Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory

Power Factor Theory --------------------------------------Aradhana Ray Consulting Engineer Doble Engineering, India

The underlying principle of the Doble M4000 Test is to measure the fundamental AC electrical characteristics of insulation.

Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory

Insulation
IEEE Defines Insulation as:

Changes in the electrical characteristics of insulation can indicate:

- An increased or decreased size of the insulation system, - Presence or absence of an insulation component or the movement of the conductors. -Indicate presence of moisture, insulation deterioration, destructive agents or ionization - These

Material or a combination of suitable nonconducting material that provides electrical isolation of two parts at different voltages.

changes can effect the performance of the insulation system.

Examples of Material With Insulating Properties

Dielectric
implies that the medium or material has specific measurable properties, such as: Dielectric Strength, Dielectric Absorption, Dielectric Constant, Dielectric Loss & Power Factor

Gaseous
High Vacuum Air Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)

Liquid
HydrocarbonBased Oil Silicone Oil Distilled Water

Solid
Cellulose Porcelain Phenolics

Insulation
Insulation is basically two plates separated by one or more dielectrics. One plate is at a high potential and the other at a lower or ground potential.
Current generated by polar contaminants in the dielectric insulation dielectric shows up as Watts. Heat/Watts

Fundamental AC Electrical Characteristics

Total Charging Current Capacitance Dielectric-Loss Power Factor Power Factor Tip-up

Typical Insulation System

IT IC IR ~ 0

Total Charging Current

Good Insulation: Has a very low power factor C P

IR<<IC for most insulation systems, IC ~ IT

RP

IT = IC + IR

1.5 1

Voltage and Currents

0.75
0.5

0.79
Voltage IR IC IT

The capacitance current and the resistive current cannot be just arithmetically added together because the quantities vary in time and are not in phase.

Magnitude

0.25
0

0
-0.5

90

180

270

360

450

540

630

-1

-1.5 Angle

Basic Circuit IT

Capacitance

IC

IR

CP

Parallel Circuit

The Perfect Capacitor

The perfect capacitor passes no Direct Current Alternating Current leads the voltage by 90 degrees has a Power Factor of 0% by definition
Perfect Capacitor % PF = 0%

Capacitor Current
1.5 1

0.5 Magnitude Voltage Current

0
-0.5

90

180

270

360

450

540

630

-1

-1.5 Angle

The Capacitor
Capacitor Current Vector Diagram

IC

Plates capacitance current leads the voltage by 90 degrees

Alternating

=90

Dielectric
Two conducting plates with area A separated by a dielectric with a thickness of d and dielectric constant

Capacitance

Dielectric Constant
d

A C= 4 d
C = Capacitance = dielectric constant d = Distance between plates

In 1836, Michael Faraday discovered that when the plates between a capacitor were filled with another insulating material, the capacitance would change. This factor is the dielectric constant By definition the dielectric constant of a Vacuum is 1.0. All other dielectric constants are referenced to this standard.

Oil =2.2 Vacuum

All of these variables are Physical

Parameters
Cvacuum=10 pF Coil = x CVacuum = 22 pF

Typical Insulation System

Various Dielectric Constants
Material Dielectric Constant Vacuum 1.0 Air 1.000549 Mica 5.4 Oil Impregnated Paper 3.7 Porcelain 7 Rubber 2.4 - 3.7 Oil 2.24 Silicone Fluid 2.75 Dielectric Strength (kV/mm) 3 10 16 5.7 12 12 15
Current & Loss Meter Guard Test Mode-GST Ground Test Ground Test-Set Ground Lead High-Voltage Test Cable

Oil = 2.1
Porcelain = 7.0

Paper = 2.0

Measuring the Dielectric Constant of a Material

Example: Oil leaking from an Insulation System

Oil = 2.1 Porcelain = 7.0 Paper = 2.0 Air = 1.0 Given three dielectrics in series the dielectric constant is: 2.1 x 7.0 x 2.0 2.1 + 7.0 + 2.0

IVac Vacuum

IOil

Oil

before =

= 2.65

If the Oil leaks out and is replaced by air...

An alternating current of the same voltage is applied to the capacitor for both tests.

after =

1 x 7.0 x 2.0 1 + 7.0 + 2.0

= 1.4

IOil IVac

= oil = 2.24 =

COil CVac

=>

It

Capacitive current and Capacitance

IC IC = EC
d

Capacitance Change due to Change in Area of Plate (Dielectric constant) & d (Distance between plates) are constant. Area of the plates doubles.

( = 2f)

C=

A 4 d A 4d
Physical

C=
A
d

Considered Constants During Testing 10 kV, 50 Hz

IC = E

A 4 d (2A) 4 d

2C =

}
C C Ic Ic

}
Id

Area of the Capacitor Area Area

Distance Between the Plates d of the Capacitor

E
A 4d

Double the distance

I2d

2d

C=

A C = 2 4(2d)
I2d = E(C/2) = Id/2

Id = EC

Distance Between the Plates d of the Capacitor

d d

C C

Ic Ic

Example of Winding Movement

Insulation System 1995 New 1996 Fault Difference CH pF 2155 2159 0.2% CHL pF 4360 3886 -10.9% CL pF 8291 9339 12.6%

Changes in Current/Capacitance
Summary of Possible Capacitance Changes of a Capacitor

A A d d

C C C C C C

Ic Ic Ic Ic Ic Ic

Significance Indicate a physical change Bushings - shorting of capacitive layers Transformers - movement of core/coils Arresters - broken elements Suggested Limits + 5% - Investigate + 10% - Investigate/remove from service

Basic Power Factor IT=Total Current IC=Capacitive Current E=Applied Voltage IR=Resistive Current =Power Factor Angle IT 0% PF I T I
C

Power Factor
E

IC

IR

CP

RP

O IR

100% PF E

Power = Voltage x Current x Cos() P= E IT Cos()

What Is Power Factor (PF)?

I P.F. = IR T
IT IC
E CP RP

P.F. =
IC

Watts E IT
IT

Watts = E x IR
Watts = E I Cosine
T

IR

PF = Cosine =
EI I = = EI I
R T R

P.F. = cos
O IR E

Watts EI
T

What Is Power Factor (PF)?

Power Factor = W = Real Power IT *E Apparent Power
To express power factor in percent (% PF), multiply by 100:

Limits of % P.F.

% PF =

W X100 mA X103*10 X103

10 kV equivalent values

= W X10 mA

Capacitor PF = 0%

Resistor PF = 100%

Changes In Power Factor

Power Factor Relationships () 90 89.714 89.427 45 30 0 P. F. (%) 0 (Capacitance only) 0.5 1.0 70.7 86.6 100 (Resistance only)
Increase in Losses IC IT IT Added Inductance IT I
C

IT

O O IR E

O O IR IL E

Basic Theory

Power Factor Is Size Independent

IC2 IC1 IT2 IT1
Specimen 1: 5 MVA Transformer Specimen 2: 10MVA Transformer

Capacitors, Resistors, and Inductors

E IC IR IL

IR1
270 360

IR2

90

180

Power Factor is an evaluation of the quality of the insulation and is size independent remains the same regardless of the size of the transformer

Definition of Power Factor

Why Power Factor Instead of Dielectric Loss, Watts?

Dielectric loss is a function of volume. For a larger insulation system, there is more material to dissipate watts due to inherent losses, deterioration, and contamination.

Power factor is a measurement of the efficiency of insulation system.

To analyze losses there is a need to be able to compare the size of the insulation tested, which is difficult to measure physically.

Power Factor

Power Factor Relationships

Provides an index to compare the relative losses of different sizes of insulation systems. The power factor is the ratio of the real power to the apparent power or the resistor current to the total current. PReal /PApparent = IR/IT A lower power factor insulation system will have lower relative losses. Minimizing the power factor will provide an insulation system that is in better condition.

IC IC

IT IT

2IC

2IT

IR I E R

E 2IR

IR/IT = (IR+IR)/(IT+IT) = 2IR/2IT = IR/IT = PF

Voltage and Currents

Time and Angle Relationships
Voltage and Currents
1.5 1

1.5

IC

IT
Magnitude

0.5

0.5 Magnitude

Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT

-0.5

0
-0.5

90

180

270

360

450

540

630

-1

IR
Angle (360 degrees = 1 / 60th second)

-1

-1.5 Angle

-1.5

%PF = 0

Voltage and Currents

1.5 1.5 1 1

Voltage and Currents

0.5 Magnitude

Magnitude

Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT

0.5

Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT

-0.5

-0.5

-1

-1

-1.5 Angle

-1.5 Angle

%PF = 0.5

%PF = 1.0

Voltage and Currents

1.5 1

Voltage and Currents

Power Factor Angle
Magnitude 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -90 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 -1.2 Angle
-60 -30 0 30

0.5 Magnitude

Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT

Voltage IR IC IT

-0.5

-1

-1.5 Angle

%PF = 50

Dielectric Loss and Power Factor:

The Dielectric Loss and Power Factor are sensitive to soluble polar, ionic or colloidal materials: Moisture (free, in cellulose, with particles in oil) Products of Oxidation or mineral oil Carbon (with moisture) Metal Soaps At Higher voltage: Ionization in solid insulation

Basic Principals of Testing: Always test the smallest piece possible

Power factor testing measure the average condition of an insulation system Contamination would affect the total insulation system, but not to a large degree

Insulation

Test contamination

Always break an insulation system into the Smallest possible part in order to detect insulation faults.

Test

The contamination becomes a bigger piece of the insulation and is easier to see

Is the Doble Test Effective for Detecting Defective Insulation?

PF = .5 PF = .5 PF = .5 PF = .5

Is the Doble Test Effective for Detecting Defective Insulation?

(continued)

1)
2 pF 2 pF 2 pF 2 pF

2)

PF = .5

PF = .5

PF = .5

PF =

.5 + .5 + .5 + .5 = .5 4

2 pF

2 pF

2 pF

1 1 1 1 1 = + + + = 2 c 2 2 2 2

c =
PF =2.5

1 pF 2
PF = .5

PF = .5

PF = .5

PF =

.5+.5+.5 =.5 3

2 pF

2 pF

2 pF

2 pF

1 1 1 1 = + + = 15 . c 2 2 2

PF =

.5 x 3 + 2 .5 = 1.0 4

c=

1 pF 2

c =.667

Analysis of Percent Power Factor

Power Factor vs. Dissipation Factor

IC IT

Power Factor = COS =

Compare to limits published by Doble Compare to previous results Compare among similar or sister units Examine the trend Do not use PF if current is less than 300A

IR
E

I I

Dissipation Factor = TAN =

I I

90 89.71 84.26 0

% PF (% COS ) 0 .500 10.00 100.00

0 .29 5.74 90

% DF (% TAN ) 0 .500 10.05 INFINITY

Power Factor Vs. Dissipation Factor

IC IT

Comparison of Percent Power Factor With Percent Dissipation Factor for Various Phase Angles of and
I I
R T

IR 90 89.71 84.26 0
E

Power Factor = cos =

Dissipation Factor = tan =

I I

% PF (%COS ) 0 .500 10.00 100.00

0 .29 5.74 90

% DF (% TAN ) 0 .500 10.05 INFINITY

90 89.71 87.13 84.26 81.37 53.13 45.00 0

% PF (% cos) 0 .50 5.00 10.00 15.00 60.00 70.71 100

0 .29 2.87 5.74 8.63 36.87 45.00 90

% DF (% tan) 0 .50 5.00 10.05 15.18 75.00 100.00 infinity

Voids and the Power Factor Tip-Up Test

When we closely examine insulation, very small gaps or voids exist. These voids develop an electrostatic potential on their surfaces. These small gaps become ionized: Partial Discharge/Corona.

Power Factor Tip-Up

Voids

Partial Discharge (Corona)

The phenomenon of an electrical discharge that does not completely bridge the insulation between electrodes or conductors. Corona -- accompanied by a faint glow Partial Discharge -- may not be luminous (preferred term) Partial discharge occurs in: A void within an insulation system where the voltage gradient is sufficiently high -- has a damaging effect on surrounding materials.

Power Factor Vs. Test Voltage

As test voltage is increased, the power factor will increase depending on the void density. Tip-Up = Power Factor at Line-to-ground voltage Power Factor at 25% Line-to-ground voltage
%PF

%PF @ L-G %PF @ 25% L-G

E
25% L-G L-G

Tip-up occurs in dry-type insulation specimens such as Dry Type Transformer, generators, etc..

Thank You. Any questions?

aray@doble.com