruct Insteadone shouldstudy from otherideologies. not separatenationalism infuses these ideologiesin orderto discoverwhichtypeof nationalism
10 them.

is thetitle. Communities Imagined The bestthing aboutAnderson's of definition I proposethefollowing spirit, then, In an anthropological imagined as both thenation: community-and political it is an imagined of becausethemembers It is imagined and sovereign. limited inherently fellow-members, eventhesmallest nation willneverknowmostoftheir ofeach livesthe yetin theminds meetthem, or even hearofthem;

largerthan image of the communion.... In fact,all communities contact ... are imagined.... The villages of face-to-face primordial nationis imaginedas limitedbecause even the largestof them . . . has

No nation ifelasticboundaries, lie other nations. which beyond finite, in (pp. 15-16;emphasis with mankind. itself coterminous imagines original)

& Row, Theories 10. In a review ofSmith's earlier (NewYork:Harper ofNationalism work, and themostcomplete in erecting Smith succeeded 1972),Gale Stokesarguesthatalthough thissuccessby of exploiting he fallsshort of nationalist ideologies, typology sophisticated and Change a theory. as I do too,finds Gellner's University (Chicago: Thought Stokes, stating the with Stokesis stillconcerned identifying of ChicagoPress,1963)to be closerto theory. from nationalism andthat distinguish the"true"nation features or attributes that characterize of See "The Undeveloped a taskI deliberately foreswear. Theory other ideologies, political 1978). World 21 (October Nationalism," Politics

718 International Organization Bravofor that this eloquent reminder communication size,vicarious byway of sharedsymbols, mark thenation from and exclusiveness off other political constructs. The author's purposein writing thebook is important forunderstanding theargument. He wishesto instruct hisfellow Marxists them bytelling that nationalism withrevolutionary is not inconsistent is not a commitment, bourgeois and oughttherefore anachronism, to be takenseriously as an omnipresent with an historical phenomenon uncertain halflife. His taskis to explain howrevolutionary Marxist states can (China, Kampuchea, Vietnam) fight old-fashioned warsagainst eachother. imperialist This,tobe sure, may notbe newsfornon-Marxists. The argument goes as follows.The possibility of imagining the nation arisesonlywhenthreeancient cultural traits weaken:a particular scriptlanguageloses its monopoly on conveying the truth, monarchs lose the status ofsemidivinities, and conceptions oftime cease to confound cosmologyand history. The one development mostresponsible forthebreakup of cultures based on theseideas was movabletypein thehandsof privateenterprise publishers seeking a mass market fortheir waresamong people not versedin the universal sacred language.Anderson continues witha conventional accountoftheindependence movements ofthelate 18th century in thewestern hemisphere, linking incipient nationalism to discriminationagainst colonialsby themetropolitan country, yetmaking little use of theneatproposition aboutlanguage and "print-capitalism." But language remains thecore ingredient oftheargument he makesforEastern Europe. Here, by the middleof the 19th century, "marginalized vernacular-based oftheeducated"(p. 78), looking coalitions found a "model" to westward, be emulated. The design ofthenation-state was there tobe seenandcopied. Rulersresponded to thepressure by converting vernacular languages into official thesole legitimate languages, medium ofpublicdiscourse in multiethnic states.While this pleasedsomecoalitions andalienated others, ithad theeffect ofextending thescope ofthepolitical community byencouraging hitherto inert groups toparticipate politically, ifonlytoprotest. Atthis point two pathscould be taken:the further development of the modelintoa democratic-populist one, or an alternate thatAnderson labels "official nationalism," invented in Russiaand England and widely copiedeverywhere since.Official nationalism selects deliberately keythemes ofnationhood and foists theseon thepopulation by appropriate policiesofeducation, recruitand punishment, ment, reward, use oftheofficial alwaysmaking language. Linkedwith notions ofracism and appropriate economic incentives, official nationalism becomestheimperialism practiced byEuropeafter 1870.(Yes, dearreader, I am confused too. Anderson's is nota restatement of argument thethesis aboutthe"good" and "early"WestEuropean ofnationalvariety ismas against the "bad" and "late" East Europeanvariety, theargument madebyHans Kohn,Arnold Toynbee, and Elie Kedourie. The WestEuro-

Whatis nationalism?719 a preferable peanvariety is "bad" too. In whatsensecouldithaveprovided cameintotheir owninthe model?) When theintellectuals ofAsia andAfrica theMarxist nationalism, especially 20thcentury theymostly chose official determined to build revolutionaries. Each newly independent intelligentsia, The future imperialism. is its own state,follows similar policies,including willbe thatnationalism evokedbut notclarified by Anderson; he implies with around as longas thestateremains us, buthe hedgeshisarguments. evocaa theory. It is more Imagined Communities does notclaimto offer of tivethansystematic. It reliesmoreon highly subjective interpretations Someofthevigthanon statistics of socialmobilization. nationalist poetry are marvelous, as and their thoughts nettes of Southeast Asiannationalists Buttheensemble does notadd aretidbits ofinformation on language policy. inthe up to a coherent argument. Nextto nothing is said aboutnationalism GerBritain, countries thatprovided the first models-France, America, failsto explainwhy many.Onlythe imitators are treated, and Anderson certain werechosenand notothers. Pointfeatures oftheexemplar nations task,though it provides no ing out historical continuities is a legitimate specialwarrant forfocusing on nationalism. of bridgehead The lateDudleySeers,as behoovestheleaderofthemajor thedependentistas StudforDevelopement in Europe,theSussex Institute delinked from the ies, equates nationalism withself-reliant development,
world's core. In The Political Economy of Nationalism, an ephemerallittle

and KeyMarxism tract, he recants his former commitments to orthodox as a demisguided-work nesianism and atonesfordecades of-he thinks true tothecreed Nationalism, velopment economist for theUnited Nations. andOsvaldoSunkel), oftheCepalistas with RaulPrebisch (he worked closely forthestatefrom theworld is development planning thatseeks autonomy and KeynesMarxism demands. and catersto egalitarian-populist economy in his words. ianism, bothfailto takedue accountofnon-material motives, especially nationalism-the thepresumed interests ofa group urgeto promote with at leasta degree oflinguistic cultural coherence, probably showing and ethnic or and usually inhabiting a political unit, homogeneity, ofthesamekindsubnation-state (though sometimes appliedto a group merged within one or morenation-states). Untilthe 1960s,I too tooklittle As an econoaccountofnationalism. motives: peopleworked to mist, I naturally concentrated on material it. earnmoney, determined howwe spent and thelevelofourincome in theAnglo-Saxon cultural Moreover, likemanyofthoseeducated irrational. Fortunately, tradition, I saw nationalism as fundamentally with thespreadofinternational contacts, ofmediasuchas newspapers of "inand television, realisation and ofeducation there was a growing whenall foreigners sensibly terdependence", which wouldbe complete learned someEnglish. (pp. 9-10)

Organization 720 International code forthe global is merely Now, he believes,talkof interdependence word is another he argues, Internationalism, ofthesuperpowers. hegemony ofmonetarist bythelegitimacy mediated latterly domination, forAmerican The intervention. and military as well as by political economicdoctrine elaboration. to require further is too familiar argument if he is saddledwith"a small himself liberate How can the nationalist few locationclose to a superpower, seriousethnicdivisions, population, exhighconsumer bureaucracy, subverted a culturally natural resources, hard talks Seers Here (p. 91). base?" technological narrow a and pectations, Nationalist thinking. ofdependency theorthodoxy from sensethatdeparts needs the geopolitical and exploit trade contacts their diversify leaderscan International The his exemplar. Malta is Mintoff's the Dom of superpowers. capiof international committee Fund is notonlytheexecutive Monetary in circumstances, many with and persuaded be argued staff can talism: its Across-the-board Woodsare indisarray. becausetheold canonsofBretton are based on that accounts national So are time. of waste is a planning persuadethe be to used can appeals Patriotic Keynesianassumptions. shouldtake to patriotism Appeals times. hard populace to put up with made nationalist by and promises theplace of irresponsible incompatible ofwhat his is exemplar Chile followers diverse (Allende's leadersto their absoare fiscal policies of heresies-hard-headed And-heresy notto do). necessary! lutely as youcan get autarky means"as much really forSeersthen Nationalism and linguistic also cultural but economic not He means only away with." a lackey of and means being in attitude taste Sincecosmopolitanism autarky. self-reliant development-a of economic entails lack a superpower-and one. He seriously successful culture is also likelyto be an economically theseductive stressing constantly this by the of argument weakens punch wilesofcosmopolitanism. He advoWhataboutEuropeand Britain? World. fortheThird So much is of the world division In the tripartite nationalism." fact, cates "extended in neocolonial consensus the of the with he waning no longer accurate, says, the had succeededin perpetuating Western Europewhich,untilrecently, is consensus A new protectionist means. legitimate byother defunct empires Hana become should geschlossener Community the European forming; imitslegitimate protectionist Labor shouldEuropeanize delsstaat;British The suit. should follow of countries clusters cognate culturally pulses.Other worldshouldbe made up of moreor less closed economicblocs, each nationalist itsownextended holygrail. following Gellnerin Nations and Nationalism In contrast to our otherauthors, in a theory of the embedded of nationalism, theory a full-fledged offers the nation-state and Nationalism industrialism. toward tendency universal within theglobal of political form organization the sole legitimate provide a is "Nationalism principolitical societies. primarily industrial trend toward

Whatis nationalism?721 ple,which holdsthat unit thepolitical andthenational be congruent. should Nationalism as a sentiment, or as a movement, can bestbe defined interms ofthis is thefeeling Nationalist sentiment ofanger aroused principle. bythe violationof the principle, or the feeling aroused by its of satisfaction fulfillment. A nationalist movementis one actuated of this by a sentiment kind"(p. 11;emphasis inoriginal). is a theory ofpolitAgain:"nationalism ical legitimacy, which requires that should notcutacross ethnic boundaries political ones,and,inparticular, that ethnic boundaries within a givenstate ... shouldnotseparate thepower-holders from therest" (p. 1). The theory uses three variables: (1) thedistribution ofpolitical ina power society(access limited to genetically defined or quasi-hereditary status groupsversusupwardmobility); (2) easy access to a "highculture"of literate and sophisticated communication via a system of publiceducation versusvertically segmented social groupseach attached to a local "low culture";(3) ethnichomogeneity as opposed to ethnicheterogeneity, as defined bylanguage. The combination inwhich thesevariables occurinany givensociety willdetermine whatkindofnational identification-if anywillcometoprevail. Agrarian societies areinnocent ofnationalism; thepush and pullcomes onlywhenthetrend toward industrialism manifests itself. The difference between agrarian and industrial is bothcybernetic societies and semantic. Agrarian societies are prerational becausethey feature "the co-existence within them ofmultiple, notproperly buthierarchically united, related subworlds, and theexistence of specialprivileged facts, sacralized and exempt from ordinary treatment." In industrial societies, "all facts are
located withina single contiguouslogical space . . . statements reporting themcan be conjoined and generallyrelated to each other . . . one single language describes the world and is internally unitary.. . . there are no

special,privileged, insulated factsor realms, protected from contamination or contradiction by others, and living in insulated independent local spaces of their own" (p. 21). The difference between thetwois also expressed in thecontrast between beliefs thatnotonlyclaimto be "true" butthatalso provide thesole criteria for judging all "truth" (i.e., dogmatic universalist religion), and beliefs thatadmit thecontingent nature of truth claims,the thattruth possibility is not revealedforall timebut unfolds in gradually withrelativistic conformity cognitive criteria (i.e., thepost-Enlightenment scientific tradition). Nationalism is typical of thetransition to therational tradition. It expressesthe societalthrust toward homogeneous perception and homogeneous social organization and behavior. It can be triggered by religious reformism that strives for coherence anduniversality, though itwill eventually come intoconflict withreligion. Nationalists maymakeuse of prerational symbols, butthey willrejectthem as soon as they takepower. Nationalism is not the resurgence of submerged primordial for longings ethnic community. Nationalism is a consequence of the "objectiveneed" forindustrial rationality.

Organization 722 International thatstress of nationalism rejectstheories This pointis crucial.Gellner becausehe considschoolsofthought or thesubjective theobjective either causes Modernization thancontradictory. rather ers themcomplementary criteria nations, nottheobjective produce that andadjustments thelongings nation will.Notevery potential ofpersonal or assertions ofcultural identity andfrustralongings their peopledealwith becomesa realone becausemost unlikethem,individual withothersinitially assimilating tionsby simply permitting. affinities cultural to "pass" and prior determination not The schemeis mine, schematically. can be summarized The theory Gellner's. because its and nonnational is nonrational 1. Agrarian society Situation patterns communication by discontinuous is characterized social structure status A few specializedhereditary content. symbolic and heterogeneous and culture high-literate a common profess horizontally, organized groups, to attached peasantry and isolated illiterate organized ruleovera vertically low cultures. various a 2. An exogenousforce(foreign conquest,a new religion, Situation change)trigof capital,a technological suddenincreasein theavailability Peasantsare "mobilized"by moving gersindustrialization/modernization. amencities;theyacquirea tasteformiddle-class factories, intoarmies, butfailto of thehighculture ities.Theyaspireto some of theperquisites and economic theearlystage during equality likepolitical achieveanything ofindustrialization. to act outtheir butunassimilated begin mobilized Situation 3. The newly in acquiring the they succeedeventually permitting, frustration. Conditions thereby skillsneededto pass intothehighculture, and numeric linguistic theruling from earlier them distinguished factors cultural losingwhatever andpoliteducational in their demands forgreater after succeeding groups, The is born. nation contented A successful andreasonably icalparticipation. nation second" sequenceofWestEuropean follows the"statefirst, pattern
experience.

access as inthepreceding case. Educational 4. Things are much Situation the power, access topolitical succeedingaining thelowerorders improves, Howhomogeneity. by muchcultural societyas a wholeis characterized interms of which similar though smallstates, ever,thepeoplelivein many and weakness smallness themainvariables, because of their nevertheless into theculture to therestoftheworld;dispersion are unableto represent A nationalist sentiment a symbolic roof. states failsto givetheculture many This unification intheform ofnational byforce. itself exists which expresses statesecond." is theGerman and Italiancase, "nationfirst, to act outtheir butunassimilated mobilized begin 5. The newly Situation easy asprevent and powerconditions frustration. cultural But preexisting from peopleare excluded differentiated butmobilized similation. Culturally of thehigh culture by rejecting thebenefits Theyrespond of industrialism.

Whatis nationalism?723 own low by drawing on their a rivalhighculture the rulersand creating ofthe thebeliefs challenging of a nationalism culture. This takestheform nowseenas alien.Thisis the ofrulers orthedisplacement rulers, secession, from the modern history familiar of state second" pattern "nationfirst, EasternEurope. the Islamicworldand 6. In certaincases (Gellnermentions Situation What ifthefrustrated, mobilized, crisply. do notwork outthat Africa) things because culture oftherulers thehigh areunableto optfor butunassimilated grounds, conditioned and religiously of it on culturally they rejectportions Whatifthe low cultures either? prior cannotgo back to their and yetthey of the alien highculture is so greatthatportions cultural heterogeneity In as in Africa? together, as a meansto holdthesociety appearnecessary becausethey that developare notrational thenationalisms sucha situation that of truth-finding norms cannotcome to terms with thehomogenization and rational relabsolutism society.Religious-cultural prevail in industrial theconflict. cannot resolve to coexist, are compelled ativism, becausethey inwhich thelogicof societies 7. In someotherwise rationalized Situation whose members groupsremain certain prevailed, situation 3 has largely is too from the majority distance cannotassimilate cultural because their even if the themto assimilate would not permit greatand the majority areinfor a that flawed nations represent wished it. Such situations minority lot oftrouble. of on typologies Whatdoes all thisportend? in a turgid chapter Gellner, matsituations that onlythree "typical"nationalist concludes nationalism, 5, 6, and 7, modelis put to work.Situations terwhenhis three-variable rationalizatendency toward intodoubttheuniversal because theythrow there are fundamental He deniesthat ones forGellner. tion,are thesalient thatthe betweenlate and earlymodernizers-nation-builders, differences But his very different. WestEuropeanpattern is uniqueand all theothers smooth as wellas discontinuous theopposite.He explores modelsuggests conclusion butcomesto theambivalent via nationalization rationalization andevendisapthat ought to becomeweaker whilenationalism everywhere ofpseudo viability all because ofthecontinued pear,maybeit won'tafter not he should Perhaps up lowcultures. cultures which are onlydressed high before so completely cultural self-definitions have dismissed "primordial" of modernity, are artifacts thatall nations argument making the sweeping of and everything to theimperative to their origins nothing agrarian owing assimilation. on it. I now wishto comment Gellner'sargument, Havingsummarized withhis apI wantto makeclearthatI am in agreement however, First, of to thefurther question I wantto extend theexamination proach;though of various thequality by thecoexistence relations implied of international butthetheory (sometimes track; kinds ofnationalism. Gellner is on theright or a persuasive than he callsita model,sometimes a scheme) is morea hint

724 International Organization complete setofpropositions. He maybe forgiven (with therest ofus) for the inability ofthetheory to predict much;he should notbe so easilyabsolved forhisfailure to provide coherent explanations ofthepast. The theory lacksclarity at crucial points. Gellner leavesus indoubt as to whether there are one, one-and-a-half, or two separate modelsof national development. He distinguishes between a lateandan early stageofindustrialization, and also a "verylate" stage.It is notat all clearhowthemodels relate to thestages.Partofthetrouble liesinhisresolute refusal to quantify be surewho anyofhis statements aboutratesofchange.Hence we cannot and whatis identified witheach stage.Nor is it clearwhichmodelcan be appliedto which country. Further, I cannot tellwhether thesamemodel explains all sevensituations or whether situation 6 is a specialcase notcoveredby thesamemodel.If so, the exceptioncovers all of Africa and the Middle East. Japan and Latin Americaare hardlymentioned; China not oftenenough.Is thereno nationalism to be foundthereor is it irrelevant withrespect to rationalization? Situation 4 strikes me as extrinsic to the modelbecause intheremaining "culture" a different than is heregiven meaning situations. In situation 4 it meansintercultural comparison (Germans against Frenchthesame menor Englishmen), notconflict within amongcultural symbols a country More seriousstill, thetheory cannot society. explain why,after goes through theexperience of situation 2, it should tilt toward situation 3, as opposedto4 or5, except interms ofunique historical The circumstances. retrodiction is episodicrather thansystematic. It worksbestforthe "nationfirst, state The theory is also incomplete. second" pattern;it explainsthe secession of the mobilizedbut unasin situations in whichthe mobilized are similated. Gellnerloses interest in a single assimilated butby beingengulfed cometo identify highculture with a polity that is aggressively exclusive and demanding. Whyis French, and American nationalism British, (leave alone Japaneseor Russian)no In short, after becomesa happynationalist? longer interesting everybody in Gellnerneglectsthe phenomenon of successful symbolmanipulation rationalized withcommunication societies.Although fascinated patterns andindustrialization, he showslittle theearlystagesofmobilization during interest in how thesameprocesscan be used to explain thepersistence of national in thelaterstage. sentiment The differences morenuance. captured by the seven situations require as Gellner The situations thatthereare degreesof rationalization, imply andexplained. admits. If so, thedegrees to be described To do freely ought and ideologies, thevarious and attention to doctrines so, however, requires withtheir meansthemobilized use to come to terms competing symbolic newcondition. Islam. to thisonlywhenhe discusses Gellner paysattention He insists that itis all "falseconsciousness" in a chapter devoted to ideology ofserious or (despite theanti-Marxist thrust ofthebook),notworthy study

Whatis nationalism?725 nationalist the sillyjustifications attention because ideologiesare merely their existence. thisconIt is apparently troublemakers dream up tojustify thelater nationalism oftheWestEuropean viction that enableshim toignore thesubstantial debate ideological hisignoring states andofJapan. Itjustifies and character ofthenation. in thesecountries purpose, as to theidentity, aboutthatvery disagreement The debatein turnimpliesseriousinternal national myth that ofcoherent identity and suggests theabsenceofthekind situation 3 implies. as a gestalt rather His muddling ofmodelsand stagescaststheargument adds a number On theother hand,Gellner than as sequential macrohistory. how offeatures He does a wonderful job ofdescribing that Deutsch neglects. shade into he showshow religious identities religion can define identity; The typology identities acquirereligious form. cultural ones andhowethnic between historical ofnationalism to showthedifferences is a laudableeffort avoids theidenGellner processes,a step Deutschdid nottake. Finally, whichtendsto giveDeutsch'sversion tification of language withethnicity credible a monocausal necessary formaking character thatwas notreally thecoreconstruct balance. ofthemobilization-assimilation We must takeas How can we buildon theworkofDeutschand Gellner? in thelarger of how people's study central their anchoring of nationalism ofmodernization, howpeople during theprocess perceived identities change purely personal extending beyondtheir becomecarriers of highcultures of romantic notions we must reject experiences. Like Deutschand Gellner, itself from timeto time.We nature reasserts Urvolker whose unchanging manufactured and inthatnationalism, though must accepttheir insistence is a rational wayof ideologies, andpolicies, vented intheform ofdoctrines, getsundermass social mobilization organizing impersonal societiesafter of nationalism withthisor thateconomic way. Hence the identification ofclass over can be ignored, as can theinsistence on thedomination policy can be ideologies nationalist nation as an organizing concept.And specific at facevalue studied as potential ofbeing taken rationalizing agents instead an or merely to be done. I now sketch debunked. But thistask remains approach fordoingit. How to studynationalism final The enterprise maintenance is farfrom and nation of nation building and andcomplete. ofdomestic How then can we talkabouttheachievement could confiinternational of "early nationalism" The students harmony? because theywerenotyet of retrodiction dently engagein the enterprise inWestofethnic to faceup to theintellectual stirrings challenge compelled ernEurope;nordid theyfeelobligedto comment of naon theglimmers I forEuropeanunification. tionalobsolescenceimplicit in the movement

726 International Organization ofnationalism as cluesto patterns wishto exploit thecompeting ideologies of domestic and international and I mustpay attention to rationalization, is notfeasible. Myaimcannot pastandfuture uncertainties. Yet, prediction be higher thanOtisDudleyDuncan's: increasing methodological As ingredients ofourforecasts we will,with projections, trend extrapolations, sophistication, continue to prepare constructs so as to provide as modelsimulations and developmental possiblepathways to broadan array as maybe useful ofthelogically ofmethods ofanticipating whatwill allymoveforward to theperfection [sic] is notlogically possible, aesactually occur,forsuchperfectability Whatwe mayhopeto imthetically appealing or morally inspiring. formaking known prove,ifnotperfect, is our senseofresponsibility theimplications ofourknowledge.1" about possiblerelationships here are hypotheses The thoughts offered The research not predictions. and nationalism, betweenrationalization in thepast is notyetcomsuchrelationships necessary fordemonstrating thefuture, either topredict itstill wouldnotsuffice pleted. Wereitcomplete of newand old nations, or forecasting in terms of thedomestic tranquility ofthat research orders. The results theshapeoffuture international will,at andaboutpasts futures aboutpossible best,openup reasonable speculation inevitable. that werefarfrom ofindicators and measures nationalist ideologies, followed by a discussion To rationalized nation-state. of a successfully forobserving the existence ofnationalism can be usedto conclude I shalldiscusshowthevarious types and international harmony. anticipate domestic
Definitions12

hypothetical futures....

There will be no pretensethatwe can gradu-

I shall offer definitions of thecore termsnation,nationalism, nation-state, nationalistideology, and national myth.I shall thendevelop a typologyof

themselves mobilized A nation is a socially bodyofindividuals, believing thatdifferentiate them to be united (in their by some set of characteristics their own state. to createor maintain own minds) from outsiders, striving sentiment becauseoftheir havea collective consciousness Theseindividuals which is fostered ofdifference, or evenuniqueness, bythegroup'ssharing
11. "Social Forecasting: The StateoftheArt,"as quotedwith approval by LloydFallers, inTurkey and ofnation studies offers SocialAnthropology, contrasting building p. 134.Fallers whentraditional values thatemerged of syncretism Ugandain orderto isolatethepatterns thediscipline to avoidretrodiction collided with ones. He illustrates Western nicely required thefuture. ofpredicting andto escape thehubris ofthecountry that merely tellsthehistory linked topropositions consistent butsimilar setofdefinitions 12. Fora more articulated fully Interethnic Relations withmygeneral see E. K. Francis, (New York: Elsevier, argument, 1976), pp. 381-405.

Whatis nationalism?727 ofcore symbols. A nation ceases to existwhen,among other things, these thegroup symbols arerecognized as nottruly differentiating from outsiders. A nation is an "imagined community" because thesesymbols are shared vicariously with fellow-nationals overlongdistances, thus producing expectations ofcomplementary andpredictable behavior from A fellow-nationals. government is not considered legitimate unlessit is thought to represent such a group.A nationis a groupof people who wish to practiceselfdetermination. Nationalism is a belief heldby a group ofpeoplethatthey ought to constitute a nation, or that are one. It is a doctrine of they already social solidarity A based on thecharacteristics and symbols ofnationhood. nation-state is a political themselves a entity whose inhabitants consider single nation and wishto remain one. I call attention to the factthatthisset of definitions restson theprior notion of social mobilization. Nationand nationalism imply a situation in whichpopular awarenessof,and some degreeofpopular participation in, politicsprevail.I emphasizethatmanyof the 160-oddstatescurrently in existence are notnation-states. is a belief andother literate Nationalsentiment intellectuals among groups that topractice at some they constitute a nation andought self-determination time inthefuture, eventhough thecondition ofevenpartial socialmobilizationhas notyetbeenattained. The concept is necessary becausewe haveto recognize sentiments of solidarity-perhaps potential solidarity wouldbe more accurate-in situations as in Elizof literary self-consciousness, abethan in Russiaunder Alexander England, theearlyrisorgimento, II, or in Brazilin the 1820s. Such an elitesentiment mustbe sharply from nationalist distinguished A nationalist is a bodyofarguments and ideas abouta ideologies. ideology nation advocatedby a groupofwriters and acceptedby a specific political movement. Nationalist ideologiesembody political programs. They arise inthe after hasgoneonlongenough only socialmobilization tohaveresulted to the availability of mass publicsattentive to the message.They refer "nationalist"content of whatever specifically ideologiesare in political an additional Hence they dimension fortalking about competition. provide thecontent andfascism. Therewere ofliberalism, conservatism, socialism, no nationalist ideologies prior to thelate 18th century. makeassertions aboutkey contentious Typically, nationalist ideologies orseek aspectsofthesolidarity being Sincethey urged. challenge, advocate, to come to terms all nationalist withthe impactof modernity, ideologies withthe validity of the core values of thetraditional mustbe concerned culture. seek to getridoftraditional Revolutionary ideologies values;synof on theextent cretist seek to amendor retain ideologies them, differing makeasserintercultural borrowing whichought to be fostered. Ideologies that tionsaboutthenation'sclaimto historical to theterritory uniqueness, thatshould thenation-state to occupy,and to thekindsofrelations ought

728 International Organization and others. prevail between one's nation Nationalist also contain ideologies and institutional on how the nationoughtto be constitutional programs theseideologies advanceideas on thehistorical governed. Finally, mission ofthenation, from to conquest or therestoraranging quietself-perfection tionof somegoldenage. strife Continuing different amongrivalideologies missions claiming and different for institutions their nation is proof ofunsuccessful rationalization. Such strife provides evidence that thesocially mobilized are split, that they cannotagree on the characteristics thatmakethemdifferent from other nations. Theycannot reachagreement on theuniqueinstitutions that ought to govern their state.The society does notseemable to cometo terms with thestrains of modernization. A certain ideology maysucceedin capturing the statefora limited periodand thenenact its program. But if a rival ideology takesoversoon thereafter and scrapsthepoliciesofitspredecessors,we are entitled to wonder whether a morepervasive ever nationalism really characterized theentire population, whether an accepted corebodyof valueseverexisted. I reservethe termnationalmyth forthe situation in whichtheclamor among ideologies has beentranscended totheextent ofresulting ina coreof ideas and claimsabout selfhood commonly acceptedby all the socially mobilized. Put differently, the national thoseideas, valmyth represents ues, and symbols thatmostcitizens acceptdespite their into beingdivided competing ideologicalgroups.The myth the overlapamong represents ideologies. It is possible,of course,thatthebearers of a specific ideology capturethe state and eventually succeed in imposing theirbeliefson Their everybody. then ideology becomesthemyth. likethis Something happenedinFranceafter inRussiaafter 1870, 1917, inJapan after 1945.Itis also possiblethatno single ideology everwinsfinally andthat themyth is made up of itemson whichrivalideologies have compromised, as in theUnited Statesafter 1865or in Belgium since1970.In either thata event, evidence national myth prevails is also evidenceof successful rationalization. seek to sidestepthe conceptual My definitions and historical dichotomiesthat plaguethestudy ofnationalism. Armed with these we do not terms have to worry about the objectiveas opposed to the subjective basis of nationhood, authentic as opposedto illegitimate the virtues nationalisms, of the older typesand the vices of the latecomers. The terms oughtto covereverysituation and provide a value-neutral them. way ofcomparing Whether we approveor disapprove of the historical resultsis reallya question ofwhether we are in agreement with theparticular form ofrationalization thatcame about; it need not be a judgment as a on nationalism describable phenomenon. are capableofbeingoperationalized Finally, mydefinitions through systematic observation. Paul Valerymayhavebeenquiteright whenhe wrote that

Whatis nationalism?729 is themostdangerous History evolvedfrom thechemistry product of theintellect. Its properties are wellknown. It causes dreams, it intoxicateswholepeoples,givesthem falsememories, quickens their reflexes, keepstheir old woundsopen,torments in their them repose, leads them intodelusions either ofgrandeur or persecution, and makes nations bitter, arrogant, insufferable and vain.'3 However,we need not stop withhis observation. We can determine just howarrogant and howvaina given nation maybe, compared with itself and with others at various points in their histories. Moreover, we can determine whythearrogance prevails by comparing thecompeting ideologies and by discovering which beliefs emerged as thenation's myth. Notevennationalists act on the basis of pure will or intuitive romantic insight. They are constrained, like everyactorin a collectivesetting, by the rulesof satisficing, bytheneedto calculate theopportunity costsofmaking alliances or stressing thisor thattheme, by theimperative of recognizing relations of strategic interdependence withotheractors. Even the formulation of a nationalist ideology involves rational choice.
Nationalist ideologies compared: a typology

An incomplete reading ofmodern history suggests theexistence ofseven manifestations of nationalist fourrevolutionary ideologies, and threesyninemphasis. cretist Despitetheir differences, all sevenhavecertain characincommon teristics that distinguish them from premodern Allare ideologies. all derive populistic; their they theclaimthat"thepeople" ofa appealfrom certain territory (nota class, or status group)have an innate right to selfAll are progressive determination. because theyrejectall or some of the historical believein theefficacy past;they ofhuman intervention to change history for thebetter. Andall arerational becausethey diagnose a challenge andprescribe a response; they embody distinct notions ofcause andeffect, endsandmeans;matching meansto endsis notusually random, emotional, passionate, willful, or romantic. But the differences between thetwo maintypesalso mustbe stressed. Revolutionary insist on drastic ideologies institutional Certain change. types of social groupsare to be removed. Relations and new amongremaining must groups becometotally different. The old elitemust go anda newelite, withpopulismand progress, compatible musttake its place. Syncretist ideologies are unwilling to be thisdrastic. a sharp Theydo notrepresent breakwiththepast,onlysomecompromise withit. Theyoften rejectthe values of modernity, though theyseek theincorporation of its techniques and someofitsinstitutions.
vol. 10 (New York:Bollingen ed. Jackson Works 13. Collected ofPaul Valery, Mathews, Foundation, 1962), p. 14.

Organization 730 International coherent tendto be moreinternally ideologiestherefore Revolutionary senseoftechnical rationality. a sharper ones. Theyembody thansyncretist their syncretist whereas off valuesquiteruthlessly, to trade Theyarewilling choices. All nationalist in their and inconsistent hesitant rivalsare often that None appreciates runover the longterm. ideologiesstressthe short unforeseen triggers institutional changes overthelonghaulanysetofmajor withthe values being inconsistent consequences, and possiblyunwanted from the ideologiesare muchmorelikelyto suffer urged.But syncretist in ideologiesare consistent of the long run. Revolutionary uncertainties ormanipulated. whether voluntaristic participation, popular urging inclusive between alternating tend to fudgethe issue of participation, Syncretists beand repression, between elections modesand manipulation, voluntary to submerge oneselfin the tween individual and the obligation rights struggle. nationalist FollowingCarltonHayes and Hans Kohn, I dividethe revolutionary variants. Each, in into"liberal" and "integral" of nationalism ideologies turn,must be subdivided.Liberals break down into "Jacobins" and into"Marxists"and "fascists." "Whigs,"integralists and completely valuesand institutions liberals rejecttraditional Jacobin more butlookfor replacements them wishtoreplace Whigs also reject them; cautiously.Both believe that liberal societieshave manyinternational derive thenation's Jacobins andought from oneanother. toborrow affinities and linguistic homofrom allegedethnic claimto historical distinctiveness and whatever processesof homogenization from thustheyprofit geneity; as did Robesregimes, centralization by earlier mayhave been triggered Whigs prefer Parliament. pierre, Danton,Cavour,and the 1848Frankfurt as did J. S. homogeneity, to ethnic thelegitimacy continuity of historical group bywhatever MillandNehru.Bothtypes thearea occupied agreethat is defined territory ofitsstate.Bothalso agree as "thenation"is theproper nonliberal Toward that nations tobe peaceful. liberal ought relations among to use forceto and Whigsare willing Jacobins entities, however, political and to makeothers liberation, towardliberalism, to aid in their progress in aggressive more colonize aresomewhat owngood.Jacobins them for their and ThomasJeffertheir Wilson by Woodrow zeal, as shown proselytizing natural democracy, son. All liberalnationalists advocate representative Jacobins of all citizensin government. and the freeparticipation rights, selfis notmerely continuous believe thehistorical ofthenation mission that to confine creed. of the Whigs prefer butalso theglobaldiffusion perfection matters to continuous self-perfection. to say the least, betweenliberal There has been an electiveaffinity, intervention with American nationalism and late 19th-century imperialism, intheRussiancivil Alliedmeddling in Mexicoand theCaribbean, and with of war after 1917.The powerof thecreedwas obviousin theoccupation of and as in the construction conduct and after as well 1945, Germany Japan

Whatis nationalism?731 also has an elective NATO. It is farfrom obviousthatliberalnationalism thepresence ofsomethemes for a peaceful world affinity order, despite that lead one to suspectit. might Whenwe examinethe integralist of ideologies, family such suspicions vanishfast.Fascistsand Marxists also rejecttheold order and itsvalues, though fascists sometimes pretend to retain someofitssymbols, as in Hitler'splaying with pre-Christian themes, Mussolini's appealstoRoman grandeur, and Kita Ikki's to Shintoideas. Borrowing from otherintegralist societiesis praiseworthy. Whatgroupof people is to be selectedas "the nation"?Marxists opt fortheparticular of classes, that class, or coalition resists imperialism in a specified territory. Fascistsuse a racialcriterion or arguments abouthistorical continuity or both.Bothideologies advocatea totalitarian modeofgovernment bya vanguard oftheelectwhich incarnates thenation as a collectivity. Bothassumethatthenation muststruggle for survival because it is constantly threatened from by attack hostile external forces. Fascistsglorify warandself-assertion as part ofthenation's mission. Marxists acceptwaras inevitable as longas imperialism continues to live, butthey glorify onlywarsofnational liberation. For thefascist, themission ofthenation is toassureitsownsurvival; theMarxist itis theushering for in ofa classlesssociety. The ideaofa harmonious is aliento international order fascists andMarxists, except on minor issuesintheshort run.As longas the contrast betweenliberaland integral nationalism remains as starkas the historic ideologiessuggest, the idea of a rationalized worldseems farfetched. Butthen, thesuccessors ofStalin, Mao, Hitler, andPrince Konoye seemto have sensedthatideological is notalwaysrational. purity The three kinds ofsyncretists disagree on howmuch oftherevolutionary ideologies tobe accepted intheir ought countries. "Synthetic syncretists"Mohandas Gandhi, Leopold Senghor, K'ang Yu-wei,Mazzini,theGerman romantics-consider manymodern valuesas desirable, provided theycan be mixedappropriately withtraditional values to be retained. However, suchideologies feelthatnotall traditional valuesare worthy of retention, particularly thosecloselyassociatedwith a diffuse agrarian order. Synthetics wantto borrow values,alongwith and techniques, institutions from the Theirclaimto nationhood earlymodernizers. fortheir owncountries rests on historical longevity. state thenation's Theydemand onlytheexisting for home.Theyseek peaceful and cooperative with relations others, afterthe survival of their nation seemsassured.Democracy mayor maynotbe the featured formof government; rule by various formsof authoritarian theelitethatunderstands the proper mixture of values is morecommon. The historical mission and of thenation is to bring aboutitsown survival protection, whichimpliesheavy borrowing fromnonindigenous cultural we sourcesin order to succeed.Among thesuccessful synthetic syncretists couldlistsomeof theMeiji reformers, modern SouthKorea, and perhaps thepostindependence in IvoryCoast and Senegal. regimes

732 International Organization

TABLE 1.

Attributes nationalistideologies of revolutionary

Ideology Liberalism Integralism Whig reform gradually Marxist reject outright Fascist reject substance but retainsymbols borrow from other Fascists

Dimension 1. What should be done about the core values of the traditional culture?

Jacobin reject outright

2. What ought to be borrowingis good; liberalsought borrowed fromother to borrow fromeach other cultures? 3. What is the nation's claim to historical distinctiveness? 4. What territory is properly the nation's? 5. How should the nation relate to other nations? ethnic and linguistic homogeneity historical continuity seen as ethnic or linguistic homogeneity

borrow from other Marxists

class defined as resistance to imperialism withinspecific territory

race or historical continuity

whatever area is occupied by the group defined in 3

whatever area is occupied by the group defined in 3

spread liberalism by example and by war if appropriate;

make peaceful contribution to the expansion of liberalism;

permanentstruggle,need forsurvival, endemic hostility toward others;

foster peaceful relations among all liberalnations; fightother nations or colonize them in order to advance liberalismglobally 6. What is the proper representativedemocracy natural rightsfor individual institutional struccitizen ture forthe nation? 7. What is the historicalmission of the nation? continuous self-perfection and the global diffusion of the creed continuous self-perfection but no explicit mission otherwise

war and fightimperialism, glorify but do not self-assertion glorify war totalitarianrule via a vanguard the nation; group incarnating rightsinherein nation, not individual bringabout classless society assure survival of race

Examples

FrenchRevolution, Mill,Nehru Jefferson, Wilson, Cavour, German liberals

Stalin, Tito, Ho, Mao

Mussolini, Hitler,Eastern Europe in the 1 930s, Kita lkki

Whatis nationalism?733
TABLE 2.

Attributes of syncretist nationalistideologies

Ideology Synthetic many modernvalues are good and usable; mix with good traditionalvalues values as well as techniques and institutions historical longevity Traditional distrustmodernvalues; verycautiously borrow Restorative reject existingtraditionalvalues in favor of restoring values of a past golden age onlytechniques, not institutions or values

Dimension 1. What should be done about the core values of the traditionalculture? 2. What ought to be borrowedfrom othercultures? 3. What is the nation's claim to historical distinctiveness? 4. What territory is properly the nation's? 5. How should the nation relate to other nations? 6. What is the properinstitutional structure forthe nation? 7. What is the historicalmission of the nation? Examples

onlytechniques and institutions needed, not values culturalsuperiority as evidenced by historicallongevity; race area of existing state

religiousrevelation, scriptural authority

usually, but not always, the existing state

area occupied by people to whom the revelation was made

cooperativelyand peace- ambivalently, because of hostilelyand distrustfully; fully, aftersurvivalis fear for continu-iig need forstruggle! survival assured vigilance variable various corporatedevices to limit popular participation and legitimateleadership of traditional groups assure its own survival theocracy

assure its own survival and self-perfection

restorethe golden age

Gandhi, Senghor, K'ang, Yu-wei, Mazzini, Afghani,Lutfi, German Romantics

Stein, Maurras, Meiji reformers, many Confucianists,Indian Muslimreformers

Tilak, Khomeini, Al-Banna,Slavophiles

"Traditional syncretists" distrust valuesand have no innonindigenous tention ofintroducing them. Theyremain to religious deeplyattached systems thatpenetrate the local culture-Confucianism, Islam, Hinduism, Catholicism. However,such people are quitewilling to take over nonindigenous techniques, suchas technology, scientific and education, literacy, modem Moreimportant, armies. arewilling toadaptindigenous instituthey tionsto theextent to incorporate thesetechniques, forexample, necessary theintroduction through ofconscription, and compulsory public education, evenaspectsofindustrialism. Traditional themselvessyncretists persuade usually mistakenly-that can borrow they andinstitutions withtechniques

734 International Organization the values thatgo withthem.Theirclaimto national out also accepting cultural forhistorical over superiority distinctiveness restson an argument ofCharles Mauras inthework their rivals which often takesa racialform, and of Rabindranath Tagore. ras, some of thelate ChineseConfucianists, butthey oftheexisting state, realm theterritory Theyclaimas thenation's relations with other countries becauseof are ambivalent aboutthenation's thatsurvival is the fearthattheymaynot survive. Assuring theirstrong cultural whichimpliesan indigenous renaissance nation'smainmission, institutions and techniques. of nonindigenous alongwiththe introduction is corporatism preferred by traditional syncretists The modeofgovernance while the legitimating and channel popular participation designed to contain by one oftheearliest groups, as clearly expressed leadership oftraditional "latecomers," Prussia'sBaronvomStein. they rejectforeign values and institutions; "Restorative syncretists" and factories. In fact, wanttheforeigner's techniques-hisarmies merely by their owngovprofessed they taketheposition thatthevaluesactually be replaced bypureand corrupt and must ernment are already dangerously becausethey wishto get authentic values.Theyare "restorers" indigenous backthepurity of accretions andbring ridofforeign moral andinstitutional an earlier on religious revelation andscriptural authorgolden age. Theyrely and Hassan ality-the vedic textsforTilak, the Koran forKhomeini Banna, the Christian Bible forthe Slavophiles.Who is the nation?The ofwhere they might was made,irrespective peopleto whomtherevelation live. How shouldthe nationbehave towardothers?It mustbe eternally itsspiritual treato defend vigilant, trust nobody, and be readyat all times sure. Restorers, of their stance,mustexpectwar and violence. by virtue they attempt todo thelostgolden age,which Their chief mission is torestore a hara theocratic dictatorship. Theycan no moreenvisage by instituting monious worldorder thancan theintegralists. among theseseven is a story ofcompetition The history of mostnations national myth to giveus a consensual ideologies. Can they be transcended that themes? Or, wouldwaterdownand slough off someofthecontrasting as in the case of some of the integralist and liberalexperiences, is the In order toinvestigate as a victorious ideology? national myth thesamething I fora rationalized worldorder, thesepossibilities, and their implications must first showhow to "measure"a national myth.
Indicators and measurement

anddisintegraindicators ofnational integration The neglect ofsystematic Thereseemsto be tionis one of themainfailings of theworksreviewed. measurement ofdegrees and little excuseforthisas faras thequantitative anddataareplentiful. ofsocialmobilization are concerned. Concepts types building, suchas EugenWeber'sPeasants into The best studies of nation

Whatis nationalism?735 and do nothesitate to mixthem to greatadvantage Frenchmen, use them publicopiniondata on Wheresystematic withqualitative observations. conseofcourse,thepolitical ofthenation-state exist, popular expectations assessed. Whenwe do not can be directly quencesof social mobilization observations on a systematic touse qualitative havesuchdatawe areforced comparative basis. in orderto makea could we ask of a society Whatkindsof questions under theumbrella ofa nationalist judgment ofitsdegreeofrationalization of despitetheprevalence such beliefs, myth? We wantto knowwhether tofunction toenablethestate aresufficiently consensual divergent attitudes, we wantto knowwhether this to everyone's Moreover, basic satisfaction. class,and ethnic, religious, obtains despite linguistic, happystateofaffairs are appropriate indicators: questions status cleavages.The following that is regularly observed forpolitical succession Is there a formula coups and civilwars? without engendering Arethecore valuescommunicated by thepublicmediaand theschool or ofmajormovements accepted?Is there evidence system generally thesevalues? eventschallenging irreas equitable policypursued by thestateperceived Is theeconomic or religious ofregional, cleavages? linguistic, ethnic, spective by thestateperlinguistic) policypursued Is thecultural (especially ceivedas equitable? theexistence ofcompeting consensus despite Is there a foreign-policy poland changesofgovernment? (N.B. Thisneednotmeanthat parties in policydo notengender it meansthatchanges unchanged; icyremains strife other socialcleavages.) thatcovarieswith theother Two key indicators are implied by thislist,one quantitative, sincestrikes, riots, coups, ofcivilstrife, qualitative. Whatis theincidence civilwar are themostvisibleevidenceof disand full-scale conspiracies, a source ofsatisfacsatisfaction? Is thelanguage bythestate policy pursued tionor dissatisfaction? assumethat Civilstrife is a very indicator becausewe cannot every tricky evidence ofa political assassination figure provides every strike, every riot, These eventshave varying of deep-seated and widespread dissatisfaction. of socialmobilization, the on theextent depending diagnostic significance, thenature of theurbanthe society, degreeto whichthe statepenetrates rural,high culture-lowculturesplit. FollowingTed Gurr and Muriel and between we mustdistinguish "turmoil," "conspiracies," McClelland, ingeneral, Turmoil, "internal war" as providing a scale ofviolent events.14
Political Hills: Sage, Gurrand Muriel 14. Ted Robert (Beverly Performance McClelland, 1971).

736 International Organization is nota validindicator ofdissatisfaction with thenation-state. It maysuggest inrivalnationalist butwe cannot alienation that finds expression ideologies, within theconfines ofa be surethat thedemands putforward do notremain We must that theriots andstrikes aremotivated shared be certain myth. bya we can interpret this setofsymbols theofficial form challenging onesbefore ofcivilstrife. Whatabout the incidence of conspiracies (terrorism, mutinies, coups) Theseare notalwaysvalidindicators ofa directed against thegovernment? between conditions that desireto makeor unnmake a nation.I distinguish to an existing nationobtain and challenges whena nation is yetto be built of nation maintenance. state,thecondition ina state ruled Let us assumea situation ofincomplete socialmobilization there is no doubt that autocratically bya narrowly basedelite, though a state then constitute evidence existsand is recognized to exist.Conspiracies ofa desire to createa nation-state ifone segment oftheeliteseemstoimpose its also constivision ofthenation on other segments oftheelite.Conspiracies outof a tutesuchevidenceiftheconspiring elitewishesto makea nation target population distributed amongseveralstates.Conspiracies, however, serveas a method arenota validindicator ofsucha desire when they merely as in most of Latin for displacing one set of caciques when another, For instance, theenthe19th America's "national"periodduring century. demic ofnationalism, conspiracies ofSantaAnna'sMexicoarenotevidence buttheconspiracies of the 1850sprobably are. ofthereformers is far inwhich socialmobilization advanced Now letus assumea situation a marked andan effective until thepoint atwhich state exists as well,which, The inincreasein conspiracies occurs,had enjoyedlegitimate authority. desireto splitoff crease in conspiracies is validevidenceof a nationalist from thatstateor to takeit over,iftheconspirators advancea nationalist different from as inthecase ofNazi ideology thepreviously prevailing myth, Germany or Lenin's Russia. An increasein conspiracies is also a valid indicator whenthe conspirators represent groupswho feelleftout of the benefits bestowedby the stateand its national myth, usuallybecause the or are "different" forreasonsof religion, conspirators ethnic, linguistic, Northern and status characteristics. areIndiasince1947, Examples Ireland, Biafra. Internal of complete social mobilization, war, underconditions always proves the failureof a nationalmyth and the prevalence of competing nationalist of incomplete social mobilization, ideologies. Underconditions warheremay thecase. Internal thisis notnecessarily however, just be the "normal"way of resolving forspoilsand provenothing interelite conflict one wayor theother aboutnationalism. of satisfaction withthe indicator Languagepolicyis a verysensitive recwe keep in mindtwo verydifferent nation-state, provided situations, makeno prestates(Switzerland, ognized multilingual Belgium, India)that

Whatis nationalism?737 and tenseabouthaving a single official language used in all publicbusiness and states inwhich several languages imposed bythepublicschoolsystem, one is imposed as the are (or havebeen)used vernacularly, though a single In thefirst official modeofcommunication. case, one wouldhaveto know abouttheextent ofbilingualism among theeliteand aboutpeople'swillingother thantheir native ness to function in skilled professions in a language one. Multilingual the politiesare based on varioussubtlecompromises; come willingness to forgoa singleofficial languagedoes not necessarily theindiaboutwithout The character ofthesecompromises provides strife. 15 thefashioning myth. catorsforobserving ofthenational of a single language to The morecommon case involves theimposition taketheplace ofa number that mayor maynotbelong to the ofvernaculars same language to groupas theofficial one. How can peoplebe persuaded abandontheir ofmodern Hebrew,Bahasa, and nativevernaculars in favor How Swahili? Whatincentives are givento thosewholearnthelanguage? are dissenterspunished?What makes the work of official language elemenofFrench academiesauthoritative? As recently as 1863,one-third in standard communicate French. tary schoolchildren couldnoteffectively intheSovietUnionnow.Yet there is no We maywonder aboutthesituation in In short, the manner evidenceof disaffection from the national myth. whicha singlelanguageis imposedon people providesclues about the ofa language is perceived as a violathreshold beyond which theimposition tionof national It is a mistake to think ofanylanguage self-determination. state. policysimply as imposition by the bruteforceof the centralizing reasonsforcomplying Speakersof minority languages mayhave excellent their careeropportunities; they may with thepressure merely to maximize dehave equallyrational foropposing the pressure. Everything grounds in whichthe processoccurs. pendson the policyand economiccontext to primordial cultural not presumed attachment Rationalchoice criteria, values,explain outcomes.16 Definitions and indicators are toolsto enableus to say something about in therelationship between nationalism and therationalization of societies thethroes of modernization. some Theyare also tools thatshouldthrow
ofCalifornia on lanamplequantitative evidence University Press,1981);thisbookscontains On Belgium ed., Conflict andCoexistence in guage andnationalist symbols. see Arend Lijphart, ofInternational Institute University ofCalifornia, 1981).Kenneth Belgium (Berkeley: Studies, in quitedifferent in "market" Jowitt showshowthesevariables manifest themselves forms as to "ordered" inwhich is legitimated interms ofits competition opposed societies, interpersonal contribution to theorganic of theentire See his The polities). unity society (as in Leninist
LeninistResponse to National Dependency (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, Uni15. On Switzerlandsee Carol L. Schmid, Conflict and Consensus in Switzerland(Berkeley:

ofCalifomia, versity 1978). that can illustrate 16. For a convincing demonstration formulations theoutgame-theoretic between centralizers and speakers of minority comesof encounters see languages language and Catalonia after Franco"(Paperreadat theannual DavidD. Laitin,"Political Linguistics ScienceAssociation, New Orleans, oftheAmerican Political August 1985). meeting

Organization 738 International when rationalidown, breaks under which thepattern light on theconditions to work,and the seems no longer zationat the level of the nation-state begins. political constructs searchforalternative a research All I can do hereis to offer Thistaskhas notyetbeentackled. processes of arethetypical arise:(1) What Threequestions agendaraisonne. of a of the growth society,in terms of an industrializing rationalization occur at the domestic rationalization myth? (2) Must successful national does thefailharmony? (3) Underwhatconditions expenseofinternational formulas ofgovernance? lead to nonnational ureofdomestic rationalization
and successful rationalization National myths

comesinto myth I take rationalization to be "successful"if a national ifa thatmyth, wardo notchallenge and internal ifconspiracies existence, and ifthemyth by themyth, situation is legitimated consensual language andincoherent to earlier fragmented alternative a coherent secular provides mustcontainthe nonreligious of beliefand conduct.The myth patterns to thebeliever's anddirection to givecertainty that are designed assertions thepatriotic It maycontain write. mind Anderson and Gellner andofwhich deof self-reliant vitalfortheimplementation appealsthatSeers considers formulation to use Gellner's rationalization, policies.Successful velopment for theprevihigh culture common ofa single thesubstitution again,implies in thetarget population. low cultures ous flourishing of manyfragmented amalgam oflow-andhighis a unified newculture therational Alternatively, culture themes. We must go backto the be explained? sucha transformation How might process.The in the modernization of the people involved characteristics they are inwhether from one another (eliteand mass)maydiffer mobilized theyare differentiated or whether intothe highculture easilyassimilated from the differ fromit. On what basis can the mobilized-unassimilated thewholepromayappearto derail Whatvariables mobilized-assimilated? peopleand cess? We mustconsider of theeventsthatmobilize thetiming ofcleavagethat maydivide dimensions thevarious dissatisfied, render them religion, theassimilated (suchas race,socialstatus, from theunassimilated andthe distribution ofthetarget thespatial population, ethnicity), language, thatmotivate theactors. ideologies in theprocessofsocialmobilization Timing of stateintervention Timing. is in theoutcome. If social mobilization can makean enormous difference overthelevers control notyetfaradvancedand ifthestatehas appreciable can be thenrationalization of symbolcreationand resourceextraction, facilieducational achieved thecriteria ofaccess to high-culture byrelaxing to nearequality. theunassimilated tiesand statussymbols, thusadmitting can mobilized before thenewly Theelite, ineffect, they co-opts successfully formulate a counterideology.

Whatis nationalism?739 whenthestate"builds"thenation, practiced is mostreadily Co-optation ideolbyan elitepossessedofa nationalist stateanimated whenan effective of theunincorporation in thegradual thepoliciesthatresult ogyfollows is notdivided population It is easierwhenthetarget intosociety. mobilized bythe Anditis facilitated cleavages. ethnic especially byobviouscleavages, to is likely Co-optation motivators. that can actas dramatic use ofideologies whennais not homogeneous, population whenthe target fail,however, is state,whenthere of a powerful precedestheexistence tionalsentiment and toAnderson's Contrary ideologies. nationalist among sharp competition national"official conditions, timing undertheproper Smith'sarguments, in Eastern agent.Its failure rationalizing ism" can be a veryeffective not to its "official" and the MiddleEast is attributable Europe,Africa, The conditions. facilitating butto the absence of the additional character when guaranteed is almost a society forrationalizing failure ofanyformula is andwhenthere generation intoa single is compressed socialmobilization as in mostof sentiment, nationalist statenora pervasive neither a strong Africa. a that ifwe coulddemonstrate ofcleavage.It wouldbe lovely Dimensions themobilized-unassimilated differentiating ofvariables uniquecombination with couldbe associated themobilized-assimilated from andfrom eachother sucha combinato find We are unlikely myth. theemergence ofa national to single ofnationalism thecontinuing efforts ofsomestudents tion, despite dimension No single uniquecombination. as that outethnicity andlanguage can be shownto be necesof dimensions of differentiation or combination of all theformation to explain and sufficient, or necessary sary,sufficient, ofsocial oftheprocess thetiming with differ ofsalience Dimensions nations. In involved. ofthepopulations distribution thespatial mobilization andwith on ethnic markedly do not differ statesand societieswhose populations on theassimilated from haveto differ themobilized-unassimilated grounds, a to formulate in orderto have the incentive morethanone dimension languageor beingof a a different nationalist ideology.Simplyspeaking to incentive enough is nota strong different from the assimilated religion states homogeneous in ethnically demand a nation ofone's own. However, onlyon thedimenneedto differ and societies, themobilized-unassimilated a nation-state. fordemanding sionof social status to have an incentive involved of thepopulations The spatialdistribution Spatial distribution. if ethnically is impeded Rationalization withthe timing pattern. interacts and toeachother orincloseproximity diverse liveintermingled populations andextracthesymbolic are suchthat iftheprocesses ofsocialmobilization to adapt.This tiveresources of the stateare taxedbeyondits capability groupsmakesimulethnic happenswhenseveralmobilized/unassimilated Theirgeographical equalityand participation. taneousclaimsforgreater thedominant andagainst one another situation makesthem against compete

Organization 740 International of the rationalization theattempted impeding groups.This was one factor in Africa rationalization it hinders and Russianempires; Austro-Hungarian now. withrespectto ideologieswould make a difference nationalist particular Fortenor oftime. is againthefactor The difficulty eventual rationalization. would anyofoursevenideologies suppose, one might periods, twenty-year if oflife.Butwhathappens to adjustto a newkind be effective motivators whenlinked to thekindsof processof social mobilization, the continued cleavagesor competitively or religious associatedwithethnic frustrations successthelogicoftheerstwhile undermines ofthearoused, groups located We knowthat ofdifferentiation? fulideology and givesriseto a newround to and Turkey, Japan, occasions-in Belgium, on many thishas happened namebuta few. wherethe of ethnicspatialdispersion, I hypothesize thatin situations capable of truly a weak state,the onlyideology mobilizing eliteinherits has variant The Marxist a newlifeis integralism. peopletoward motivating testthehalflife one. We cannot provedto be themoreeffective historically the to complete has survived longenough sinceno fascist regime offascism come Franco'sSpainmay,inadvertently, though processofrationalization, rationalization is attempted stipulated, close. If, underthe circumstances thechances ideology, or a syncretist-synthetic reliance on a liberal through willseek their groups but stillunassimilated are thatthenewlymobilized to thenewdispensation. in secession, notin loyalty salvation that liberal ideologiescan serve as effective I hypothesize further to the a strong stateprior possessing agentsonlyin societies rationalizing thathas endowedwitha population onsetof massivesocial mobilization, and posby thetimeof fullindustrialization, monolingual becomelargely mass demands. theresources forsatisfying sessing and between secular The compromises Whataboutsyncretist ideologies? They powerto rationalize. saps their sacredvalueswhichtheyall attempt thepublic from howtodistinguish tend do notknow becausethey tofounder makethisdistinction ideologies theprivate in religion. Secularnationalist without as an organized being pursuit mayflourish religion successfully: it mayalso go intodecline.The withthe publicrealm,though conjoined that reliinsisting are unwilling to makethisdistinction, formulas syncretist At the same time, retain relevance. public gious values and institutions of some secular by allowingthe introduction however,these formulas, to setthescene and themselves and tend to undermine values institutions, the to confine seeking by forviolent Restorative syncretism, socialconflict. be able to the buy and military, may to technology of themodern impact on thetiming fatally time.The efficacy of course,depends of theformula, the channel processof may formulas I hypothesize thatsyncretist factor.
Nationalist ideologies as motivators.It seems likelythat the contentof

Whatis nationalism?741 modernization fora while;but the forcestheyunleashwill successfully a liberal oran integral national either theseideologies andproduce challenge myth.
strife? Must successful rationalizationresultin international

forthe wereaccurate.Whatdo theypredict Supposethesehypotheses constraints on Ignoring structural nation-states? relations among successful of forthequality ofthehypotheses foreign-policy choice,theimplications claimson myths contain are notpleasant.Nationalist international politics is achieved.The inteself-determination other even after national nations, The Jacobin variconstant struggle. strife, insecurity, gralist myths suggest evenifit ofthevirtuous, antoftheliberal theimperialism myth legitimates strife. the inevitability of international Synthetic of accepting stopsshort areat least buttheother ofsyncretism is peaceful, twovarieties syncretism us Seers reminds withrespectto relations withother nations. ambivalent all thetypesof thateven in the area of international economic relations, as well as bellicoseinternational theseed forpeaceful nationalism contain contact. domestic hapwisdom has it thatRousseauwas right: The conventional Matters unhappiness. onlyat thepriceofinternational pinesscan be bought rationalization, as areevenworseifwe consider domestic that unsuccessful inthelater andOttoman empires, Romanov, Ch'ing, yearsoftheHabsburg, notbe overalso engenders The argument should disharmony. international stated. has beenone ofactiveinternaperiod True,thepost-Enlightenment tional discord. At the same time, that period has also been one of and social welfare in theface of the increases in economic unprecedented ofhomosapiens.Nor can itbe in thehistory increases steepest population has beenbought at the that theprosperity oftherichest convincingly argued ofdemIn short, thepossibility ofthepoorest. priceoftheimpoverishment of domestic patterns a link betweentypes of nationalism, onstrating notbe seenas strife should ofinternational rationalization, andtheincidence theequivalent Even ifitweretruethat thehigher forecast. of a doomsday worldare a result of the standards of welfare of the post-Enlightenment the nation-states-thus implying competitive prowess of the successful in mutually order anchored antagowarlike world prevalence ofa basically was notentirely nefarious. international anarchy nistic mercantilisms-the his case by exaggerating the buthe overstated Rousseauwas not wrong, extent ofinternational unhappiness. is not a by thisline of inquiry the hypothesis suggested Nevertheless, of conflict-prone international cheerful one. It presagesthe continuation or being bornreflect the nowextant myths relations as longas thenational as rationalizers, the seven ideologies.Whether as successes or failures order evenifSeers'spredilection sevenideologies world for spella troubled wereto becomereal. sturdy region-states

742 International Organization

Can failed domestic rationalizationlead to international rationalization?

I now standRousseauon hishead: can we imagine that domestic unhappinesswilllead to international happiness? Sincethishas nothappened yet, we are engaged in a gedankenexperiment.17 Suppose thathitherto successfully rationalized nation-states encounter difficulties relatedto technology, welfare commitments, and international economicinterdependence. Suppose further thatthe same difficulties bedevilefforts of stateswho have notyetfashioned nations. Print successful capitalism national But managed mayhave fostered integration. capitalism and statesocialism maynotsucceedin maintaining theintegration ifall of thefollowing conundra must be faced:excessindustrial capacity, uncertainties about investment in high-technology industries, how to splitup the resources ofthesea, deal with international debt,andprotect thebiosphere from pollution, whilealso remaining committed to higher standards ofpersonalwelfare Can thesimultaneous fortheir citizens. ofdomestic pressure turmoil and international interdependence lead to political that constructs are quitedifferent from whatwe knowand thattherefore a different imply kindofworld order? I hypothesize thatbecause of thesepressures previously acceptednational myths deteriorate. Previously mobilized peopleareno longer successas in a previous fully assimilated or co-opted. Just a new age theysought in nationalism identity once theold identities ceased being useful rationalizers,thenewly disoriented must an alternative search for tonationalism. Just as theirpredecessorscould select itemsfromthe menu of nationalist thenewly ideologies, disoriented have choices:autarky, interregionalism, national regimes, mininationalism via secession,or a new globalidentity based on class or religion. Not all countries suffer Autarky. equallyfromthe cross-pressures of postindustrialism. Some mayhave resourcessufficient to enablethemto meetthese challenges witha minimum of domestic disruption and little dependence on othercountries, if the volumeof welfare particularly demands can be reduced. willundermine The pressures thenational myth only to theextent thatdomestic remedies are unavailing. By no meansis every manifestation ofinternational to subvert nationalism. interdependence likely with are mostlikely to withstand Largecountries thesearch integral myths foralternative orders.
that follows more in TheObsolescence theargument 17. I havediscussed fully ofRegional Institute of International of California, Theory (Berkeley: Studies,University 1975);"Why 32(April and"Words Collaborate?" World Politics CanHurt You: or,WhoSaidWhat to 1980);

Whom about Regimes," InternationalOrganization34 (Spring 1982).

Whatis nationalism?743 a transnational Globalidentities. Candidates forthischoiceinclude commitment to the creation of a global classless society(Marxism) and the acceptanceof a global religious creed stressing eitherserviceto others Smith (Christianity) orthetranscendence ofpolitics (Hinduism, Buddhism). is absolutely correct in showing thateach of thesecan be institutionally, normatively, and conceptually an alternative to nationalism. However,in thepractice of modern politics, noneof them has in factbeen immune to nationalism. The reconversion of believers intothe purer forms of these buta consistent identities demands notonlya rejection of national myths rededication to theoriginal cosmopolitan content ofthesecreeds.Although remains the possibility cannotbe precluded, credibility low. The current prevalence oftraditional andrestorative syncretisms works against this solution.The innate secularism of thefour revolutionary ideologies can hardly be saidtofavor a turn toward transcendence orcompassionate service. The in itsantidependency content ofMarxist integralism, especially guise,is no moreconsistent withsucha choice. theregional ofpreviously Regionalism. The desire for integration successfulnation-states, particularly inEurope,clearly owes something tothedeterioration of earlier national myths. However, noteventhemostsuccessful ina regional integration schemes haveyetresulted identity. Suchan identity butthesubstitution wouldnotconstitute an abandonment ofnationalism ofa larger nation forseveralsmaller ones. Alternatively, regional arrangements thatfunction effectively without leading to themerger of sovereignties are hardto distinguish from international regimes. of longdormant ideneffusions Mininationalisms. ethnic Contemporary thefinality tities inWestern Europedo challenge ofthefamiliar nation-states ButI cannot that andcertainly theformer question myths. convince myself to thecross-pressures ofpostindustrialism. Autonthey constitute solutions to deal successfully omousWales,Brittany, or Euskadiare no morelikely withthe turbulence from of the welfare statethanare the governments whichtheywishto secede. Rationalchoice postulates (as well as recent with a temporary not we aredealing methat convince events) phenomenon, nation-states. the a seriousalternative to existing are alreadyquitefamiliar. Without International Such entities regimes. I simply the that now with their ourselves concerning origins, hypothesize economies levels demand national widespread formanaged sustaining high ofwelfare ofsovereign nation-states. be metin thecontext cannot Meeting ofexisting thedemands andthereconstruction callsfornewregimes, ones, with theautonomy ofthenationtheconsequences offurther undermining Howstateas it seeksto cope with domestic sourcesoferoding legitimacy. are to liberal and most animated ever,countries by synthetic myths likely

Organization 744 International national formanaged demands widespread Furthermore, feelthispressure. redistribution some (implying industrialization rapid for striving economies of the to South),also cannotbe metin thecontext North of wealthfrom the of also for creation demands calls these Meeting nation-state. sovereign as wellas variIntegralist regimes. economic ofinternational kinds various deeverybody feelthelogicofthispressure. Finally, myths ous syncretist the unwanted Conversely, innovations. the of technological benefits sires acts of incan be avoidedonlythrough of suchinnovations consequences while benefits Maximizing and administration. ternational collaboration and institupractices ofnonnational costscalls forthecreation minimizing ofthe formula therationalization further tionsthatmaytendto undermine nation-state. world government, doesnotpredict thelogicofthesehypotheses Notethat the likely outcome. as Nations United or a stronger or regional integration, social effective font of as the position its prominent loses Ifthenation-state Alternapossibilities. of these all or none maybe harmony, thealternative decentralization as wellas centralimayimply formulas tiverationalization issues).All that demands and fordifferent zation,or bothat once (though until this is to happen that none of with is likely confidence can be affirmed balancehas runits course,until thelogicof the mobilization-assimilation until social beentried, has everywhere on thenation-state relying happiness or we like nationalism Whether in all countries. is complete mobilization manhastopass. political which stage through not,itseemstobe a necessary thatconclunationalism, reasonsforstudying wereno other Even ifthere the quest. sionalonejustifies