Fundamentals of Control Systems in 40 Characters

Control System
Fundamentals of Control System
JECRC UDML COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION)
Notes
CONTROL SYSTEM
(Subject Code: 6EC5)
Prepared By: Shilpi Lavania

Class: B. Tech. III Year, VI Semester
Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania
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Control System
Syllabus
UNIT I: Examples and application of open loop and close loop systems, Brief idea of multivariable
control system, Brief idea of Z-transform and digital control systems, Differential equations, Determination
of transfer function by block diagram reduction technique & signal flow graph method
Beyond the Syllabus

Laplace transform
Learning Objectives
Knowledge of Fundamentals of Control System
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Control System
UNIT I
Introduction:
In recent years, control systems have gained an increasingly importance in the development and
advancement of the modern civilization and technology. Figure 1-1 shows the basic components of a
control system. Disregard the complexity of the system, it consists of an input (objective), the control
system and its output (result). Practically our day-to-day activities are affected by some type of control
systems. There are two main branches of control systems: 1) Open-loop systems and 2) Closed-loop
systems.
Fig. 1-1. Basic components of a control system.
1.1 Basic Components of a Control System:The basic ingredients of a control system can be described by:
1. Objectives of control.
2. Control-system components.
3. Results or outputs.
1.2 Examples of Control-System Applications
1. Steering Control of an Automobile
2. Idle-Speed Control of an Automobile
3. Sun-Tracking Control of Solar Collectors
1.3 Open-loop systems:

The open-loop system is also called the non-feedback system. This is the simpler of the two systems. A
simple example is illustrated by the speed control of an automobile as shown in Figure 1-2. In this openloop system, there is no way to ensure the actual speed is close to the desired speed automatically. The
actual speed might be way off the desired speed because of the wind speed and/or road conditions, such as
up hill or down hill etc.
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Control System
Fig. 1-2. Basic open-loop system.
1.4 Closed-loop systems:

The closed-loop system is also called the feedback system. A simple closed-system is shown in
Figure 1-3. It has a mechanism to ensure the actual speed is close to the desired speed automatically.
Fig. 1-3. Basic closed-loop system.
1.5 Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions of Multivariable Systems
In this section, we shall illustrate the block diagram and matrix representations (see
Appendix A) of multivariable systems. Two block-diagram representations of a multivariable
system with/? inputs and q outputs are shown in Fig. 1.4 (a) and (b). In Fig.1.4
(a), the individual input and output signals are designated, whereas in the block diagram of
Fig. 1.4 (b), the multiplicity of the inputs and outputs is denoted by vectors. The case of
Fig. 1-4(b) is preferable in practice because of its simplicity.
Fig. 1.4 shows the block diagram of a multivariable feedback control system. The
transfer function relationships of the system are expressed in vector-matrix form
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Control System
(a)
(b)
Figure 1-4 Block diagram representations of a multivariable system.
where Y(s) is the q x 1 output vector; U(.v), R(s), and B(s) are all p x 1 vectors; and G(s)
and H(s)are q x p and p x q transfer-function matrices, respectively. we get
provided that I + G(s)H(s) is nonsingular. The closed-loop transfer matrix is defined as
1.6 Z-Transform
The definition of the z-Transform is
where, x(k) is a discrete time sequence (sampled data). When x(k)is defined for k 0, i.e. causal, one sided
z-transform is given by
The variable z is complex, so
is X(z).
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Control System
1.7 Digital Control Systems

Discrete-data control systems differ from the continuous-data systems in that the signals at
one or more points of the system are in the form of either a pulse train or a digital code.
Usually, discrete-data control systems are subdivided into sampled-data and digital
control systems. Sampled-dala control systems refer to a more general class of discrete-data systems in
which the signals are in the form of pulse data. A digital control
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Control System
system refers to the use of a digital computer or controller in the system so that the signals
are digitally coded, such as in binary code.
In general, a sampled-data system receives data or information only intermittently at
specific instants of time. For example, the error signal in a control system can be supplied
only in the form of pulses, in which case the control system receives no information about
the error signal during the periods between two consecutive pulses. Strictly, a sampled-data
system can also be classified as an ac system, because the signal of the system is pulse
modulated.
Figure 1.5 illustrates how a typical sampled-data system operates. A continuous-data
input signal r{t.) is applied to the system. The error signal e{t) is sampled by a sampling
device, the sampler, and the output of the sampler is a sequence of pulses. The sampling
rate of the sampler may or may not be uniform. There are many advantages to incorporating
sampling into a control system. One important advantage is that expensive equipment used
in the system may be time-shared among several control channels. Another advantage is
that pulse data are usually less susceptible to noise.
Because digital computers provide many advantages in size and flexibility, computer
control has become increasingly popular in recent years. Many airborne systems contain
digital controllers that can pack thousands of discrete elements into a space no larger than
the size of this book. Figure 1.6 shows the basic elements of a digital autopilot for guided missile
control.
Fig 1.5 Block diagram of a sampled-data control system.
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Control System
Fig 1.6 Digital autopilot system for a guided missile.
1.8 Difference Equation
Where, y(k) is output sequence, and u(k) is input sequence. In control systems, b0 is often 0, as input u(k)
does not immediately affect output y(k). Take the z-transform of this difference equation considering u(k) =
0 and y(k) = 0 for k < 0.
This leads to a transfer function of the difference equation.
The output Y (z) for a given input U(z) is given by
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Control System
1.9 Transfer Function

A Transfer Function is the ratio of the output of a system to the input of a system, in the
Laplace domain considering its initial conditions to be zero. If we have an input function of X(s), and an
output function Y(s), we define the transfer function H(s) to be:
1.9.1Transfer Function, Poles and Zeros
Consider the general linear time-invariant difference equation describing the input output
relationship of a discrete-time linear system
(4.47)
In Eq. (4.47) the signal x(m) is the system input, y(m) is the system output, and ak and
bk are the system coefficients. Taking the z-transform of Eq. (4.47) we obtain
(4.48)
Eq. (4.48) can be rearranged and expressed in terms of the ratio of a numerator
polynomial Y(z) and a denominator polynomial X(z) as
(4.49)
H(z) is known as the system transfer function. The frequency response of a system
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Control System
H() may be obtained by substituting in

Eq. (4.49).
1.10 Block Diagrams and Signal-Flow Graphs

1-10.1 Block Diagram
Because of their simplicity and versatility, block diagrams are often used by control engineers to describe
all types of systems. A block diagram can be used simply to represent the composition and interconnection
of a system. Also, it can be used, together with transfer functions, to represent the cause-and-effect
relationships throughout the system. Transfer Function is defined as the relationship between an input
signal and an output signal to a device.
Three most basic simplifying rules are described in detail as follows.
(a)Series Connection
(b)Parallel Connection
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Control System
(c)Feedback Control Systems
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Control System
Some basic rules of simplifying block diagrams are tabulated in Table 1-1.
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Control System
Example 1: Find the transfer function of the closed-loop system below.
Solution:
Use case 3 to simplify the inner feedback blocks.
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Control System
Use case 8 to get the following block diagram.
Use case 1 to combine the two sets of series blocks.
Use 3 to calculate the overall transfer function of the system
Systems with Two Inputs:

Figure 1-4 shows the block diagram of a system with two inputs, 1) the setpoint, R(s) and 2) the
load disturbance, D(s). By superposition,
Fig. 1-4. System with two inputs.
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Control System
(i)
The component C(s) produced by R(s) exists only (D(s)=0)
(ii)Similarly, the component C(s) produced by D(s) exists only (R(s)=0)
The total value of C(s)
G1(s)G2(s)H(s) is the open-loop transfer function. The characteristic equation is
1.10.2 SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPHS (SFGs)
A signal-flow graph (SFG) may be regarded as a simplified version of a block diagram. The
SFG was introduced by S. J. Mason [2] for the cause-and-effect representation of linear
systems that are modeled by algebraic equations. Besides the differences in the physical
appearance of the SFG and the block diagram, the signal-flow graph is constrained by more
rigid mathematical rules, whereas the block-diagram notation is more liberal. An SFG may
be defined as a graphical means of portraying the input-output relationships among the
variables of a set of linear algebraic equations.
Consider a linear system that is described by a set of /V algebraic equations:
It should be pointed out that these N equations are written in the form of cause-and-effect
relations:
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Control System
or simply
This is the single most important axiom in forming the set of algebraic equations for SFGs.
When the system is represented by a set of integrodifferential equations, we must first
transform these into Laplace-transform equations and then rearrange the latter in the form
of Eq. or
Basic Elements of an SFG
When constructing an SFG, junction points, or nodes, are used to represent variables. The
nodes are connected by line segments called branches, according to the cause-and-effect
equations. The branches have associated branch gains and directions. A signal can transmit
through a branch only in the direction of the arrow. In general, given a set of equations
such as Eq. (3-31) or Eq. (3-47), the construction of the SFG is basically a matter of following through the
cause-and-effect relations of each variable in terms of itself and the
others. For instance, consider that a linear system is represented by the simple algebraic
equation
Figure 1.5 Signal flow graph of

where yi is the input, y2 is the output, and ci\2 is the gain, or transmittance, between the two
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Control System
variables. The SFG representation of Eq. is shown in Fig.1.5. Notice that the branch
directing from node y\ (input) to node y2 (output) expresses the dependence of y2 on y 1 but not
the reverse. The branch between the input node and the output node should be interpreted as a
unilateral amplifier with gain a, 2, so when a signal of one unit is applied at the input yi, a signal
of strength
is delivered at node y2. Although algebraically Eq. can be written as
the SFG of Fig. 1.5 does not imply this relationship. If Eq. is valid as a cause-and effect
equation, a new SFG should be drawn with y2 as the input and j i as the output.
EXAMPLE: As an example on the construction of an SFG, consider the following set of algebraic
equations:
The SFG for these equations is constructed, step by step, in Fig.1.6
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Control System
Figure1.6 Step-by-step construction of the signal-flow graph in Eq. (3-50).
Summary of the Basic Properties of SFG
1. SFG applies only to linear systems.

2. The equations for which an SFG is drawn must be algebraic equations in the form
of cause-and-effect.
3. Nodes are used to represent variables. Normally, the nodes are arranged from left
to right, from the input to the output, following a succession of cause-and-effect
relations through the system.
4. Signals travel along branches only in the direction described by the arrows of the
branches.
5. The branch directing from node
represents die dependence of
upon
but not the reverse.
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Control System
6. A signal
the branch
traveling along a branch between

so a signal
and
is multiplied by the gain of
is delivered at
Mason Rule:
where
Gi(s) = path gain of the ith forward path,
= 1-all individual loop gains + gain products of all possible two loops which do not touch gain
products of all possible three loops that do not touch + ,
i = the ith forward path determinant = the value of for that part of the block diagram that does not touch
the ith forward path.
A forward path is a path from the input to the output such that no node is included more than once. Any
closed path that returns to its starting node is a loop, and a path that leads from a given variable back to the
same variable is defined as a loop path. A path is a continuous sequence of nodes, with direction specified
by the arrows, with no node repeating.
Example 2-1: A block diagram of control canonical form is shown below. Find the transfer function of the
system.
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Control System
Solution:
The determinants are
Applying Masons rule, the transfer function is
Example 2-2: Find the transfer function of the following system.
Solution:
The determinants are
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Control System
Applying Masons rule, the transfer function is
Beyond the syllabus:
Laplace transform
The Laplace
transform is
widely
used integral
transform with
many
applications
in physics and engineering. Denoted

, it is a linear operator of a function f(t) with a real
argument t (t 0) that transforms it to a function F(s) with a complex argument s. This transformation is
essentially bijective for the majority of practical uses; the respective pairs of f(t) and F(s) are matched in
tables. The Laplace transform has the useful property that many relationships and operations over the
originals f(t) correspond to simpler relationships and operations over the images F(s). It is named
after Pierre-Simon Laplace, who introduced the transform in his work on probability theory.The Laplace
transform is related to the Fourier transform, but whereas the Fourier transform expresses a function or
signal as a series of modes of vibration (frequencies), the Laplace transform resolves a function into
its moments. Like the Fourier transform, the Laplace transform is used for solving differential and integral
equations. In physics and engineering it is used for analysis of linear time-invariant systems such
as electrical circuits, harmonic oscillators, optical devices, and mechanical systems. In such analyses, the
Laplace transform is often interpreted as a transformation from the time-domain, in which inputs and
outputs are functions of time, to the frequency-domain, where the same inputs and outputs are functions
of complex angular frequency, in radians per unit time. Given a simple mathematical or functional
description of an input or output to a system, the Laplace transform provides an alternative functional
description that often simplifies the process of analyzing the behavior of the system, or in synthesizing a
new system based on a set of specifications.
The Laplace transform is named after mathematician and astronomer Pierre-Simon Laplace, who used a
similar transform (now called z transform) in his work on probability theory. The current widespread use of
the transform came about soon after World War II although it had been used in the 19th century
by Abel, Lerch, Heaviside and Bromwich. The older history of similar transforms is as follows. From
1744, Leonhard Euler investigated integrals of the form
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Control System
as solutions of differential equations but did not pursue the matter very far. [2] Joseph Louis Lagrange was an
admirer of Euler and, in his work on integrating probability density functions, investigated expressions of
the form
which some modern historians have interpreted within modern Laplace transform theory. These types of
integrals seem first to have attracted Laplace's attention in 1782 where he was following in the spirit of
Euler in using the integrals themselves as solutions of equations. [5] However, in 1785, Laplace took the
critical step forward when, rather than just looking for a solution in the form of an integral, he started to
apply the transforms in the sense that was later to become popular. He used an integral of the form:
akin to a Mellin transform, to transform the whole of a difference equation, in order to look for solutions of
the transformed equation. He then went on to apply the Laplace transform in the same way and started to
derive some of its properties, beginning to appreciate its potential power. [6]
Laplace also recognised that Joseph Fourier's method of Fourier series for solving the diffusion
equation could only apply to a limited region of space as the solutions were periodic. In 1809, Laplace
applied his transform to find solutions that diffused indefinitely in space.
The Laplace transform of a function f(t), defined for all real numbers t 0, is the function F(s),
defined by:
The parameter s is a complex number:

with real numbers and .
The meaning of the integral depends on types of functions of interest. A necessary condition for
existence of the integral is that f must be locally integrable on [0,). For locally integrable
functions that decay at infinity or are of exponential type, the integral can be understood as a
(proper) Lebesgue integral. However, for many applications it is necessary to regard it as
a conditionally convergentimproper integral at . Still more generally, the integral can be
understood in a weak sense, and this is dealt with below.
One can define the Laplace transform of a finite Borel measure by the Lebesgue integral
An important special case is where is a probability measure or, even more specifically, the
Dirac delta function. In operational calculus, the Laplace transform of a measure is often treated
as though the measure came from a distribution function f. In that case, to avoid potential
confusion, one often writes
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Control System
where the lower limit of 0 is shorthand notation for
This limit emphasizes that any point mass located at 0 is entirely captured by the Laplace
transform. Although with the Lebesgue integral, it is not necessary to take such a limit, it does
appear more naturally in connection with the LaplaceStieltjes transform.
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Control System

Fundamentals of Control System

JECRC UDML COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Prepared By: Shilpi Lavania

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

Beyond the Syllabus

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

Fig. 1-1. Basic components of a control system.

1. Steering Control of an Automobile

2. Idle-Speed Control of an Automobile

3. Sun-Tracking Control of Solar Collectors

1.3 Open-loop systems:

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

Fig. 1-2. Basic open-loop system.

1.4 Closed-loop systems:

Fig. 1-3. Basic closed-loop system.

1.5 Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions of Multivariable Systems

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

Figure 1-4 Block diagram representations of a multivariable system.

provided that I + G(s)H(s) is nonsingular. The closed-loop transfer matrix is defined as

The definition of the z-Transform is

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

1.7 Digital Control Systems

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

Fig 1.5 Block diagram of a sampled-data control system.

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

Fig 1.6 Digital autopilot system for a guided missile.

1.8 Difference Equation

This leads to a transfer function of the difference equation.

The output Y (z) for a given input U(z) is given by

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

1.9 Transfer Function

1.9.1Transfer Function, Poles and Zeros

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

1.10 Block Diagrams and Signal-Flow Graphs

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

(c)Feedback Control Systems

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

Example 1: Find the transfer function of the closed-loop system below.

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

Use case 8 to get the following block diagram.

Use case 1 to combine the two sets of series blocks.

Use 3 to calculate the overall transfer function of the system

Systems with Two Inputs:

Fig. 1-4. System with two inputs.

Prepared by: Shilpi Lavania

Fundamentals of Control System

The component C(s) produced by R(s) exists only (D(s)=0)

(ii)Similarly, the component C(s) produced by D(s) exists only (R(s)=0)