Protection System

PROTECTIVE RELAYS
(Setting, Testing and Commissioning)
Prepared by
Er.R.KRISHNAN,B.E
Page 1 / 153
Contents :
1.
Instrument transformer for protection
2.
Symmetrical fault calculation
15
3.
Overcurrent relays
37
4.
Differential relays
61
5.
Generator protection relays
69
6.
Distance relays
103
Motor protection
121
8.
Commissioning tests
129
Page 2 / 153
Refrences:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8
9.
The art and science of protective relaying

C. Russel Mason John Willy ( USA)
Protective relays application guide
GEC Alsthom
Protection of industrial power system
T. Davies Pergman press oxford
Protective relaying Principle and application
J. Lew is Blackburn,Inc - Marcel Dekker Inc.- New York and Basel
Protective Relaying Theory and Applications
Walter A. Elmore ABB T&D company Inc.
Elements of power system analysis
W.D. Stevenson _ Mc Graw Hill Book Co
Power system protection
S.P.Patra, S.K.Basu, S. Choudhuri Oxfors 7 IBH Publishing Co
Power system protection Static relays
T.S.M. Rao Tata Mc Graw Hill publish ing Co
Protective relaying
Chernobrovov MIR Publisher
10. Protection Techniques in Electrical Systems

Helmut Ungrad; Wiliband winkler; Andrzej Wiszniewski
- Marcel Decker - New york - Basel
Page 3 / 153
1.Instrument Transformers for Protection

Current transformers:
Protective relays of a-c type are actuated by current and voltage
supplied by current transformers and voltage transformers. The
transformers provide insulation against the high voltage of the power
circuit and also supplying the relays with quantities proportional to that
of the power circuit, but sufficiently reduced in magnitude, so that the
current can be carried by small cross sectional area of cables associated
with panel wiring and the relays can be made small and inexpensive.
Construction :
CTs are usually designed, so that the primary winding is the
line conductor, which passes through an iron ring which carries the
secondary winding. Most of the CTs are of this type and are known as
bar-primary or ring wound CTs.
Design :
CTs conform to normal transformer e.m.f equation where the
average induced voltage is proportional to the product of the rate of
change of flux and the number of turns. The normal criterion for the
design of CT is to limit the flux to a value where the core saturation
starts, known as knee-point flux. The current that produces this
saturation flux is the maximum magnetizing current. The magnetizing
current and consequently the flux changes from zero to maximum per
cycle and there fore the rate of change of flux is
0
= 4 webers/cycle
or at a frequency of f cycles
4f webers/sec
giving an average induced voltage of
Vav = 4fN
where N is the number of turns
or in r.m.s value the knee point voltage is
V = 4.444fN
as Vrms = 1.11Vav
Also the flux = B A where B is the flux density in tesla, and A is
the core area in m2
So the Knee point voltage V = 4.444BAfN
Page 4 / 153
1
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION
The knee point voltage can be easily estimated if the flux

density of the steel at knee-point and approximate dimension of the core
are known.
For example a CT ratio of 300/1 with a core area of 4030mm
and a maximum flux of 1.5 tesla ,
40
30
V = 4.44 1.5 300
50 = 118.8 V
1000
1000
Burden :
The load on a CT is called the burden. The burden is usually
expressed either as a VA (volt-ampere) or as an impedance. In the
former case the VA is taken to be at the CT nominal secondary current.
For example a 5VA burden on a 1Amp CT would have an impedance of
5ohms.
5VA
= 5V
1A
5V
Impedance = = 5
1A
or on a 5A CT,
5VA
= 1V
5A
1V
Impedance = = 0.2
5A
All burdens are connected in series and the increase in impedance
increase the burden on the CT. a CT is unloaded if the secondary
winding is short circuited. Under this condition the VA burden is zero
because the voltage is zero. The errors of CT depends on the phase angle
of the burden as well as its impedance.
Operation :
The equivalent circuit of a ring type CT is shown in fig 1.1. Ie
is the magnetizing current Rct is secondary winding resistance and R b &
Xb
are burden resistance and reactance. In a CT the primary AT must
equal to the secondary AT and the magnetizing AT
Page2 5 / 153
N1I1 = N2 ( I2 + Ie)
In practice Ie is small compared to I2 and is therefore ignored in
all CT calculations with exception of those concerned with ratio and
phase angle error.
fig 1.1
The magnetizing current depends on the voltage V2 which in
turn depends on the product of the secondary current and the impedance
of the burden plus CT secondary winding resistance.
V2 = I2 ( Rct + Rb + jX b )
Page 6 3/ 153
fig 1.2
The vector diagram of the CT is shown in the fig1.2. The
difference between the I1 and I2 is the ratio error and is the phase
angle error.
The magnetizing current Ie lags V2 by 90
. It can be seen that if the burden was wholly resistance then the ratio
error would be minimum. Whereas if the burden was wholly reactive
then the ratio error would be maximum and the phase angle error
minimum.
fig 1.3
The magnetizing characteristic of a CT is shown in fig1.3.
Since Ie small compared to the secondary current up to the knee-point of
the magnetizing characteristic, the ratio and phase angle error will be
small in this region. This means the primary / secondary current
relationship will be maintained in this region.
i.e. the product I2 ( Rct + Rb + jX b ) is Vk
e.g. R ct = 1, Rb + jX b = 7 + j0 , and Vk
= 150V
then linearity is repeated up to a secondary current of
V2
150
I2 = = = 18.75 A
( Rct + R b + jX b )
1+ 7
If linearity is to maintain up to 20 times CT rating the total impedance
should not exceed
150
Page4 7 / 153
( Rct + R b + jX b ) = = 7.5
20
Effect on open circuited CT :

If the burden impedance (Rb + jX b ) is very high, then the
voltage calculated from the equation R ct + Rb + jX b
would be very large, will above knee point value and Ie would become
signif icantly large and I2 would be reduced in the ampere-turn balance
equation
N1I1 = N2 ( I2 + Ie)
Since Ie = 0 in an open circuited CT, all the input amp-turns will be used
as magnetizing amp-turns and drive the CT into saturation. It can be
seen from the magnetizing characteristic that greatly increased
magnetizing current will not cause much increase in the average voltage.
However the change in flux from zero to knee-point value is not
accomplished in 1/4th cycle but in perhaps 1/100th
of this time. Thus the rate of change of flux and therefore, the induced
voltage during this period would be 100 times the knee-point voltage.
Insulation can be damaged due to this high short duration voltage and
over heating caused by the great increase of iron losses.
Specification of CT :
The CTs are usually specified in terms of rated burden,
accuracy
class and accuracy limit as follows:
15 VA, class 5P10
where 15 is the rated burden in VA
5P is the composite error at rated accuracy limit and
10 is the accuracy limit factor.
The representation of the above CT means 15 VA burden, and the error
will be within 5% at 10 times rated current.
Standard values of rated burden are
5, 7.5, 10, 20, and 30 VA.
Accuracy limit values are usually
5P and 10P.
standard accuracy limit factors are
5, 10, 15, 20, and 30.
General protective purpose CTs are frequently specified in
terms of knee-point voltage, magnetizing current at knee-point or at
some other point and secondary resistance. The knee-point voltage is
defined as the point on the magnetizing curve of the CT at which an
Page 8 5/ 153
increase of 10% secondary voltage would increase the magnetizing

current by 50%. Such CTs are known as class PS or class X CTs.
Bearing in mind the high value of secondary current which a
protective CT may be required to deliver, it is desirable to make the
secondary winding resistance as low as practicable to limit copper loss
and therefore heating.
Application :
while selecting a CT for a particular application, the connected
burden, the mode of operation and the variation of impedance over the
range of relay setting should be considered, rather than the range of
devices which are connected.
For example, if a relay with burden 3VA and setting range of
50% to 200% of nominal current is set at 50%, then
the relay setting is
0.5A
voltage across the coil at this current, V = 3VA / 0.5A = 6V
the impedance of the relay Z = 6V / 0.5A = 12
If the same relay is set at 200%, then
the relay setting is
2A
voltage across the coil at this current, V = 3VA / 2A = 1.5V
the impedance of the relay
Z = 1.5V /2A = 0.75A
If the characteristic of the relay is to be maintained up to 20 times the
relay setting, then the knee-point voltage should not be less than
206 = 120V for 50% setting
201.5 = 30V for 200% setting
The lowest setting must taken into account while specifying the CT. i.e.
Vk
of 120V. However there is an alleviating factor that the relay will get
saturated magnetically at 20 times its setting and the impedance will be
reduced. The reduction for over current relays is about half the
impedance at setting, which means that in the above case the knee-point
voltage of 60V would be satisfactory.
In many cases the CT associated with over current protection
must cater to earth fault relays also. If the earth fault relay having a
minimum setting of 20%,
the voltage at relay setting
= 3VA /0.2A = 15V and
impedance
= 15V / 0.2A = 75
Page6 9 / 153
If the characteristic of the relay is to be maintained up to 10 times the

relay, the knee-point voltage should be greater than 1015 = 150V or
allow ing saturation 75V.
In this case the s ize is determined by earth fault relay. A
suitable CT would be 7.5VA, 5P10. This would produce a voltage of
7.5V at rated current when connected to 7.5 ohm burden and would have
only 5% error at 10 times rated current. i.e.at a voltage of 107.5= 75V.
As rough guide the knee-point voltage is the product of the VA
rating and the ALF divided by the rated secondary current. So for as
7.5VA, class 5P10, 5A CT
7.5 10
the knee-point voltage Vk = = 15V
5
If more than one relay is to be connected to one set of CTs the
total burden must be considered. It is usually sufficiently accurate to add
series burden impedance arithmetically.
Effect magnetizing current on relay setting :
The overall setting of the protection system is affected by the
magnetizing current of the CTs. The effect may not be signif icant in
over current relays, whereas in earth fault relays it will have some effect
on the overall setting. In differential protection system the effect of
magnetizing current is considerable where a large number of
transformers are connected together. For example, a bus-bar protection
scheme.
The primary operating current (POC) of a protective system is
the sum of the relay setting current and the magnetizing current of all
the connected CTs at the voltage across the relay at setting multiplied by
the CT ratio.
Illustration 1:
A 2000/5 bar primary CT has 20 cm2 of iron and a secondary
winding resistance of 0.32 ohm. The maximum current for which the CT
has to operate is 40 KA, 50Hz. The relay burden 2ohm.
Given B max for stally 1.0 tesla
B max for cross 1.48 tesla
Determine the suitable core material without saturation.
40,000
Secondary current = = 100A
400
Page 107 / 153
Assuming no saturation
Vk = 100 ( 2 + 0.32 ) = 232 volts
Vk = 4.44BAf N
232
B =
4.44120
10450
400
= 1.36 tesla
Bmax for cross is 1.48 tesla. So more suitable core material
without saturation is CROSS.
Illustration 2 :
A 100/5 bar primary CT supplies to a 3VA over current relay
set at 10% with a stalloy core. The maximum dimension of the CT
housing on the circuit breaker are 22 cm dia and 19cm deep. It is
required to cater for a current of 10 times the relay setting.
Find 1) Knee-point voltage
2)
Cross sectional area of the core
3)
CT dimension.
Secondary current to operate the relay = 0.5 A
VA
3
Volts to operate the relay = = = 6 volts.
Setting
0.5
Vk, the knee-point voltage = 106 = 60 volts
Vk = 4.44 BAfN
60
A = = 0.0135 m2
4.441.050
20
i.e. 0.0135104 = 135 cm2
So the core dimension may be 11.25cm 12cm.
Illustration 3 :
Three 100/5 bar primary CT with secondary resistance of
0.08 are connected to cater to three phase fault protection set to125%
Page811 / 153
and earth fault relays set to 40%. The relay burden at setting is 3VA for
phase fault relays and 2.4 VA for earth fault relays. What is the
maximum primary current to operate (POC) both phase and earth fault
relays?
3
3
O/C Relay impedance = = = 0.077
(51.25)2
6.252
2.4
2.4
E/F Relay impedance = = = 0.4
(50.4)2
22
Phase fault relay setting :
Total imped ance
= Rct + Rrelay
= 0.08 + 0.077 = 0.157
Volts from CT
= 0.157 6.25 = 0.98 volts.
Assuming the magnetizing current from the magnetizing characteristic
curve at 0.98 volts is 0.25Amps.
Primary current = N( Is + Imag)
= 20 ( 6.25 + 0.25) = 130 Amps.
Earth fault relays setting :
Voltage across the earth fault relay = 2 0.6 = 1.2 Volts
Now the energized CT must supply exciting current to the other two
CTs.
Current through Rph relay +
exciting current to Yph & B ph = 2 + 0.3 + 0.3 = 2.6Amps.
Volts from CT
= 2.6 ( 0.077 + 0.08 ) + 1.2
= 1.608 volts
Total secondary current = 0.41 + 2.6 = 3.01Amps.
100
Primary fault current
=
3.01 = 60.2 Amps.
5
Page 129 / 153
fig 1.4
Illustration 4 :
An earthed 132 KV transformer is protected by REF protection
using four CTs and an earth fault relay with stabilizing resistor set at
40%. The system fault level is 3000MVA and loop lead impedance from
CT to relay is 2 ohms. The ratio of the CT is 500/1A and Rct is 0.7
ohms. Find the primary fault setting and the minimum stabilizing
resistor value. Assume relay burden at 1VA.
3500
= = 15.3KA
3 132
15300
CT sec. Current
= = 30.6A
500
Relay voltage setting = 30.6 (0.7 + 2) = 82.6 volts.
Primary fault setting
= 500{ (40.0246) + 0.4 }
= 250 Amps.
Stabilizing resister = ( Vk / Is ) - (VA / Is 2 )
82.6
1
=

0.4
0.42
= 250.25
E/F current
Page1013 / 153
Voltage transformers :
The voltage transformer for use with protection schemes has to
fulfill only one condition, which is the secondary output voltage of the
voltage transformer must be an accurate representation of the primary
voltage in both magnitude and phase angle. To meet this requirement
voltage transformers are designed to operate at very low flux densities.
Magnetizing current at low flux densities will be very low, and therefore
the ratio and phase angle errors are also will be small. To achieve this
the core area for a given output is larger than that of power transformer,
which increases the over all s ize of the voltage transformer. In addition a
five limbed construction is used instead of three one in power
transformers in order to reduce the magnetic interference between
phases. The condition of magnetic interference doesnt arise when three
single phase units are used as is common in EHV system, since each
phase unit will have a core with a closed magnetic circuit.
Accuracy :
Ratio error : The error in the secondary voltage due to incorrect ratio is
commonly known as the ratio error and is expressed as a percentage as
follows:
(Kn Vs Vp )
100%
Vp
where Kn is the nominal ratio (rated
primary/secondary
voltage
Vs is the actual secondary terminal voltage
Vp is the actual primary terminal voltage
A small turns compensation is usually be employed in V.T, so that the
error will be positive for low burden and negative for high burden.
Phase angle error : The phase angle error is the phase difference
between the reversed secondary and the primary voltage vector. It is
positive when the reverse secondary voltage leads the primary vector
and negative when it lags the primary vector.
Page 1411/ 153
Limits of error and phase difference for different classes of metering and
protective voltage transformers are given in table below:
Table 1
Accuracy
class
0.8 to 1.2 times rated voltage

0.25 to1.0 times rated burden at 0.8pf
Ratio error (%)
Phase difference (minutes)
0.1
0.1
5
0.2
0.2
10
0.5
0.5
20
1.0
1.0
40
3.0
3.0
--Limits of error for measuring voltage transformer.
Table 2
Accuracy
class
3P
5P
0.5to Vf (voltage factor) times rated voltage

0.25 to1.0 times rated burden at 0.8pf
Ratio error (%)
Phase difference (minutes)
3
120
6
240
Limits of error for protective voltage transformer.
Voltage factor :
the voltage factor Vf is the upper limit of operating voltage,
expressed in per unit of rated voltage. Earth faults cause a displacement
of system neutral, particularly in the case of unearthed or impedance
earthed systems, resulting rise in voltage on the unearthed phases. These
rise in voltage are important for correct relay operation and ability of the
voltage transformer withstanding under such condition.
Voltage factors with permissible duration for different type of
connection and system earthing are shown in the table below:
Table 3
Page1215 / 153
Voltage
factor Vf
1.2
Ratin
g
contin
uous
1.2
contin
uous
30s
contin
uous
1.5
1.2
Method of primary connection and

System earthing
Between lines in any network
Between transformer star-point and earth in
any network.
-doBetween line and earth in an non effectively

earthed neutral system with automatic earth
fault tripping.
1.9
30s
-do1.2
contin Between line and earth in an isolated neutral
uous system without automatic E/F tripping or in
an resonant earthed system without
automatic E/F tripping.
1.9
8 hrs
-doP rotection of voltage transformer :
voltage transformer are generally protected by HRC fuses on
the primary side for voltage up to 66KV. Above 66KV the HRC fuses
dont have sufficient interrupting capacity. As the voltage transformers
are designed to operate at a low flux density their impedance is low and
therefore a secondary side short circuit will produce a fault current of
many times rated current. Hence the secondary side of the voltage
transformer are usually protected by fuses or miniature circuitbreakers.
Residual connection of voltage transformer :

It is important that a voltage of correct magnitude and phase
angle presented to the directional earth-fault relays and earth fault
elements of impedance relays. As an earth-fault can be in any one of the
three phase, it is not possible to derive a voltage in a conventional
manner. The residual or broken-delta connection of voltage transformers
as shown in fig 1.5 is the solution to the above problem. Under 3
balanced condition the sum of the three voltages connected in broken
delta is zero. If one voltage absent or reduced because of earth-fault on
Page 1613/ 153
fig 1.5
that phase, then the difference between the normal voltage and that
voltage is delivered to the relay.
Page1417 / 153
It necessary for the primary winding neutral of the voltage

transformer to be earthed for the zero sequence exciting current to flow.
If the primary winding is not earthed, an broken-delta winding may
develop a voltage. This broken-delta voltage so developed is not related
to any residual in the primary system, but entirely third harmonic.
Voltage transformers are usually provided with a normal star
connected secondary winding and a broken-delta connected tertiary
winding. Alternatively the residual voltage can be obtained by using a
star/broken-delta connected auxiliary Voltage transformer connected
from the secondary of the main voltage transformer. For this condition
to be successful, the main voltage transformer must fulfill the
requirements for handling zero sequence voltage i.e. it must be of five
limbed construction, have an earthed primary neutral and rated for
suitable voltage factor. The star point of the main voltage transformer
secondary winding and the auxiliary voltage transformer primary
winding must be interconnected to complete the zero sequence circuit.
Page 1815/ 153
2.Symmetrical Fault Calculation

The analysis of three phase balanced fault condition consists
three stages. They are
a) representation of the given power system with its
fault
conditions by equivalent positive sequence network.
b) the solution of the network in terms of its common base of
voltage, current and impedance.
c) conversion of the resulting common base values to actual
values.
The system positive sequence network is the equivalent single
phase representation of the complete power system. In this network each
component items of plant is represented by its equivalent positive
sequence circuit using per-unit values to a common MVA base.
Over head lines and cables: Over head lines and cables are represented
by nominal circuit. The shunt arm impedance are usually large in
comparison with the series arm impedance, and representation by the
series arm alone is usually sufficiently accurate for most practical
purposes.
Transformers & synchronous machines: Transformers and synchronous
machine impedances are predominantly reactive with high X/R ratios in
the order of 10 to 20 times. It is therefore usually sufficiently accurate to
ignore the resistive component of the impedance and to assume all the
impedance are purely reactive.
Loads: load imped ances are large in value in comparison with series
impedance of the power system plant and they have only a small effect
on the fault current under short circuit condition. Loads are therefore
ignored in the short circuit calculation.
Transformer tap position: For the purpose of fault calculations, it is
sufficient to ignore the actual tap position and to assume all the
transformers to be operating in nominal-ratio tap-position. The error
introduced by this assumption is neglig ibly small in so far as the total
fault current is concerned.
Equivalent source: The representation of a complex power system
network can usually be simplif ied considerably by the use of an
equivalent generator to represent the whole or parts of a given network.
Page 19 / 153
2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION
Thus a complete network, as seen from any given point, may be

represented, using Thevnin`s theorem, as a single driving voltage in
series with a single impedance. This equivalent generator can be
obtained with sufficient accuracy from an estimated knowledge of the
system three phase fault level at the point in question, the pre-fault value
of the voltage at this point being assumed equal to the nominal rated
value.
Treatment of complex quantities: The impedance of positive sequence
network are all complex impedances and must ,therefore be represented
by R+jX form. In many cases resistance component of the impedance
are small compared with reactance components, and in such cases it is
often sufficient to treat imped ance as pure reactance, thus ensuring a
considerable simplif ication in computation. The use of such a pure
reactance form of representation, it should be noted , results in a shortcircuit current slightly greater than the true value.
Plant impedance values: The impedance values employed in any
particular fault calculation should, where ever possible, be the known
values appropriate to the particular item of the plant concerned. Where
precise actual values are not known, however, it may be permissible to
use typical values appropriate to similar plant of similar load and
voltage.
Neutral earthing: Neutral earthing arrangements have no effect on
balanced three phase load condition or short-circuit condition, and
therefore disregarded in the derivation of the system positive sequence
network.
P er- unit notation of im pedance:
on perusal of a power system, it can be seen that there are
several voltage level in a system. The common practice is to refer plant
MVA in terms of per-unit or percentage values and the transmission line
and cable constants in ohm/km. Bef ore any system fault level
calculation, the system parameters must be referred to common base
quantities, and represented as a unified system of impedances in either
ohmic, percentage or per-unit values.
The base quantities are power and voltage. Normally they are
given in terms of three phase power in MVA and line voltage in KV.
The base impedance resulting from these base quantities is :
Page 20 / 153
2
(KVbase)2
Z ba = ohm
2.1
MVAbase
The per-unit value of any impedance in a system is the ratio of the
actual impedance to base impedance. So,
Z ohm
Z p =
2.2
Z base
substituting eqn. 2.1 in eqn 2.2
MVA base
Z pu= Z ohm
2.3
(KVbase )2
Having chosen the base quantities of suitable magnitude, all
system impedance may be converted to the base quantities by the
equation given below:
New base MVA
Z pu( New baseMVA) = Z pu(Given base MVA)
2.4
Given base MVA
The fault MVA of the system is
Fault MVA
= 3 KV KA(f ault)
= 3 (KV/3) KA(f ault)
KV
KV
= 3
3
3 Z F.(ohm)
(KV) 2
=
2.5
Z F.(ohm)
Substituting the value of fault impedance in ohms in terms of base
quantities and per-unit values
(KV)2 MVAbase
Fault MVA =
Z F.pu (KV)2
MVA base
=
Z F.pu
The source impedance is merely a value which represents the
impedance between the system under consideration and the source. This
is determined from the fault level at the incoming bus bar.
MVAbase
The source impedance Zs =
2.6
MVAfault
Page 21 / 153
3
The elements of the power system are usually specified as follows:

a) generator and transformer - percentage impedance on
rating.
b) feeders and interconnectors - actual impedance per phase.
c) reactors - voltage drop at rated current.
To convert these per - unit values on a common base the equations 2.3
and 2.4 can be written as
Z%
MVAbase
Z pu =
2.7
100
MVArating
MVAbase
Z pu = Z ohm
2.8
(KVrated) 2
VR MVAbase
Z pu =
2.9
IR
(KVrated)2
P lant parameters :
Synchronous reactance Xd :It is a measure of the steady state stability
of the machine; the smaller its value the more stable is the machine. The
value 1/Xd approximate to the short circuit ratio (SCR). The only
difference is the SCR takes saturation into account whereas Xd is
derived from the air-gap line.
Transient reactance X d` : The transient reactance covers the behavior of
a machine during the 0.1 to 3 seconds after disturbance. This generally
corresponds to the speed of change in a system, and is usually employed
in studies of transient stability.
Sub transient reactance X d`` : The sub transient reactance determines
the in itial current peaks follow ing a disturbance and in the case of
sudden fault is of importance for selecting the rupturing capacity of the
associated circuit breakers.
Two winding transformers : A transformer may be replaced in a power
system by an equivalent T network in which the cross member is the
short circuit impedance, and the column the excitation imped ance. As
the excitation impedance is many times higher than the short circuit
impedance it is neglected in fault studies. The per-unit impedance of a
transformer is the same regardless of whether it is determined ohmic
values referred to the HT or LT side of the transformer. The per-unit
Page 22 / 153
4
impedance of transformers are usually marked on the name plate on the

base determined by the ratings. For three single phase transformers
connected as a three phase unit, the three phase rating are determined
from the single phase rating of each individua l transformer. The per-unit
impedance of the three phase unit is the same as that for each individual
transformer.
Three winding transformer: Both the primary and secondary winding of
a two winding transformer the same MVA rating, but all the three
windings of a three winding transformer may have different MVA rating.
The per-unit or percentage impedance of each windings are given on
the rating of its own windings. The per-unit impedance of all the
windings in the impedance diagram must be expressed on the same
MVA base.
Neglect ing the excitation impedance, the equivalent circuit of a
three winding transformer may be represented by a star impedance as
shown in fig 2.1 where p,s,t are primary secondary and tertiary windings
respectively. The common star point is fictious and unrelated to the
neutral of the system.
fig 2.1
The impedance of any of these branches can be determined by
considering the short circuit impedance between pairs of windings with
the third winding open.
Thus
Zps = Zp + Zs
Zts = Zt + Zs
Page 23 / 153
5
Zpt = Zp + Zt
from which
Zp = (Zps + Zpt Zst)

Zs = (Zps + Zts Zpt)
Zt = (Zpt + Zts Zps)
Illustration 1:
Fig 2.2 shows a power system with all
components.
power system
In order to calculate the fault level at different locations first

convert all plant impedance values to per-unit values on a common base.
Assume a common base of 10MVA.
Z%
MVAbase
Z g =
100
MVArating
25
10
=
= 0.1 p.u
100
25
Interconnector between bus-1 and bus-2
MVAbase
Z L 1-2 = Z ohm
(KVrated) 2
10
= 0.05
=0.0042 p.u
(11)2
Transformer
8
10
Z T =
= 0.1333 p.u
100
6
Interconnector between bus-3 and bus-4
Page 24 / 153
6
10
Z L 3-4 = 0.008
(3.3)2
= 0.00735 p.u
VR MVA base
Z pu =
IR (KVrated)2
43.7
10
=
= 0.05p.u
800 (3.3)2
The per-unit values to common base are shown in fig 2.3 below.
10
= 100MVA
0.1
10
Fault MVA for a fault at bus-2 =
= 96MVA
0.1+ 0.0042
10
= 42MVA
0.1 + 0.0042 + 0.1333
10
0.1+ 0.0042+ 0.1333+0.00735
= 40.84 MVA
10
0.1+ 0.0042+0.1333+0.00735+0.05
= 33.9MVA
Page 25 / 153
7
The fault currents at various points for a fault at bus-5 is

calculated as follows:
Fault current at bus-5
33.9
= 5.93 KA.
3 3.3
33.9
Fault current at 11KV interconnector = =1.78KA.
3 11
fig 2.4
Illustration 2:
fig 2.5
Page 26 / 153
8
Assume a common base of 10MVA

10
Source impedance Z s =
= 0.04 p.u
250
There are two interconnectors each of two 400mm2 cable in parallel.
Assume the reactance per phase of 11KV three core cable = 80/ m.
The reactance of each interconnector = 0.5 800 80 10-6
= 0.032
10
0.032 = 0.002644p.u
112
6
10
XT = = 0.3p.u
10
2
The interconnecting cable to the 415volt bus is of six single core.
i.e. 2 1000mm2
Assume the reactance /phase of 415volt cable = 100/ m.
The reactance of 415volt cable
= 0.5 30 100 10-6
= 0.0015
10
Zl =
0.0015
= 0.0871p.u
(0.415)2
ZL =
fig 2.6
fig 2.7
Page 27 / 153
9
An impedance diagram as shown in fig 2.6 can be drawn with

the above calculated values to a common base. From this diagram the
fault level at any particular point can be determined. In more
complicated arrangement it may be necessary to redraw the impedance
diagram after combining the impedance of various parts of the system to
simplif y the calculation. Some times it may be necessary to make more
than one redraw, before the calculation is complete.
From the simplif ied impedance diagram fig 2.7 the fault at
11KV substation B is
10
= 242 MVA
0.04 + 0.00132
Fault at 415V substation C is
10
= 42.58 MVA
0.4 + 0.001132 + 0.19355
Illustration 3:
A 110KV sub-station A with a three phase fault level of 1158
MVA feeds radially to another 110KV sub-station B, 30KM away from
sub-station A. Two 110KV / 33KV, 10MVA transformers are connected
between 110KV and 33KV bus. Calculate the fault level at 33KV bus
and 110KV bus at sub-station B. The conductor used for 110KV
transmission line is panther conductor.
Page 28 / 153
10
fig 2.8
Assume base MVA = 100 MVA.
Base MVA
Source impedance of the grid SS Z s =
Fault MVA
100
=
= 0.018635p.u
1158
R&X values of panther conductor:
R = 0.1547/KM,
jX = 0.3975/KM
Ignore resistive value which will make little error in overall calculation.
X = 0.3975 30 = 11.925
MVAbase
Xp.u = Xohm
(KVbase)2
100
= 11.925
= 0.09855p.u
1102
Z%
MVAbase
Z Tp.u =
100
MVArating
10
100
= = 1p.u
100
10
Page 29 / 153
11
The impedance diagram is drawn as shown fig 2.9 and the simplif ied
diagram is shown in fig 2.10.
MVA base
Fault MVA at sub-station B 110KV bus =
Zf
100
= = 540MVA
0.8635 + 0.09855
Fault MVA at sub-station B 33Kvbus
100
=
0.8635 + 0.09855 + 0.5
= 146MVA
Illustration 4:
Page 30 / 153
12
fig 2.11
The part of a power system shown in fig 2.11 is a power station
with two incoming supplies and an inter bus-bar reactor which is
switched in when the generators are in operation to keep the fault level
to 260MVA which is the rupturing capacity of the switchgear.
Assume a common base of 10MVA.
24
10
Z G = = 0.32p.u
100
(6/0.8)
10.5
10
Z T = = 0.32p.u
100
15
MVAbase
10
Z S = = = 0.004p.u
MVAfault
2500
VR
MVA base
Z R =
IR
(KV)2
436
10
= = 0.045p.u
800
112
The impedance diagram with the per-unit impedance drawn to a
common base as shown in fig 2.12.
Page 31 / 153
13
fig 2.12
there is no simple series or parallel combination which can be
eliminated and so delta-star conversion must be made to 0.07, 0.07, and
0.045 impedances.
The equation for conversion is
Z 1Z 2
Z a =
Z1 + Z 2 + Z3
Z 2Z 3
Z b =
Z1 + Z 2 + Z3
Z 3Z 1
Z c =
Z1 + Z 2 + Z3
0.07 0.07
Z a =
= 0.0265
0.07 + 0.07 + 0.045
0.045 0.07
= 0.017
0.7 + 0.07 + 0.045
The modified imped ance diagram and the impedance diagrams for
different stages of reduction are shown in fig 2.13(a) to fig 2.13(f).
Zb = Zc
Page 32 / 153
14
fig 2.13
Page 33 / 153
15
10
The fault level for a for a fault at bus-3 is = = 253.47MVA
0.03945
The various stages of determining the current distribution are elaborated
in fig 2.14 (a) to fig 2.14(f) and fig 2.14(g) shows the fin al current
distribution for a fault in bus-3.
Page 34 / 153
16
fig 2.14
Illustration 5:
Application of bus impedance matrix in fault calculation.
Page 35 / 153
17
fig 2.15
1) Assume a common base of 200MVA.
2) Convert all the impedances to a common base.
18.2
200
Z G = = 0.164p.u
100
222
14
200
Z T1 = = 0.1333p.u
100
210
15
200
Z T2 =
100
120
200
Z L = 24.8
2752
= 0.25p.u
= 0.0656p.u
3) Draw the impedance diagram.
Page 36 / 153
18
fig 2.16
4) Draw the admittance diagram.
fig 2.17
5) Form the admittance matrix (Y bus).
6) Invert the admittance matrix to get the bus impedance matrix

(Zbus).
The fault current for a three phase fault on bus-k is

Vf
If =
Z kk
Page 37 / 153
19
The fault current for a three phase fault on bus-5 is

Vf
1.0
If = = = 2.918p.u
Z 55
0.455
Bus voltage at bus-n for a for a bus fault at bus-k is
Z nk
Vn = Vf Vf
Z kk
= Vf Z nk If
(since If = Vf/Zkk )
Bus voltages at bus 3 & 4 are
V3 = Vf Z 35 If = 1.0 0.33 2.198 = 0.2747p.u
V4 = Vf Z 45 If = 1.0 0.33 2.198 = 0.2747p.u
V2 = Vf Z 25 If = 1.0 0.297 2.198 = 0.3473p.u
V1 = Vf Z 15 If = 1.0 0..164 2.198 = 0.6395p.u
Currents to faults are
from bus-n = Vn Ynk
from bus-3 = 0.2747 4 = 1.099p.u
from bus-4 = 0.2747 4 = 1.099p.u
from bus-1 to bus-2 = ( V1 V2 ) Y12
= (0.6395 3473) 7.5 = 2.198p.u
So the fault MVA at bus-1 = 200 2.198 = 4396MVA
439.6
Fault current = = 0.9229KA
3 275
Similarly the fault MVA supplied from bus-1 tobus-2 is
= 200 2.198 = 439.6MVA
439.6
Fault current = = 15.38KA
3 16.5
The current flow through other branches can be calculated a similar way
and are shown in fig 2.18
Page 38 / 153
20
fig 2.18
From the same short circuit matrix i.e. Z-bus, similar information can be
found for faults on any of the other buses.
Illustration 6:
The three phase rating of a three winding transformers are:
Primary
Y - connected 66KV, 30MVA
secondary Y - connected 13.2KV, 20MVA
Tertiary
- connected 2.3KV, 10MVA
Neglect ing resistance the leakage impedance are:

Z ps = 7% on 30MVA 66KV base.
Z pt
= 9% on 30MVA 66KV base.
Z st
= 8% on 20MVA 13.2KV base.
Find the per-unit impedance of the star connected equivalent circuit for
a base 30MVA, 66KV in the primary circuit.
Z ps and Z pt were measured in the primary circuit and are
already expressed on the proper base for the equivalent circuit. No
change of voltage required for Zst. The required change in MVA base is
made as follows.
30
Z st = 8 % = 12 %
20
So
Z p = (j0.07 + j0.09 - j0.12) = j 0.02p.u
Page 39 / 153
21
Z s = (j0.07 + j0.12 - j0.09) = j 0.05p.u

Z t = (j0.09 + j0.12 - j0.07) = j 0.07p.u
fig 2.19 shows the star connected equivalent circuit.
fig 2.19
Page 40 / 153
22
3.Over current relays

Grading margin :The time interval between the operation of two adjacent relays
depends on
1) the circuit breaker operating time
2) overshoot time of the relay, i.e. disc movement after the removal of
the current
3) error due to variation in the ideal characteristic curve
4) contact gap, i.e. final margin on completion of operation.
A margin of 0.5s is normal grading margin. With faster modern
circuit breakers and lower over shoot times 0.4s is reasonable.
Operating characteristic of over current relays :characteristic
RI curves
Normal inverse
very inverse
Extremely inverse
Long time stand by earth fault
operating time
1
t = x K
0.339- 0.236/ I
0.14
t = x K
I0.02 - 1
13.5
t = x K
I-1
80
t = x K
2
I -1
120
t = x K
I-1
Logarithmic inverse
t = 5.8 - 1.35 log n (I / I n )
where t = relay operating time
K = scale constant or TMS according to curve
I = multiple of set current Is or PSM
Page 41 / 153
3.OVER CURRENT RELAYS
fig 3.1
Page 42 / 153
2
Illustration on over current relay calculation 1 :-
fig 3.2
Calculate the maximum and minimum load currents bus. Provide
current transformers of ratio as per system load requirements. Set the
relay with an equivalent primary current well above the maximum load
current. The relay setting must be well below the minimum fault current.
Complete the datas in a table as given below:
Table 3.1
loc
Total
ati
impedance
on
in ohms
Max
Min
A
B
C
D
0.81
1.41
2.36
4.56
1.62
2.22
3.17
5.37
Fault
current in
Amps
Max
Min
7840
4504
2694
1393
Total
load
current
3920
2860
2003
1183
500
350
175
75
CT.
Ratio
400/5
400/5
200/5
100/3
Relay
current
setting
per prima
cen
ry
t
curre
nt
150
600
125
500
100
200
100
100
Over current relays are intended to provide a discriminative

protection against system faults and they do not give precise overload
protection
Page 43 / 153
3
Starting with the relay in substation D farther from the power

source, the relay plug setting multiplier (PSM) is calculated from the
knowledge of the maximum fault current flowing from this point and the
relay setting
Substation D
CT ratio
100/5A
Relay used
Normal inverse
Current setting
100% i.e. 100A
Max fault level at substation D
1393A
Therefore relay PSM
1393/100=13.93
From the normal inverse characteristics of the relay the
operating time of the relay at 13.93 times the relay plug setting and 1.0
time multiplier setting (TMS) is 2.6 seconds. There is no relay follow ing
relay at D. Still a small delay is required for better discrimination.
Further for electromagnetic relays the contact travel of the relay at D
should not be unduly small so as to avoid the possibility of tripping due
to mechanical shock. So a TMS of 0.05 is a wise option.
Hence the actual tripping of the relay at D is
0.05x 2.6 = 0.13 secs
A grading margin of 0.5 sec is adopted in this example, so that
the relay at substation C should have an operating time for fault at
substation D.
Substation C:CT ratio
200/5A
Relay used
normal inverse
Current setting
100% i.e. 200A
Max fault level grading level C with D is 1393A
Therefore relay PSM is
1393/200=6.965
From the normal inverse characteristic of the relay the
TMS is 3.6 sec.
Required relay discriminating time = 0.13 + 0.5 = 0.63 sec
Therefore the required relay TMS = 0.63 / 3.6 = 0.175
The calculations now proceeded for relay C with a close-up
faults at substation C.
The maximum fault current for a fault
Page 44 / 153
4
just outside substation C bus bars

=2691A
Therefore relay PSM
=2691/200 = 13.45
Now from the normal inverse characteristic of the relay the
TMS is 2.6 sec. The TMS previously calculated for the relay C is 0.175.
This gives an actual relay operating time for a close-up fault at
maximum fault level.
ie 0.175 x 2.6=0.455 sec.
Table 3.2
Relay at D Fault at D
Relay at C Fault at D
Relay at C Fault at C
Relay at B Fault at C
Relay at B Fault at B
Relay at A Fault at B
Relay at A Fault at A
PSM
13.93
6.965
13.45
5.382
9
7.5
13.06
Tc
2.6
3.6
2.6
4.1
3.15
3.45
2.65
Relay setting
TMS
Ta
0.05
0.13
0.175
0.13 + 0.5 = 0.63
0.175
0.455
0.233
0.455 + 0.5 = 0.955
0.233
0.734
0.358
0.734 + 0.5 = 1.234
0.358
0.95
Tc :- Relay operating time from standard curve for the given PSM
Ta :- relay actual operating time
The grading of the remaining relays are proceeded in similar
way as illustrated above and tabulated.
Finally the discriminating curves of relay at substation A,B,C
and D are plotted on log-log sheet (fig). This can be done using a
template of relay operating characteristic at TMS of 1.0. From the plot it
can be seen that a grading margin of 0.5 sec has been achieved.
P rocedure for plotting discriminating curve :For this purpose it is necessary to prepare a transparent
template of the time current curve of the relay on a log - log paper
corresponding to TSM = 1. The template is so made that the origin of
the log - log paper corresponds to 1 - second of the curve along the Y axis and 100% plug setting for 1 - multiple P.S along the X - axis as in
fig 3.2(a).
Page 45 / 153
5
fig 3.2(a)
After having made the template the values of the current (in
amps) are plotted on a log -log paper along the X - axis and the time of
operating of the relay ( in seconds) along the Y - axis.
For plotting the characteristic of the relay - D in the above
illustration, the origin of the template is kept at 100 amps and 0.05 secs
and the curve of the template is transferred on the log - log paper.
Similarly for plotting the characteristic of the relay - C the orgin of the
template should be kept at 200 amps and 0.175 secs and the transfered to
the log - log paper. Repeat the procedure for B and A relays with the
origin of the of template kept at ( 500A, 0.233 s ) and ( 600A, 0.358 s )
respectively.
and current :Discrimination of over current relay
relays by both time
timeand
Relay co-ordination in the case of discrimination by time alone
has the disadvantage of, more severe faults are cleared in the longest
operating time. Discrimination by current can be applied only when
there is appreciable impedance between two circuit breakers. With the
use of inverse characteristic the time of operation is inversely
proportional to the fault current and the actual characteristic is a
function of time and current setting.
Illustration 2 :-
fig 3
It is necessary to convert all the system imped ance to a
common base.
Common base used
:10 MVA
Page 46 / 153
6
percentage imped ance of 4 MVA transfer

to common base :
MVA base
=Z% x
MVArated
10
= 7 x = 17.5%
4
Percentage impedance of cable between
MVAbase
D &E to a common base of 10 MVA :
= Z ohm 100
( KV )2
10
= 0.04 x x 100 = 0.33%
112
Percentage impedance of cable between
10
C&D to a common base of 10 MVA : = 0.24 x x 100 =1.98%
112
percentage imped ance of 30 MVA
10
transformer :
= 22.5 x
=7.5%
30
10
Percentage impedance of 132KV line
= 6.2 x x100 = 0.36%
1322
Percentage impedance of 132KV source
Table 1
Page 47 / 153
7
Base MVA
= x 100
Fault MVA
10
= x 100
=0.29%
3500
R
el
ay
lo
ca
ti
on
D
C
B
A
Total impedance in
Z pu
Fault current in
Amps at 3.3KV base
Min
Max
Max
Min
0.1013
0.0815
0.0065
0.0029
0.2795
0.1013
0.0815
0.0065
17268
21466
269160
603292
6257
17268
21466
269160
Total
load
current
at
3.3KV
base
CT.
Ratio
CT. Ratio
to the
base of
33kv
Relay current
setting
perc
ent
700
1500
6000
20000
250/5
500/5
150/1
500/1
833/5
1666.6/5
6000/1
20000/1
100
100
100
100
Table 2
Relay at D Fault at D
Relay at C Fault at D
Relay at C Fault at C
Relay at B Fault at C
Relay at B fault at B
Relay at A Fault at B
Relay at A Fault at A
PSM
20.7
10.36
12.88
3.58
44.8
13.458
30.1
Tc
0.2
0.8
0.47
6
0.2
0.43
0.2
TMS
0.05
0.625
0.625
0.115
0.115
1
1
TC
0.1
0.1 + 0.4 = 0.5
0.29
0.29 + 0.4 = 0.69
0.023
0.023 + 0.4 =0.423
0.2
A voltage base of 3.3KV has been chosen and the operating

characteristic of the highest rated fuse, that is 200A on the outgoing
3.3KV circuit is plotted on a log-log sheet. The grading of the over
current relays at various substations of the radial system is carried out as
detailed below. A grading margin of 0.4 is adopted in this example
R elay location D:Relay used :- Extremely inverse characteristic

Base MVA
Page 48 / 153
8
primary
current
at 3.3kv
base
833
1666.6
6000
20000
Fault level up to 3.3KV bus =

Z pu
10
=
0.175+0.0033+0.0198+0.075+0.0036+0.0029
10
= = 35.76 MVA
0.2796
Fault MVA
35.76
Fault current
=
=
3 x base KV
3 x 3.3
= 6257Amps at 3.3KV
or
35.76
= = 1877Amps at 11KV
3 x 11
10
Fault level close to bus D
=
0.0198+0.075+0.0036+0.0029
10
= = 98.7 MVA
0.1013
98.7MVA
Full load current at 3.3KV base = = 1.7268KAmps
3 x3.3KV
Maximum load current at 3.3Kv base =
4MVA
= 0.7KA
3 x3.3KV
CT ratio adopted
250/5A
corresponding CT ratio to the base of 3.3KV = 250 x (11/3.3) / 5
=833.3/5A
So a relay of 100% P.S (plug setting) corresponds to a current
of 833.3Amps(3.3KV base).
The calculations for the remaining relay locations are
proceeded in similar way as illustrated above and tabulated
Calculations were made for all the relay locations for the TMS
(time lever setting) in the same way as explained in the previous
example and tabulated in Table 2
Page 49 / 153
9
The discriminating curves were plotted for all the relays at sub
stations A, B, C, D &E on a log-log sheet (fig).
ILLUSTRAT ION 3
Coordination of over current relays for an industrial system :-
fig 3.4
The relays used for protection are :
i) for motor protection (relay G) a thermal relay with high set unit for
instantaneous over current element
ii) for transformer protection (relay H) over current relay with very
inverse characteristic and high over current element
iii) for feeder protection (relay J) a normal inverse characteristic
iv) for generator a voltage controlled normal inverse characteristic
with dual characteristic
For convenience a common voltage base of 6.6KV chosen and
scheme for relay co-ordination redrawn with this base.
Page 50 / 153
10
fig 3.5
Fuse characteristic :- The operating characteristic of the fuse should be
plotted on a log-log sheet with a suitable scale for maximum fault levels
on a common base voltage of 6.6KV.
Table 1
Operating current at
Operating Time
415V Base
6.6KV Base
795
50
40
955
60
13
1160
70
6
1270
80
3
1590
100
0.9
2700
170
0.1
Induction motor :Rating of the motor
Full load current
=100KW.
=139 Amps at 415V base
ie
=8.75 Amps at 6.6KV base
Motor starting current ( 6 times full load current) =6 x 139 = 834 Amps
ie 52.48 Amps at 6.6KV base
Starting time
= 10 secs
The relay may be set for 100% setting corresponding to 9.43Amps at
6.6KV base ie. 13% overload.
The thermal characteristic of the relay is
Table 2
Page 51 / 153
11
multiples of current
1.25
1.5
2
3
4
5
6
operating
415v
base
187.5
225
300
450
600
750
900
current
6.6KV
base
11.79
14.15
18.85
28.3
37.5
47.2
56.6
operating time
Hot
Cold
1400
700
300
105
55
33
23
550
240
100
35
18
11
7.5
Plot the above characteristic on the same log-log sheet. The

instantaneous unit may be set at 1.3 times the starting current ie 1.3 x
840 = 1090 amps at 415 V base or 68.25amps at 6.6 KV base. Plot these
instantaneous characteristic also.
Transformer protection:
Relay used . Very inverse time over current plus instantaneous
element.
CT ratio 75/5A.
750 x 103
full load current of transformer = = 65.6Amps
3 x6.6 x 103
The relay current setting . = 100% ie 75Amps.
This setting will provide adequate margin and better co-ordination with
the fuse
10 x 106
= = 874.7 Amp
3 x 6.6 x103
Relay PSM
= 847.7/75 = 11.6
Relay operating time at 11.6 times plug setting and 1.0 TMS is
1.41secs. The grading margin between relay and fuse will be
t = 0.4t + 0.15 sec
were t = nominal operating time.
So the grading margin = 0.4 x 0.01 + 0.15 =0.154 (say 0.16)
Max fault level
Page 52 / 153
12
Plot the operating characteristic on the log-log sheet to the

common 6.6KV voltage base using a template of the ver inverse
characteristic.
The instantaneous element must be set above the maximum through
fault current.
Fault MVA of the transformer = MVA/Z pu = 0.75 / 0.07 =10.714 MVA
Fault MVA
10.714
= =
= 0.93725KA
3 x KV
3 x 6.6
The relay must be set at 1.3 x937.25 ie 1218Amps.
Plot the operating characteristic on the log-log sheet.
Through fault current
Feeder protection:
Relay used
= normal inverse characteristic.
CT Ratio
= 200 / 5
The current setting on this relay should be based on the
maximum load of the 6.6 KV bus, plus a suitable margin for over load
on the transformer. Since no load values are specified the requirement
may assumed as 100%
Maximum fault for grading
= 1218amps
Relay PSM
= 1218 / 200 = 6.1
Relay operating time for6.1 times PS and 1.0 TMS is =3.8 secs
To grade relay J with relay H the operating time of relay H at
1218amps must be added to the fixed grading margin of 0.5sec.
ie 0.19 + 0.5 = 0.69sec.
So required TMS
=0.69 / 3.8 = 0.18
Plot the operating characteristic on the log-log sheet.
Generator :
Relay used . The relay used is with a duel characteristic
which changes its pick-up value to 40% of its nominal plug setting and
Page 53 / 153
13
the operating characteristic changes from a long IDMT characteristic to

standard IDMT characteristic.
CT Ratio = 500 / 5 A
Under close-up fault condition the voltage at the bus bars dorps
below the setting of the under voltage units, the over current relay
changes its characteristic from the over load curve to the fault curve.
Then the effective setting becomes (0.4 x 500 )Amps ie 200Amps which
happens to be the current setting of the 6.6KV feeder relay J with which
it has to grade. So a setting of 100% can be used.
The possible fault MVA of the 5MVA generator is
MVA Rating
5
= x 100 =33.33MVA
`
Xd
15
33.33
So the fault current
= = 2.916 KA
3 x 6.6
Relay PSM = 2916 / 200 = 14.57
Relay operating time for 14.57 times PS and 1.0 TMS is 2.5 secs.
Relay J operating time at 2916 Amps is 0.38 secs.
Grading margin 0.5 sec.
Hence operating time on fault curve should be
0.38
+ 0.5 = 0.88 secs
So TMS = 0.88 / 2.5 = 0.352
Plot the operating characteristic of the fault curve and over load
curve on the log-log sheet.
Exam ples of earth relay connections :
Page 54 / 153
14
Earth fault relays protecting over head lines are normally

connected to three CTs in a residual current circuit. (fig 3.6).
fig 3.6
Instead of three separate CTs one open core CT (Core Balance
CT) can be used in networks three cable (Fig 3.7).
fig 3.7
In case of non-directional earth fault relays a capacitor across
the CBCT terminal will increase the sensitivity of the relay.( Fig 3.8)
The sensitivity of the relay can be increased by running the cable
several times through the CBCT. The sensitivity will increase twice for
two turns. (Fig3.9)
Page 55 / 153
15
fig 3.8
fig 3.9
The sensitivity of the relay may be increased by mounting two

CBCTs on the cable and CT terminal connected in parallel (fig 3.10)
It is possible two parallel cables through same CBCT (fig
3.11). However if the cables cannot be arranged symmetrically ,there is
a possibility of undue current to relay. This may operate the relay
unnecessarily for high short circuit currents.
fig 3.10
fig 3.11
In case of two or more cables operating in parallel and fitted

with one CBCT for each cable, it is possible to connect all the CTs in
parallel and connected to the same relay (fig 3.12).
Page 56 / 153
16
fig 3.12
Page 57 / 153
17
4.Differential relay
CT connection for differential relay:
The basic requirement of differential relay connection must satisfy the
follow ing conditions.
1) The relay must not operate for external faults.
2) The relay must operate for severe internal faults .
fig 4.1
Connect the CTs of star winding of power transformer in delta
and CTs of delta winding in star. Assume the ratio of power transformer
and CTs as 1:1, so that the current magnitude are equal. Once the proper
connections are arrived the actual ratio can be taken into account.
Assume arbitrarily the current flow in the transformer, but observe the
requirement imposed by the polarity marks that the current flows in
opposite directions in the winding on the same core. The completed
connections for the two winding transformer for differential relaying is
shown in fig 4.1
Page 58 / 153
4.DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
P hase and ratio com pensation of the biased differential protection for
power transformers using interposing current transformers :
In the case of power transformers there may be a phase rotation
between primary and secondary, e.g. group of connection yd5 or yd11,
which has to be compensated before the currents measured in primary
and secondary can be compared by differential relay. Should the ratios
of the current transformers primary and secondary not compared to rated
currents, the amplitude must also be compensated, so that difference
between them at the relay becomes zero under normal load conditions.
Finally the zero sequence component must be eliminated on winding
with grounded star-points.
Formerly, the compensation of group of connection and main
CT ratios was performed outside the differential relay by appropriate
connections of the main CT secondaries or of interposing CTs inserted
between the main CTs inserted between the main CTs and the
differential relay as shown in the fig 4.2
fig 4.2
The main CTs are Y-connected while three single phase inter
posing CTs are connected with the same vector group of connection as
the power transformer. Typical interposing CTs have several tapings for
adjusting their ratio KICT to the composite ratio of the power transformer
Page 59 / 153
2
KT and the main CTs KS1 and KS2. The follow ing relationship for
determining the ratio of KICT is determined from fig 4.2
I2N / 3 . KS2
KICT =
I1N / KS1
KS1
=
3 .KT . KS2
where I1N and I2N are primary and secondary rated
current of the transformer.
Inter posing CTs are also used in the case Y-connected
primaries and secondaries. e.g. group of connection Yy0, to compensate
difference of ratio. Since the ICTs are also connected in Yy0 , the term
3 in the above equation is omitted while determining the ratio of KICT.
Phase and ratio compensation is essential in the case of three
winding transformer, because there is always a phase-shift between the
current of the three windings and the ratios of the three groups of main
CTs have to be adjusted to each other. The principle of compensation
for a Ydd three winding transformer with three groups of interposing
CTs ICT1 , ICT2 and ICT3 is shown in fig 4.3 in a simplif ied form.
fig4.3
The ratios of the interposing CTs in the three legs n can be determined
using the generally applicable formula
SN
1
Page 60 / 153
3
KICT =
3. UN. KSN
m
where KSN = main CT ratios in legs n =1,2,3.
m = factordepending on ICT circuit
m = INP/3 incase of Y/
m = INP in case of Y/Y, INP being the main CT
nominal current i.e. the primary current of
ICT
Sn = rated transformer power.
Un = rated voltage of the respective winding.
Illustration 1
fig 4.4
Matching transformer required
=3.75 / 4.625
Assume the secondary turns of matching transformer as 25 turns.
The number of turns on the primary side T p = ( Is / Ip ) x T s
= ( 4.625 / 3.75 ) x25
= 30.83 31 turns.
Current imbalance due to the use of 31 turns limited to
30.83 - 31
Error =
x 100% = - 0.55%
30.683
Inter posing CT of ratio 4.625 / 5 could also have been used in
conjunction with the 200/5 CTs. In such case ICT used in conjunction
with the 1000/5 CT should be 3.75/5A.
In omitting to provide a second ICT the effective setting would
be increased by the ratio (5 /4.625) x 100% i.e. 108.1%.
Page 61 / 153
4
This would give a setting of 1.081 x20% i.e. 21.62% on the

20% plug setting. The slight increase in effective setting would be
acceptable and thus a second ICT may be considered unnecessary.
Illustration 2
Three phase transformer , 30MVA , 11 / 66KV delta - star
fig 4.5
11KVWinding:
30x106
Normal current at 11KV = = 1574 .6 Amps
3 x 11 x 103
Bec ause the 11KV winding is Delta connected, the associated
current transformer will be star connected and under rated load
condition the current per pilot phase will be
Is = (1574.6 /1600) x 1A =0.984 Amps.
This current sufficiently close to relay rated current (1A).
6.6 KV winding :
30 x 106
Normal current at 6.6KV = = 262.43Amps.
3 x 6.6 x 103
To provide appropriate phase shif t correction the current
transformer associated with the star winding of the main transformer
Page 62 / 153
5
should be connected in delta. However these CTs are connected in star.

So the necessary phase correction may be carried out by providing a star
delta connected matching interposing current transformer. The output
current per phase pilot of the 300 / 1A CT is given by
Ip = (262.43 /300) x 1A =0.875Amps.
This should be adjusted by he interposing CT, so that
0.984Amps flows into the relay. If three single phase CTs are used, then
the ratio should be
Is /3
0.984 / 3
Ip
0.875
Assume the secondary of the ICT uses 215 turns, then the primary turns
required is given by
Is / 3
0.984 x 215
T p = x T s = = 139.6 turns 140 turns
Ip
3 x 0.875
Illustration 3
Three winding transformer :
400MVA /100 MVA / 300 MVA, 500 / 13.45 / 138KV Star - Delta
fig 4.6
The current transformer ratios are chosen as a function of the winding
voltage and power rating of the particular winding with which they are
associated.
Page 63 / 153
6
500KV winding :
Based on the 400MVA the rated current is given by
400 x 106
In = = 462Amps
3 x 500 x 103
Secondary current from 500 / 5A CT
Is = (462 / 500) x 5 = 4.62Amps.
The 500 / 5 A star connected CTs are associated with the 500KV star
winding, and thus the transition to delta connected secondary must be
made by means of an interposing CT.
Assuming the secondary of the ICT be 43 turns.
Is /3
5 x 43
Then primary turns T p = x Ts = = 26.86 or say 27 turns
Ip
3 x 4.62
138KV winding :
During external fault conditions the line CT out put current
must be related to the primary input MVA.
So based on 400MVA, the corresponding current
400 x 106
In = = 1674Amps.
3 x 138 x 103
secondary current of 138KV CT is
Is = (1674 /1200) x 5 = 6.975 Amps
The 1200 / 5A star connected CTs are associated with the
138KV star winding of the transformer. Hence necessary transition to
delta connection must be made by means of an ICT.
Assuming the secondary of the ICT be 43 turns,
Is /3
5 x 43
Then the primary turns T p = x Ts = = 17.79, say 18 turns
Ip
3 x6.975
13.45KV winding :
Based on 400MVA, the corresponding current
400 x 106
In = = 17170.2Amps.
3 x 13.45 x 103
Page 64 / 153
7
secondary current of 138KV CT is

Is = (17170.2 /5000) x 5 = 17.17 Amps
In this case the transformer winding of the 13.45 KV side is
delta connected and the associated CTs are star connected. So there is no
phase angle compensation required. ICT may be star connected and taps
should be selected to reduce the 17.17A to 5A.
Assuming the secondary of the ICT be 43 turns,
Is
5 x 43
Then the primary turns T p = x Ts = = 12.52 or say 13 turns
Ip
17.17
Page 65 / 153
8
5.Generator Protection Relays

Selection of Generator neutral grounding transformer and loading
resistor:
Illustration
Generator voltage (between phases).13.8KV
Frequency . 50Hz
Zero sequence capacitance per phase of the
system components :
a) Generator C 1 = 0.170F
b) Generator surge capacitor .C2 = 0.250F
c) Generator leads (bus ducts ) C 3 = 0.063F
d) Step-up transformer.. C4 = 0.0035F
e) Unit transformer and miscellaneous C5 = 0.0135F
Total capacitance (C1+C2 +C3+C4 +C5..) C = 0.5F
Total residual capacitance
3C = 3 x 0.5 = 1.5F
106
106
Residual capacitive impedance = = = 2123 ohms.
3C
3 x 314 x 0.5
If the effective earthing resistance is made equal to the total
capacitive impedance of 2123 ohms, then with a generator terminal fault
at nominal voltage, the neutral current is
13800 /( 3 x 2123) = 3.75 Amps.
The actual fault current will contain equal resistive and capacitve
components and will therefore be
3.75 + j3.75 = 5.3 Amps
Earthing transformer:
The primary knee point voltage should not be less than 1.3 x
13.8KV ie 18KV. The applied voltage during an earth fault is normally
13.8/3 ie 8KV and with field forcing condition may be 18/3 ie
10.4KV. Hence in either case standard 11KV insulation will be
satisfactory.
The maximum earth fault current at field forcing condition will
increase in proportion to the voltage rise and will therefore be
(10.8/8) x 3.75 =5 Amps
Page 66 / 153
5.GENERATOR PROTECTION RELAYS
Hence the maximum load ing under such condition is 5 x 10.4

ie 52 KVA. A 30 seconds rating for maximum duty is adequate and is
usually specified. Experience with practical distribution transformer has
shown that an overload of six times the continuous rating can be
applied for this time. The rating is however based on the maximum
output and voltage which the transformer can produce.
So the necessary continuous rating is (5 / 6) x 18 = 15 KVA.
The value may be rounded up to he nearest standard size, and
so the rating of 15KVA may be specified.
Transformer secondary rating:
The rated secondary voltage may be any value and should be
chosen to give a suitable secondary current. The secondary knee point
voltage of 250V making the ratio of 18000 /250 Volts will give a
maximum secondary current at normal generator voltage of (18000 /
250) x3.75 ie 270Amps
Earthing resistor :
The equivalent resistor should be equal to the earth fault
capacitance of 2123 ohms.
Therefore the secondary resistance = 2123 x (250 /18000)2
= 0.41 ohms.
This is the total resistance required. The total transformer winding
resistance in terms of the secondary should be deducted from this value
to obtain the value of load ing resistor.
A standard 15KVA transformer can be expected to have a
copper loss of 450 watts. In terms of the secondary winding the
resistance will be
W
450
RT = = = 0.125 ohm
I s2
602
Therefore the load ing resistor should be (0.41 - 0.125) i.e. 0.285 ohm
and rated to carry
1.3 x 3.75 x 18000 / 250 = 350Amps for 30 seconds.
CT requirements for relays used in balance type protective schemes :
Page 67 / 153
2
The knee point voltage referred in the follow ing table of

formulae is defined as the point on the magnetizing curve at which a
10% increase in exciting voltage produces 50% increase in exciting
current.
Application
MIN Knee point
MAX. exciting
voltage
current at V/2 volts
REF with 3 CTs
2 If (Rs +Rl )
(Is - Ir) / 3
REF with 4 CTs
2 If (Rs +Rl )
(Is - Ir) / 4
Bus differential
2 If (Rs +Rl )
(Is - Ir) / n
Residual check
2 If (Rs +Rl )
(Is - Ir) / 3q
Machine
2 If (Rs +Rl )
(Is - Ir) / 2
differential
Where If - Equivalent secondary current of maximum fault current
Is - Effective fault setting in secondary amperes
Ir - Relay operating current
n - Number of CT groups
q - Number of incoming circuits
Rs - CT secondary resistance
Rl - Max lead resistance between relay circuits and any CT
Selection of stabilizing resistors for balanced type protective schemes :

In balance type protective schemes, spill current in relay
circuits can cause indiscriminate operation. To avoid such unwanted
operation stabilizing resistor is connected in series with the current relay.
The value of the stabilizing resister is chosen to ensure that
under maximum steady state through fault conditions there is
insufficient voltage developed across the bus wires to cause a spill
current equal to the relay operating current.
In calculating the value of the stabilizing resister, the follow ing
assumptions are made.
1) one set of CT is completely saturated.
2)
The whole of primary fault current is perfectly
transformed by the remaining CTs.
Page 68 / 153
3
3) The maximum loop lead burden between the relay and CTs
is used.
With one set of CTs saturated the maximum voltage developed
across the stabilizing resister and relay coil in series, is
If ( Rs + Rl ) / N volts
where If is the maximum fault current
Rs is the CT internal resistance
Rl is the maximum lead resistance
N is the CT ratio
For stability, the current through the relay coil at this voltage
must be insufficient to cause relay operation. A stabilizing resister is
chosen which will just allow setting current to flow through the coil.
Example 1 :Maximum voltage calculated by the above method.50 volts.
Setting on the relay ..0.1 Amps
Burden of the relay at the adopted setting .1 VA
Relay impedance at setting current = VA / Is2
= 1.0 / (0.1)2 = 100 ohm
Relay circuit impedance (Stabilizing resister and relay) = Vk/ Is
= 50 / 0.1 = 500 ohm
Therefore Stabilizing resister = ( Vk / Is ) - (VA / Is2 )
= 500 - 100 = 400 ohm.
Example 2 :Machine rating
247 MVA, 15.75 KV.
Sub transient reactance Xd `` = 21.4%
CT ratio 10000 / 5Amps, RCT = 1.5 ohm
1
1
Maximum sub transient through fault current = =
Xd``
0.214
= 4.67 pu
247
= 9.0 kA
3 x 15.75
= 4.67 x 9.06 = 42.3 kA
Generator base current =

Therefore
If
Page 69 / 153
4
secondary fault current

Relay voltage
Relay setting
Stabilizing resistor
= 42300 x ( 5 / 1000 ) = 21.15 Amps

= If ( R CT + Rl )
= 21.15 ( 1.5 + 0.5 ) =42.3 volts
= 0.25 Amps ( i.e. 5% of 5 Amps )
= ( Vk / Is ) - (VA / Is2 )
42.3
1
= - (assume relay burden 1VA)
0.25
(0.25)2
=169.2 - 16 = 153 2 or say 160 ohms
Setting of restricted earth fault relay :
Page 70 / 153
5
fig 5.1
Data required :
1) CT Ratio . 200 / 1 A
2) magnetizing characteristic of CT..Graph (fig), class X
3) CT secondary winding resistance .. 3 ohm
4) Lead resistance (loop) 3 ohm
5) Rating of transformer . 30
MVA
6) Ratio of transformer 132 / 11
kV
7) Required primary fault setting 25 %
8) power transformer impedance .. .. 9.5 %
9) Min CT knee point voltage .. 126 V
1
1
If = x 100
= x 100
= 10.5 %
% impedance
9.5%
Minimum knee point voltage Vk = 2 If ( R ct + R l )
= 2 x 10.5 x (3+3) = 126V
25
30 MVA
Required primary fault setting
= x = 33
Amp
100 3 x 132 kV
There fore secondary fault setting = 33 x ( 1/200 ) =0.165
Amp
Page 71 / 153
6
For actual setting all currents through shunt path must be subtracted.
Shunt path current = number CT x their magnetizing current.
Thus actual setting = 0.165 - 3 x Imetrosil
In R.E.F application where through fault current is limited Imetrosil may
be ignored. Magnetizing current must be considered at relay setting Vs
which is now calculated.
From the magnetization curve in fig the knee point voltage
Vk
is 300 volts.
A stabilizing voltage within the range of Vk/2 to Vk /4 is
normal.
So Vs may be chosen as 150 volts.
The value of Imag at Vs = 150 is 0.015 Amps.
So setting in secondary amps = 0.15 - 3 x 0.015
= 0.12 Amps
The stabilizing resistance (series voltage dropping resistance)
for a stabilizing setting of 150V can be calculated as follows :
Vstability - Vrelay
Rs =
Is
Vs
Vr
Vs
Vr x Is
= - = -
Is
Is
Is
Is x Is
Vs
VA
= -
(where VA is relay burden)
Is
Is2
150
0.5
= -
0.12
(0.12)2
= 1250 - 34.7 = 1215 ohms
The nearest standard value of 1250 ohms may be used.
The 0.5 sec rating resistor R s =Is2 R (where Ir = Vf / R s )
Vf is the peak value developed across the resistor Rs under internal
condition.
Vf = 4(Vk3 x R s x Ifs) x 1.3
where Ifs = IRMS of secondary fault current
4
3
Vf = (300 x 1250 x 10.5) x 1.3
= 1003 volts
IR = 1003 / 1250 = 0.8 Amps for 0.5 sec.
Page 72 / 153
7
So ,
I2R s = (0.8)2 x 1250 = 800 Watts for 0.5 sec
continuos rating of the metrosil is given by
4 If
x x Vk
where N is CT ratio
N
4
2100
= x x 300 = 4010 jou les
200
which is well within the maximum rating of 3`` metrosil which is 43000
jou les.
Setting of field failure relays:

The general practice is to use an offset setting equal to half the
machine transient reactance (Xd`/2) and circle diameter equal to
synchronous reactance of the machine Xs for rotor angle upto 90 and
when the machine cannot be operated at lead ing power factors.
For machines which can be operated at rotor angles upto 120,
the offset are modified to three quarters of the machine transient
reactance (3Xd `/4) and circle diameter equal to half the synchronous
reactance (Xs/2).
Illustration 1:
voltage 11 kV, 3 phase, 50
Hz
output 30 MVA, 0.8 pf
machine transient reactance Xd` 19%
machine synchronous reactance . 200%
CT ratio 1500/5 A
VT ratio 11000/110 volts
Page 73 / 153
8
fig 5.2
Offset setting:
Machine transient reactance in secondary ohms = Xd% x (kV)2 x CTR
100
MVA PTR
= 19 x 112 x (1500/5)
100 30
(11000/110)
= 2.3 ohm
Required setting Xd `/2 = 2.3/2 =1.15 ohm.
Circle diameter setting:
Machine synchronous reactance in }
= Xs % x (kV)2 x CTR
secondary ohms }
100 MVA PTR
= 200 x 112 x (1500/5)
100 30
(11000/110)
= 24.2 ohm
Required circle diameter Xs
=
24.2 ohm
Illustration 2 :
Afield failure relay with K1 (setting for diameter of the
impedance circle) and K2 setting for offset of the impedance circle )
expressed as a percentage of nominal imped ance is used to protect as
alternator with the follow ing characteristics:
In = 2100 amps, Xs = 200%, Xd` = 30%
Nominal primary current of CT = 2500Amps
Find the pickup current at two levels of the characteristic with nominal
voltage and phase angle of +90 for a relay with Vn =110V and In = 5A
.
Page 74 / 153
9
Reactance at the relay terminals are

Xalt x In CT x Vn alt
Xset =
In alt
Vn PT
Xs = 200 x 2500 = 238%
2100
Xd` = 30 x 2500
= 35.7 36%
2100
Suitable setting are
K1 = Xs = 238%
K2 = Xd `/2 = 36/2 = 18%
fig 5.3
Relay nominal voltage
Vn = 110V
Relay nominal current
In = 5A
Relay nominal impedance Z n = Vn / (3In )
=110 / (3 x 5 ) = 12.7 ohms.
Under this condition with nominal test voltage 110volts the relay would
pickup at
IA = U x 100 = 110 x 100
= 48.1A
Zn
K2
12.7 x 18
IB = U x 100 = 110 x 100
= 3.38A
Zn
K2
12.7 x (238+18)
Page 75 / 153
10
Illustration 3 :
PGEN
= 200MW
UN.GEN = 15.85 kV
IN.GEN = 8625 Amps
Xd
= 1.9808pu
Xd`
= 0.2428pu
Xn
= 0.2pu
PT Ratio = 15.75kV /110V

CT Ratio = 10000 /5 A
Un.Relay = 100V
In.Relay = 5A
fig 5.4
In.Relay x IN.CT.Pri x UN.VT.Sec x UN.GEN
Xsec (pu) = Xpri (pu) x
IN.CT.Sec x IN.GEN x Un.Relay x UN.VT.Pri
CTR x UN.GEN x In. Relay
= Xpri (pu) x
PTR x IN.GEN x Un.Relay
UN.Relay
100
Z n.Relay =
=
= 11.55 ohm
3 x IN.Relay
3 x 5
CTR = 2000,
PTR =143.18
a) Setting impedance element for dynamic stability characteristic:
1 0.2428 x 2000 x 15750 x 5
Z 1A = Z 2A = x x 100%
2
143.18 x 8625 x 100
= - 15.48% 16%
2000 x 15750 x 5
Z 1B
= 1.9808 x x 100%
143.18x 8625 x 100
= - 252.6
253%
Z 2B = Z 2B / 2 = 253/2 126%
Page 76 / 153
11
fig 5.5
b) Setting impedance element for steady state and dynamic stability
characteristic:
Z 1A
Z 1B
fig 5.6
CTR x UN.GEN x In. Relay
= XN x
PTR x IN.GEN x Un.Relay
2000 x 15750 x 5
= 0.2 x x100%
143.15 x 8625 x 100
= + 25.5 26%
2000 x 15750 x 5
= 1.1 x 19808 x x100% + Z 1A
Page 77 / 153
12
143.15 x 8625 x 100

= 277.8 + 26 = 303.888 304%
Z 2A
Z 2B
= - Xd` / 2 = 16% (refer part A of this example )

= 1.1 x Xd - (Xd`/2)
= 277.8 - 16 262%
Tripping time
tZ1
= 1.0s ( set between 0.5 to 3sec)
tZ1
= 0.25s ( set between 0.5 to 3sec)
Setting of under voltage element
The under voltage protection element is usually set to the
critical system voltage at which the generator loss of field jeopardizes
the system stability. The limit is normally 80% of the generator voltage.
UN.Gen
15750
U = 0.8 x = 0.8 x = 88%
PTR
143.18
Setting of voltage relays:

Illustration 1 :
An under voltage relay is fed from a set voltage transformers of
rated secondary Un.VT of 110volts. The relay is expected to operate
when the voltage goes down to the level of 85% of the rated V.T.
The rated voltage of the relay Un.relay = 100volts.
The relay setting will be
Un.VT
110
U</ %Un = x 85% i.e. x 85% = 93.5%
Un.relay
100
Illustration 2 :
An over voltage relay is to be used as a residual earth fault
relay, connected to an open delta connection of the secondary of a set of
voltage transformers. The relay is to operate for a residual voltage of
20% of the fully developed residual voltage.
Rated voltage of the relay Un.relay = 100volts
Voltage transformer ratio
6600 / 110
3 / 3
Page 78 / 153
13
The relay setting will be

Un.VT
110
U</ %Un = x 20% i.e. x 20% = 22.2%
Un.relay
100
Setting of voltage relays connected for earth fault:

Illustration 3:
A voltage relay is to be set at 10% of the phase to neutral
voltage. Normal Voltage Vn is 6600volts and voltage transformer ratio
6600/110volts.
a) If the relay is supplied from a voltage transformer connected
between the neutral point and ground, the relay measures the zero
sequence voltage V0 of the neutral.
The voltage 10%Vn, brought to the secondary of the transformer
gives
10
6600 110
11
V = x x = = 6.35 7volts.
100
3
6600
3
The operating level of the relay should be set at 7volts.
b) If the relay is supplied from an open delta, it measures the sum of
the three phases to neutral voltage, which is by definition equal to
three times the zero sequence voltage V0 of the network.
The relay is supplied by an open delta of three phase voltage
transformer whose ratios are
6600 / 110
3 / 3
The voltage 10%Vn brought to the secondary of any one of the
voltage transformer is equal to
10
6600 110/3
11
V = x x = = 6.35 volts
100
3
6600/3
3
In fact the voltage applied to the relay is equal to three times
this calculated value.
So relay voltage is 3 x (11/3) 19volts
So the operating level of the relay should be set at 19volts or the nearest
tap available.
Setting of power relays:
Page 79 / 153
14
Illustration 1:
Active power of the generator PGEN
Nominal current of the relay IN
Nominal voltage of the relay VN
CT ratio
PT ratio
Relay to be set 3% reverse power.
Reference power of the relay
PR =
= 185 KVA x 0.8 =1500KW

= 5A
= 100V
= 150/5A
= 10KV/100V
3 x UN x IN x CTR x PTR
= 3 x 5 x 100 x 30 x 100
= 2598KW
If the relay should pick up at a reverse power of greater than 3%
(referred to the active power of the generator) the adjustment value on
the relay can be calculated as
PGEN
1500KW
Adjustment Value % = x %P = x 3% = 2%
PR
2598KW
Hence the relay should be set at 2%.
Illustration 2:
Active power of the generator PGEN = 210 MW
= 5A
= 100V
CT ratio
= 10000/5A
PT ratio
= 15.75KV/110V
PR = 3 x UN x IN x CTR x PTR
= 3 x 100 x 5 x 2000 x 143.18
= 248MW
PGEN
210MW
Adjustment Value % = x %P = x 1% = 0.846%
PR
248MW
Since the relay is fed from voltage transformers of 110V, the actual
setting for 1% reverse power is
U
x 0.846 = 0.93 1%
UN
Illustration 3:
Page 80 / 153
15
Active power of the generator PGEN = 500KW, 400V, 50Hz

= 5A
= 230V
CT ratio
= 1000/5A
Single phase connection, PT not required.
PR = UN x IN x CTR x PTR
= 230 x 5 x 200 x 1
= 230KW
PG / phase = 500/3 =166.66KW
PGEN
166.66
So adjustment Value % = x %P = x 5% = 3.62%
PR
230
Setting of Negative phase sequence relays :

Negative phase sequence currents in stator of a generator due to
unbalanced loads or faults induce double frequency eddy currents in the
rotor. These currents if allowed to persists, can cause series over heating
and the purpose of the negative phase sequence relay is to disconnect the
machine before such excess temperature is reached. The time
characteristic of the machine in order to avoid tripping.
Illustration 1 :
Negative sequence current withstand rating I2S of the generator = 10%
I22 t of the generator
= 7.5
characteristic of negative sequence relay(CTN31of English Electric Co)
I2S
K3
7.5%
1
10%
1.78
15%
4
20%
7.1
30%
16
I22 t = K1 x K3
K1 selectable between 1 to 10
Setting:
Select a plug board setting I2S equal to nearest below the
generator continuous negative phase sequence current withstand rating
i.e.
I2S = 10%
Choose appropriate value of K3 from the table of relay characteristic
Page 81 / 153
16
i.e.
K3 = 1.78
Choose the time multiplier setting K1 from the formula
I2 2t = K = K1 x K3
i.e.
K1 x K3 = 7.5
K1 = 7.5 / 1.8 = 4.21
Select the nearest lower tap value of K1 available
i.e.
K1 = 3.9
Comparison of relay operating time and generator withstand time at five
times relay setting current :
Generator withstand time tm = K / I22t = 7.5 / (5 0.1)2 = 30 sec
Relay operating time from graph of relay characteristic when K1is 1 and
at 5 setting current is 7sec
So relay operating time tr = K1 (operating when K1 = 1)
i.e.
tr = 3.9 7 = 27.3sec.
Illustration 2 :
Generator parameters
Nominal current
800A
CT Ratio
1000/5A
Continuously permissible unbalance current I2S
I 22t of generator
60s
Relay particulars
Nominal current In
5A
Setting range
I2t
0.02 to 0.5 In
I2w
0.02 to 0.5 In
Time selectable T (DEF)
1 to 200sec
T (INV)
300 to 3600sec
40%
( trip )
(warning )
Tripping characteristic (inverse)

T
t =
(I2 / I2s)2 1
where
t
= tripping time
T = thermal time constant
Normal CT secondary current
= 800 (5/1000) = 4 Amps
Continuously permissible
Page 82 / 153
17
negative current related I2s =

4 ( 40/100 ) = 1.6Amps
to secondary side of CT
I2s setting
= ( I2s secondary ) In
i.e.
= 1.6 / 5 = 0.32
Time constant T for selection of tripping characteristic is
T = I22t / I2s = 60 /(0.4)2 = 375 or say 360sec
For warning I2w may be set at a lower value of 35%.
35% IN.G
0.35 800
I2w setting = = = 0.28
CTR In
(1000/5) 5
tw may set at a fixed time of 5sec.
Illustration 3 :
Generator parameters
Nominal current
9060A
CT Ratio
10000/5A
Continuously permissible unbalance current I2S
5%
I 22t of generator
8s
Relay particulars
Nominal current In
5A (Type RARIB of ASEA)
In 2
operating characteristic t = K
I2
where K is I22t constant of generator.
Relay setting current I2s = 9060 (5/10000) = 4.53A
i.e.
(4.53/ 5) In
= 0.906 In
K = 8 on the relay.
Continuous negative sequence withstand characteristic of 5%
implies that maximum difference between the line current is
about 10%. So set the trip relay at 8% and alarm relay at 4%.
Setting of distance backup protection relays for generators :

The over current relays have the disadvantage that, on
generators the fault current reduces sharply, as the generator reactance
changes from sub-transient to transient to synchronous and is generally
insufficient for reliable operation of the over current relays which
operate after a time delay. The voltage control feature also becomes
Page 83 / 153
18
ineffective when AVRs are used in conjunction with the generator,

because they tend to maintain normal voltage at generator terminals.
Therefore distance type relays are generally preferred.
Illustration 1 :
System details
Rating of generator
210MW/247MVA, 15.75KV.
Number of machine operating in parallel
2
Length of the longest line
185 KM
Line impedance /KM
0.335 ohm
Rating of transformer
250 MVA, Ratio 15.75/230 KV
% impedance
14 %
Taking under-reaching effect into consideration the impedance setting
required to cover the entire length is
Z T + NZ L
where Z T is the impedance of the transformer and Z L is the
impedance of the longest line both in primary ohms on HV basis. N is
the number of generator in parallel.
(KV)2
Z T = Z pu
MVA
14
2302
=
= 29.62 ohms
100
250
Z L = 185 0.335 = 61.98 ohms
Z T + Z L = 29.62 + 61.98 = 153.58 ohms
Impedance expresses at the
generator voltage level = Z ( VL / VH )2
= 153.58 (15.75 / 230 )2
= 0.72 ohm
CTR
Setting in secondary ohms
= Z
PTR
10000
110
= 0.72
5
15750
=10.057 ohms
The relays are supplied with delta voltages and delta currents
and connected for phase fault measurements. Therefore it will have a
setting of 1.15 times (derivation of which is given separately) actual
Page 84 / 153
19
setting i.e. If the actual setting is 3 to12 ohms the effective setting will
be 3.45 to13.2ohms.
So the setting required on the relay
= 10.057 / 1.15
= 8.745 ohms.
Alternate criteria for setting :
Criteria Set at 70% of the load imped ance.
KV2
2002
Z load = = = 1.004 /Ph
MVA
247
70
Primary setting = 1.004 = 0.703 / Ph
100
CTR
Secondary setting = Z
PTR
10000
110
= 0.703 = 9.82 / Ph
5
15750
Applying the effect of delta voltages and delta currents
9.82
Relay setting = = 8.539 8.5 /Ph
1.15
Setting of transformer over excitation relays:

Generator step up transformers need protection against the risk
of damage which may be caused when the transformers are operated at a
flux density higher than the design values. When the power transformers
are over excited the leakage flux increases and this results in heavy
hysteresis and eddy current loss in non laminated parts of the
transformers. If the temperature rise due to this losses is excessive, the
insulation may be damaged and flashover may occur. These conditions
are more likely to occur when the unit is on open circuit with generator
field energized, and machine speed is increasing, or decreasing from
synchronous speed. Over excitation relays are designed to prevent over
fluxing in generator step-up transformers with V/f characteristics.
Illustration :
Page 85 / 153
20
fig 5.7
For this specific example a relay (Type RATUB of asea make)
is considered.
The characteristic of the relay is
K
t = 0.8 + 0.18
( m 1)2
( V/f )
where m = and
(V/f)set
K = the adjustable time constant.
Transformer working flux density
= 1.6 Tesla (assumed )
Transformer saturation flux density = 1.9 Tesla (assumed )
Flux ratio = 1.9 /1.6 = 1.185 1.1 (say).
The maximum permitted excitation corresponds to
110
1.1 = 2.42 V/Hz on the relay side
50
So V/f start level setting =2.4 V/Hz.
Calculate appropriate K factor for 150% excitation.
( V/f )
1.5
150% excitation corresponds to
= = 1.3636
(V/f)set
1.1
fig 5.8
From the excitation characteristic of step up transformer (see graph)
time for 150% excitation is 5.5secs.
t 0.8 V/f
2
K = 1
0.18 V/fset
Page 86 / 153
21
5.5 0.8
( 1.3636 1 )2 3.4
0.18
Choose K = 3 and check the operating time for different points on the
excitation curve of the transformer and plot it on the same sheet.
0.18 3
t = 0.8 +
V/f
2
1
V/fset
This plot should be below and very close to the excitation

characteristic of the transformer. Otherwise choose a different K value.
The relay should be checked for operation by applying a
voltage equal to
relay setting (test frequency / normal frequency) normal
voltage
of the relay
i.e. 110volt relay with setting of 1.1 at49.5 Hz will operate at
1.1 (49.5 /50) 110 = 119.79 vols.
pole slipping protection :

Generator
Generatorpole
It is not a simple operation to establish the relay setting in
relation to the machine and system parameters, since the setting depends
on the machine rate of slip which is a function of the machine inertia,
machine load, type of fault causing the pole slipping condition, the
length of time it taken for fault to be cleared. In general the longer the
fault clearance time, the higher the in itial rate of slip. It has been
established by tests, that for a tandem generator the average rate of slip
during the first half slip cycle will usually be in the range of 250 to 400
degrees/sec, while for cross compound units the average in itial rate of
slip will be 400 to 800 degrees/sec. However for both type of generator
the average rate of slip during the reminder of the slip cycle will fall on
the range of 1200 to 1600 degrees/sec.
It is generally recommended that under pole slipping condition
the machine be disconnected from the system without any delay after
the power swing has passed on an angle of 270 degrees, which ensures
that the voltage across the opening poles of the generator breaker are not
more than 90 degrees.
Page 87 / 153
22
Fast removal from the power system of a large generator

running out of step avoids the risk of loss of auxiliaries to other
generators which remains instep and also minimizes the disturbances to
other system loads.
The general recommendation for a the setting of pole slipping
relay is as follows :
1) The angle of both the directional and the blinder unit be set
at as close as possible to the system impedance angle.
2) That the blinder unit be set to operate an angle of 90 to
the total system impedance along the power swing locus.
3) That the time unit be set in accordance with expression
1
t =
slip rate in degrees/sec
where t = time in sec
1 = 270
= Approximately 180(angle subtended by the
unit at the point along which the power
swing locus crosses it with the two ends of
the total system impedance line.)
4) That the over current unit be set at approximately 115% of
the generator full load rating.
Determination of pole slipping relay setting :
1) From the site data determine the follow ing with reference
to machine voltage
a) Transformer reactance XT.
b) Generator reactance XG (This is obtained from sub
transient reactance. ( 90% of Xd `` is effective for pole
slipping.)
c) Source impedance Z s.
2) Plot the above on R - X diagram to determine the line
impedance A - C.
3) Determine the power swing locus. This is perpendicular
bisector of line A - B.
4) Insert the directional and blinder characteristic on the
diagram. Angle to be as near the line angle as possible.
5) Directional line through origin passes through point P on
the power swing locus.
Page 88 / 153
23
6) To determine the offset measure along the R - axis to

where the blinder intersects ( This give offset in primary
ohms.)
7) Time setting
1
t =
slip rate in degrees/sec
Angle 1 is fixed at 270. To determine the angle then
from
the point where the directional characteristic
crosses the power swing locus, link with point A and B on
the system impedance line and measure the angle
subtended this will be around 180. For almost all types
of machines the average rate of slip after the first half
cycle will be between 1200 and 1600 degrees/sec.
Illustration :
Generator rating 247MVA, 15.75KV
Sub transient reactance Xd`` = 21.4%
Generator transformer rating 250MVA, (240/3) /15.75 KV
Percentage impedance 14%
Fault level of the 240 KV bus 5000 MVA.
fig 5.9
KV2
Generator sub transient reactance in ohms = Xd``pu
MVA
21.4
15.752
=
100
247
Page 89 / 153
24
For pole slip
XG
Transformer reactance in ohms
XT
Source impedance
=
=
=
=
0.2149
0.9 X
0.9 0.2149
01934
KV2
= Xpu
MVA
14
15.752
=
100
250
= 0.1389
Fault MVA
=
KV2
5000
=
15.752
= 0.0496
Assume system angle = 80

Plot the values on the graph sheet.
fig 5.10
From the graph off -set
= 0.185
CTR
Off - set in secondary ohms = Primary ohm
PTR
Time setting
10000
110
= 0.185
5
15750
= 2.584
1
=
Rate of slip
From the graph = 182

Assume the rate of slip applicable to machine is 1600 degrees/sec
So
t
Page 90 / 153
25
270 182
=
Over current relay setting
=
=
=
=
1600
55 m . sec
115% of FLC
4.525 0.115
5.2 amps
Setting of pole slipping relays with lens characteristic :

Relay type ZPT 408, BBC make.
fig5.11
KV2
15.752
Load impedance = = = 1.004
MVA
247
Assume minimum load resistance R L.M IN = 85%
Z A = XT + XN
= 0.1389 + 0.0496 = 0.1885
Z B = Xd`
= 0.2149
Z C = 0.9 XT
= 0.9 0.1389 = 0.125
Relay setting in secondary ohms

CTR
Z A.sec = Z A
PTR
Page 91 / 153
26
10000
110
= 0.1885
5
15750
= 0.1885 13.968 = 2.63
ZB
= 0. 2149 13.968 = 3
ZC
= 0.125 13.968 = 1.746
RL.M IN
*
= 180 2 tan 1 1.54
ZA +ZB
0.85 1.004
= 180 2 tan -1 1.54
0.1885 + 2149
= 180 2 tan-1(3.258) = 34
( If is less than 90 set at 90)
setting available is 90 to 150
So set at = 90
Set = 85 ( 5 higher than system angle )
operation time of the relay 50 ms (fixed )
Page 92 / 153
27
Page 93 / 153
28
6.Distance relays
General P rinciple :
Distance protection monitors the imped ance of the protected
unit as seen from the relay location. The impedance is high when there
is no fault on the protected unit and low when there is a fault. Distance
protection is used as a primarily protection for transmission lines, and
as a backup protection for large generators, power transformer and autotransformer.
The important advantage of distance protection in comparison
with graded over current protection is its extremely fast operation for
faults in the first zone of protection, which is usually between 80 to 90%
of the protected line. Thus faults close to the source can be tripped just
quickly as faults at the end of the line. From fig 6.1 it can also be seen
that each of the distance relays RZ 1 to RZ3 has several impedance zones
fig 6.1
with different operating times. The second and higher zones provide
back-up protection for other section of line, should either their
protection or circuit breaker fails to clear the fault. This means that
assuming a fault on L 2( fault location F2) distance relay RZ 1 would trip
circuit breaker-1 after the time t1II should the relay RZ2 fail to clear the
fault in its first time step (operating time t2I ). A fault at F3 (last 10 to
15% of the line) on the other hand would be detected by distance relay
Page 94 / 153
6.Distance relays
RZ 2 in its second Zone and tripped after the time t2II. Should this not
take place, RZ 1 would trip circuit breaker-1 until the time t3III has
expired, because the fault lies in its third impedance zone.
It follows from this explanation that discrimination is
achieved in the case of distance protection by giving tripping priority to
the relay which measures the lowest impedance, i.e. the shortest distance
to the fault. It was also explained, that the first zone cannot be set to
cover the full length of the line. In order to ensure proper discrimination
under all conditions it has to be set short and as a result fau8lts in the
last 10 to 15% are detected in the second Zone. This margin has to be
observed, because if the first zone were to be set to 100% of the line,
faults at the beginning of the next section of the line might be detected
by mistake due to inaccuracies of the distance measurement and line
impedance data. This apparent disadvantage is overcome by installing a
communication channel between the relay at two end of the line or, if
auto-reclosure is used, by an appropriate auto-reclosure log ic.
Measuring principle:
A simplif ied illustration of the principle of distance
measurement is given in fig 6.2 a & 6.2 b.
It assumes that only the positive-sequence component of the
line impedance is
measured and the
zone of
protection
corresponds to
Page 95 / 153
2
6.Distance relays
Protected circuit
fig 6.2 a
UL = IF.Z LAF
IF`.Z M
UL` = UL / KNU
Measuring
Impedance characteristic
UM =
principle
fig 6.2 b
the first zone of any of the relays e.g. RZ1, as shown in the fig 6.1. This
means that all faults occurring between station-A and zone limit G are in
Page 96 / 153
3
6.Distance relays
the operating area of the distance relay characteristic, and fault outside
this area are not detected in the first zone. It is the relays job to decide
whether the fault impedance lies within or outside the characteristic.
One possibility of doing this is to compare the absolute values of two
variables, one which is the voltage drop UL across the impedance of the
fault loop Z LAF and the other is the voltage drop UM across what is
referred to as the replica impedance Z M connected to the secondary of
the CT. The reflected impedance of the replica on the primary side of
the current transformer corresponds to the line impedance Z 1I i.e. the
impedance of the first zone. The two variables at the input of the
amplitude comparator M are thus given by the relationship
UL
IK . Z LAF
UL`
=
1
KNU
KNU
IK . Z M
UM
=
IK` . Z M
=
2
KNI
where IK
IK`
= primary fault current

= secondary value of the
primary fault
current IK
=
i.e. IK`
IK / KNI
KNI
KNU
Z LAF
= nominal CT ratio
= nominal V.T ratio
= impedance of the line loop
between
section
and
fault location F
ZM
= replica impedance, in this
case Z M = Z 1I
As mentioned above , the absolute values of the voltages UL`
and UM are compared and therefore for a limit of the first zone (G in
fig6.2b)
| UL` |
=
| UM |
3
Page 97 / 153
4
6.Distance relays
This means that the signals applied to the amplitude comparator M are
balanced and the condition for tripping is not fulfilled. If both sides of
equation 1 and 2 are divided by IK and IK` equation 3 becomes
Z L ` = Z M = Z 1I
The graphical representation of the characteristic in the R/X plane is a
circle with its center at the origin of the system coordinates ( fig 6.2b).
This is also the location of the beginning of the protected line. Since the
ratio between X and R of the line is known, the impedance of the line
between A and B can be represented by the impedance vector Z AB if a
corresponding scalar value is assumed. The operating area of the
protection lies inside the circular characteristic and the restrained area
outside. Thus tripping condition is expressed by the follow ing inequality.
|Z M|
>
|Z L`|
4
which in terms of voltage means |UL| < |UM| and is the case assumed
in fig 6.2b. The fault location F lies in the first zone and therefore |Z LAF |
is less than Z LAG = Z M. Since the same fault current flows through both
impedances, the voltage |UL `| is also less than UM and protection trips.
For faults beyond the limit of the first zone, |Z L`| > |Z M| and therefore
also |UL`| > |UM| and the protection restrains.
The consideration up to the present were concerned with the
application of distance protection to radial lines. If fault energy can be
supplied from both ends, distance relays have to be installed at both
terminal stations as shown in fig 6.3.
Assuming that the relay should only trip for faults in the
forward direction, the two relays must have operating characteristic
which are capable of making a clear directional decision. A
protection
Page 98 / 153
5
6.Distance relays
fig 6.3
with an impedance characteristic according to fig 6.2b cannot fulfill this
requirement, because the impedance vector seen by the relays RZ I and
RZ 2 for the fault locations F1 and F3 are also in the operating area. For
respective relays, these faults are in the third quadrant of the R/X plane
as shown for RZ 1 in fig c. to prevent a distance relay from operating for
faults in the reverse direction, its characteristics in the R/X plane must
not encroach on the third quadrant. The desired mode of operation is
Page 99 / 153
6
6.Distance relays
achieved by relays having a mho characteristic (mho - inverse of ohm)

as shown in fig 6.3. A characteristic of this kind can be obtained using
both amplitude and phase comparator. In the case of phase comparator
the relevant input signals are
S1 = UL
and
S2 = UM UL
from which can be derived
S1 = Z L
and
S2 = Z M Z L
The parameter mentioned by the phase comparator is the phase
angle between the input signals. The limit values of = 90, for this
angle describes the circular operating characteristic i.e. < 90 for
faults outside the first zone and > 90 for faults inside the first zone.
Apart from the circular mho characteristic shown above to
illustrate the basic principle of distance protection, operating
characteristic which shapes more closely suited to the conditions in
practice are achieved by solid - state distance relays.
Setting recommendation :
Positive sequence impedance:The line impedance converted to the secondary side of the
instrument transformer with the follow ing formula
CT Ratio
Z sec
= Z pri
PT Ratio
CT pri
VT sec
=
Z pri

CT sec
VT sec
Due to errors in relays, current transformers, voltage
transformers and inaccuracies inline data an under reaching zone 1
reach is normally set at 80% of the calculated line impedance. For the
same reason an over reaching zone 2 reach is set to cover the protected
line plus 50% of the adjacent shortest line or 120% of the protected line
whichever is greater. The zone 2 setting should never exceed 80% of the
impedance corresponding to the protected line plus the first zone reach
of the shortest adjacent line and the impedance corresponding to the
protected line plus the impedance of the maximum number of
transformers in parallel on the bus at the remote end of thee protected
line. The zone 3 reach is set to cover 120% of the protected line plus the
Page 100 / 153

7
6.Distance relays
longest adjacent line. It should at least two times the zone 1 setting. The
zone 3reverse function can also be used for backup protection of the bus
bars behind the relay and is typically at 25% of zone 1 setting.
Zero sequence compensation :The measuring loop at single phase to ground faults consists of
two impedances, the positive sequence impedance the positive sequence
impedance Z 1 and the zero sequence Z 0 . To measure the impedance upto
fault point correctly, a compensation factor known as zero sequence
compensation or residual compensation must be applied.
Z0 Z 1
This compensation is calculated as
Kn
3Z1
Fault resistance:The single phase to ground fault is of great importance in
distance protection as normally more than 70% of the faults on
transmission line are single phase to ground. The fault resistant
composed of two components, the arc resistance and the tower footing
resistance. The arc resistance as per Warington formula is
28707 l
Rarc =
I1.4
where I =
the actual fault current
l =length of the arc in meters.
l is approximately 2 -3 times the arc foot spacing. The tower
footing resistance must be calculated or measured for the specific cases
as the variation of this parameter is very large.
Distance relay cannot be used to detect very high resistive
ground faults as the reach is limited by the load impedance and load
transfer.
Margin between resistive reach and load impedance in the ase of
quadrilateral characteristic :the maximum permissible resistive reach for any zone should
be checked to ensure that sufficient setting margin between the relay
boundary and minimum load impedance. The minimum load impedance
is calculated as
(KV)2
Z load =
= ohm/phase.
Page 101 / 153

8
6.Distance relays
MVA
Since the safety margin is required to avoid load encroachment
under three phase fault conditions and to avoid healthy phase relay
operation under combined three phase load and ground faults, both the
phase to phase and phase to ground characteristic should be considered.
The load impedance is a function of minimum operation
voltage and maximum load current under emergency conditions.
Umin
Z load.min =
= ohm /phase
3 Imax
To avoid load encroachment the resistive reach should be set
less than 80% of the minimum load imped ance.
Power swing blocking :power swings are variations in power flow which occur when
the voltage of generator at different points of the power system slip
relative to each other to cater for changes of load magnitude and
direction or as a result of fault and their subsequent clearance.
fig 6.4
The results of a power swing may cause the impedance
presented to the distance relay to move away from the normal load area
and into the relay characteristic. In the case transient power swing it is
important that the distance relay should not trip and should allow the
power system to return to a stable condition. For this reason an optional
power swing blocking relay is provided in distance protection schemes.
Since the power swing is a balanced three phase condition a single phase
Page 102 / 153

9
6.Distance relays
relay with off-set mho characteristic is provided to encircle the zone 3

characteristic. The time taken for the power swing to cross the
characteristic is measured. If this time is longer than the set time of the
power swing blocking relay, then the power swing has occurred and
tripping is blocked if the time is less than the set time, then the fault
occurred and normal tripping is allowed.
When circular characteristic such as mho or off-set mho types
are used, the power swing blocking characteristic should have a
diameter of atleast 1.3 times the diameter of the zone 3 characteristic.
Normally this is set at 150% of the zone 3 setting in the forward reach
and 25% of the forward reach in the reverse reach.
Zone time setting :- Normally no time delay will be provided for zone 1
tripping. Zone 2 delay should be set to discriminate with primary
protection of the next line section including circuit breaker trip time.
Generally a zone 2 time delay setting of 0.2 to 0.4 is satisfactory and the
zone 3 time delay should be twice that of zone 2time setting.
Illustration 1 :
fig 6.5
Length
of
the
180KM
Length of the adjacent shortest line
length of the adjacent longest line
Positive
sequence
0.0264 + j0.3289
ohm/KM
protected
Page 103 / 153

10
line
220KM
380KM
impedance
6.Distance relays
i.e.
0.3385.42
ohm/KM
Zero
sequence
0.08887 + j1.1094 ohm/KM
impedance
i.e.
1.11385.42
Line
85.42
Relay
75
CT
1000 /1 A
PT
400,000/110V
ohm/KM
angle
angle
ratio
ratio
CTR
1000
110
Transformation ratio
= 0.275
PTR
1
400,000
Primary impedance of the
protected line
= 0.33
180
= 59.4 ohm
Secondary impedance of the
protected line
Impedance Transformation ratio
=
59.4 0.275
relay
Cos(L R )
16.335
Pri.
= 16.335ohm
Sec. Impedance along the
16.61ohm
Cos(85.42 75 )
Page 104 / 153

11
Pri.Imp
angle
6.Distance relays
adjacent shortest line

= 72.6 ohm
= 19.965 ohm
20.299 ohm
0.33
220
72.6 0.275
19.965
relay angle
Cos(85.42 75)
adjacent longest line
= 0.33 380
= 125.4 ohm
= 125.4 0.275
= 34.485 ohm
34.485
relay angle
=
= 35.063 ohm
Cos(85.42 75)
Zone 1 reach
of the protected line
= 0.8 16.61
Zone 2 reach
protected line
80%
13.287 ohm
=
120% of the
or
protected
line + 50%of the adjacent
shortest
line whichever is greater
16.61 or
1.2
19.932
(16.61 + 0.5 20.299)
or 26.7998 ohm
Zone 2 reach adopted
Zone 3 forward reach
longest
=
=
26.7998 ohm
120% of (protected line +
Page 105 / 153

12
6.Distance relays
adjacent line)
=
1.2
( 16.61 + 35.0632 )
=
ohm
Zone 3 reverse reach
0.25 13.287
=3.3217 ohm
Starter setting
setting
i.e. Forward reach
25% of Zone 1 reach

=
=
62
125%of Zone 3
( 0.25 Z 3F ) + Z 3F
=
( 0.25 62 ) + 62
=
Reverse reach
77.5 ohm
=
(0.25 62 ) + 3.3217
= 18.82 ohm
Power swing blocking relay setting =
i.e. Forward reach
Z 3F
=
( 0.5 62 ) + 62
Reverse reach
( 0.25 Z 3F ) + Z 3R
=
150% of the Zone 3 setting

= ( 0.5 Z 3F ) +
93 ohm
=
( 0.5 Z 3F ) +
Z 3R
=
(0.5 62 ) + 3.3217 = 34.32 ohm
Z0 Z 1
Neutral compensation
100
3ZI
1.113 0.33
=
100
3 0.33
Time setting :
=79.09 %
Zone 2 time
Page 106 / 153

13
= 0.4 sec
6.Distance relays
Zone 3 time
= 0.
8sec
Illustration 2 :
(reactance relay)
fig 6.6
Length
of
the
70KM
Positive sequence impedance
+ j0.4
ohm/KM
Zero
sequence
0.04 + j1.0 ohm/KM
Line
angle
67.3
Relay
75 (power swing
protected
line
30KM
55KM
0.016
impedance
1 (0.4/0.16)
tan
angle
blocking relay )
CT
300 /1 A
PT
110,000/110V
ratio
ratio
CTR
300
110
= 0.3
1
PTR
110,000
Page 107 / 153

14
6.Distance relays

protected line
11.2 + j28 ohm
protected line
= (0.16 + j0.4) 70
Pri. Impedance
= 11.2 + j28
ohm 0.3 = 3.36 + j8.4 ohm
= (0.16 + j0.4) 30 =
4.8 + j12 ohm
= (4.8 + j12) 0.3
=
1.44 + j3.6 ohm
= (0.16 + j0.4) 55
= 8.8 + j22 ohm
=
(8.8 + j22) 0.3
=
2.64 + j6.6 ohm
Zone 1 reach (reactance only)
= 80% of the protected line
=
0.8 8.4
= 6.72 ohm
= 120% of the protected line
or
protected line + 50%of the adjacent
shortest
=
1.2 8.4 or
(8.4 + 0.5 3.6 )

=
10.08
or 10.2 ohm
line + longest
Page 108 / 153

15
10.2 ohm
= 120% of (protected
6.Distance relays
adjacent line)
=
1.2 ( 8.4 + 6.6 )
=
18 ohm
Zone 3 reverse reach
= No reverse reach setting in
reactance relays
Mho starting unit :
Zone 3 reach in reactance = 18 ohm
Line angle
= 67.3
18
Zone 3 reach in impedance
ohm
19.51
7.285
sin67.3
6.72
Zone 3 reach in impedance
ohm
sin67.3
Starter setting (impedance)
setting
i.e. Forward reach
=
=
( 0.25 19.51 ) + 19.51 = 24.38 ohm

Reverse reach
Z 1F
125%of Zone 3
( 0.25 Z 3F ) + Z 3F
=
( 0.25 Z 3F ) + 0.25
=
(0.25 19.51) + ( 0.25 7.285)

= 6.7
ohm
Power swing blocking relay setting =
i.e. Forward reach
150% of the Zone 3 setting

= ( 0.5 Z 3F ) + Z 3F
=
( 0.5 19.51) + 19.51 = 29.265 ohm

or say 30 ohm
Page 109 / 153

16
6.Distance relays
Reverse reach
( 0.5 Z 3F ) + Z 3R
=
(0.5 19.51) + 7.285 = 13.397 ohm

or say 14 ohm
X0 X1
Neutral compensation
100
3XI
1
0.4
100
50%
3 0.4
Illustration 3 :
(Quadrilateral characteristic relay)
fig 6.7
the
Length
of
135KM
Positive sequence impedance
j0.4125
ohm/KM
Zero
sequence
0.263 + j1.51 ohm/KM
Page 110 / 153

17
protected
line
16KM
140KM
0.08 +
impedance
6.Distance relays
Line
angle
79
Max.load
250MVA
CT
800 /1 A
PT
230,000/110V
1
(0.4125/0.08)
tan
transfer
ratio
ratio
CTR
800
110
= 0.3826
PTR
1
230,000
protected line
= (0.08 +
j0.4125) 135
=10.8 + j55.68 ohm
protected line
Pri. Impedance
= 10.8 + j55.68 0.3826
= 4.13 + j21.3 ohm
(0.08 + j0.4125) 16
=
1.28 + j6.6 ohm

(1.28 + j6.6) 0.3826

=
0.4889+ j2.525 ohm

140
0.08 + j0.4125)
=
11.2 + j57.75 ohm
Page 111 / 153

18
6.Distance relays

0.3826
(11.2 + j57.75)
=
4.285 + j22.09 ohm

28709 l
Arc resistance =
I1.4
assume arc length
say 20ohm
10 meters and minimum fault current 1KA

28709 10
R arc
=
=18.1 ohm
or
10001.4
Reactance reach setting

=
0.8 21.3
80% of the protected line
17.04 ohm
120% of the protected line
or
protected line + 50%of the adjacent
shortest
=
21.3 or
1.2
(21.3 + 0.5 2.525)

=
25.56
or 22.5625 ohm
+ longest
= 25.56 ohm
= 120% of (protected line
adjacent line)
=
1.2 ( 21.3 + 22.09 )
Page 112 / 153

19
6.Distance relays
=
43.39 ohm
Maximum transformer at station B is
200MVA
Per unit impedance Z pu
=
0.14pu
(average)
MVA
200
Fault MVA
= =
= 1428MVA
Z pu
0.14
(KV)2
2302
Fault impedance =
= = 37.07 ohm
MVA(fault)
1428
The over reach of 4.26 ohm (i.e. 25.56 21.3) of zone 2 at
station A is much smaller than the above impedance. Hence the setting
chosen for zone 2 is O.K.
( KV)2
2302
Z load
=
=
= 211.6 ohm
MVA(load)
250
X0 X1
Zero sequence compensation factor =
3X1
1.51 0.4125
=
=0.886
3 0.4125
Resistive reach
Rfn
=
20 ohm/loop for ground fault
Rf
=
3 ohm/phase for phase to phase fault
Rfn
= 20 0.3826 =
7.652 ohm (secondary )
Rf
=
3 0.3826 = 1.148 ohm (secondary)
Maximum setting of resistive reach is
Z load (MIN)
Rmax < 0.8
1.2
<
80.96
0.8 = 54 ohm
1.2
Required setting
Page 113 / 153

20
6.Distance relays
Rset
X
KN
Rf +
RNset
for ph-ph faults

tan R
X
for ph-ph faults
tan R
Rf +
tan N
where
and
= tan 1(X/R)
= tan 1(0.4125/0.08)
X0
1.51 0.4125
0.263 Zone 1
N
80.53
= tan
R0
0.08
17.04
Rset
1.148 +
17.04
0.886 17.04
RNset
tan 79
tan 80.53
2.52
=
Zone 2
13.48ohm
7.652
25.56
6.116ohm
Rset
79
X1
= tan
R1
= 4.46 ohm
tan
79
7.652
1.148
3.312
tan 79
25.56
0.886 25.56
tan 79
RNset
7.652
tan 80.53
= 16.4 ohm
Page 114 / 153

21
6.Distance relays
Zone 3
Rset
9.582 ohm
43.39
1.148 +
tan 79
43.39
0.88643.39
tan 79
RNset
7.652
tan 80.53
=
22.5
ohm
As the required reach 22.5 ohm is much less than the minimum
load impedance, there is no risk for load encroachment.
Page 115 / 153

22
7.Motor Protection
protection relays :
Setting of motor
motorprotection
Illustration :
Motor rating
Voltage
Full load current
CT ratio
Starting time
Starting current
Stalling current
locked rotor withstand time
1700KW
6.6 KV
148.7 Amps
200/1 Amps
7 sec
6 FLC
6 FLC
Hot
10sec
Cold 19sec
Thermal characteristic
rated current
Hot time
Cold time
1.4
400
390
2
200
170
3
90
70
4
48
31
6
19
10
Thermal setting :
CT sec
CT pri
1
= 148.7
= 0.7435 or say 0.76
400
Thermal curve selection ( ) :
The characteristic of modern thermal relays an exponential
characteristic up to two times Ieq (equivalent thermal current ) and an
adiabatic characteristic beyond two times Ieq.
The operating time of relay below 2Ieq is given by
Ieq 2 K3 (IL)2
t = log e
Ieq 2 (K Is )2
where is the heating time constant
IL equivalent pre fault load current
Is thermal current setting of the relay
K 1.03 (minimum operating current )
K3 constant used to provide different
Is = FLC
Page 116 / 153
7.Motor protection
hot/cold ratio
Ieq equivalent current of over load defined by
the equation Ieq = (I12 K2 I22 )
During cold start pre fault load current IL = 0
Ieq 2
t = log e
Ieq 2 (K Is )2
dividing the equation by Is2
( Ieq / Is ) 2
t = log e
(Ieq / Is)2 K2
Ieq.th 2
t = log e
(1)
Ieq.th 2 K2
where Ieq.th = Ieq / Is which is the equivalent load
current expressed in terms thermal setting Is.
So
Ieq FLC CTsec
Ieq.th =
Is CTpri
The operating time of the relay above 2 Ieq is given by
K2
t =
Ieq 2
K2
t =
(2)
Ieq.th 2
Using the equation (1) and (2) calculate at three different points, say
1.4, 3, and 6 (locked rotor current )of the cold withstand characteristic of
the motor.
Ieq.th at 1.4 times Ieq is given by
1.4 148.7 1
Ieq.th = = 1.37
0.76 200
tc
1.4 =
Ieq.th 2
log e
Ieq.th 2 K2
Page 117 / 153

2
7.Motor protection
400
1.372
log e
1.37 2 1.032
= 479.78 sec or say 7.996 minutes
Ieq.th at 3 times Ieq is given by
3 148.7 1
Ieq.th = = 2.935
0.76 200
tc Ieq. th2
3 =
K2
90 2.9352
3 =
=730.7 sec
1.032
or say 12.18 minutes.
Ieq.th at 6 times Ieq is given by
6 148.7 1
Ieq.th = = 5.87
0.76 200
tc Ieq. th2
6 =
K2
19 5.872
6 =
= 617 sec
1.032
or say 10.28 minutes.
The selected for the motor should be lower than all the above three
values. Since 1.4 is only 7.996 select a of 7. So the relay operating
time at 1.4 times Ieq and a of 7 is given by
1.372
7 60 log e
= 350 sec
1.37 2 1.032
The value of selected should be such that the gap between the
motor withstand time and relay operating time at any multiple of the
setting current is greater than 15%of the motor withstand time or 4 sec
whichever is greater.
1.4 =
Page 118 / 153

3
7.Motor protection
motor
relay operating
gap
withstand time
time
7
1.4
1.37
400
350
50
Since the gap between motor withstand time and relay
operating time doesnt meet the above requirement when is 7, the
value of should be selected to the next lower value.
i.e. a of 6
Hot/Cold ratio selection :
The value of hot/cold ratio should be such that the relay hot
characteristic comes below the motor hot characteristic and the gap
between the hot withstand time and relay hot operating time at any
multiple of the setting current is greater than 15% of the motor
withstand time or 4 sec whichever is greater.
Select a hot /cold ratio if 0.67. The relay hot /cold operating
time, motor hot /cold operating time etc. at various multiples of Ieq.th
are shown below in the table. If the above criteria is not met choose a
different hot/cold ratio.
Sl.No
Multiples of Is
Motor withstand
Relay operating
setting
time
time
Ieq
Ieq.th
cold
hot
cold
hot
1
1.4
1.37
400
390
300.14 201.09
2
2.0
1.96
200
170
116.83
78.27
3
2.03
1.98
198
168
96.84
64.88
4
3
2.93
90
70
44.34
29.7
5
4
3.913
48
31
24.44
16.71
6
6
3.87
19
10
11.08
7.43
Ieq
Ieq.th
Instantaneous short circuit protection :

starting current
CTsec
Isc = 1.3
thermal setting
CTpri
6 147.8 1
= 1.3
0.76
200
= 7.63 Amps.
If the relay has the provision of doubling the set range of Isc
during staring, then Isc should be set at (7.63 / 2) i.e. 3.82 Amps.
Page 119 / 153

4
7.Motor protection
Unbalance current setting :

For definite time mode set at less than
1
starting current
CTsec
I2 =
3
thermal setting
CTpri
If more than 1 set 1.00
1 6 147.8 1
=
3
0.76
200
= 1.96 Amps.
So set at 1.00
Time setting :
a) For circuit breaker control motor set at 100 m. sec.
b) For contactor control motor with backup fuse set at 1.2
times fuse operating time at maximum contactor rating and
a minimum of 0.5 sec.
c) The element can be set at inverse mode if I2 during starting
is more than100%. For inverse time mode adopt 30 %
setting.
Locked rotor protection :
Current setting:
full load current
CTsec
Istl = 2
thermal setting
CTpri
147.8 1
= 2
0.76 200
= 1.956 Amps.
Set at 2
Time setting :
a) for starting time less than hot stall withstand time, set less
than hot locked rotor withstand time and more than starting
time.
b) for starting time more than hot stall withstand time, use
speed switch and protection set at 0.5 hot stall withstand
time.
Page 120 / 153

5
7.Motor protection
c) for high inertia motors like ID fan motors etc. time should
be 25% of starting time.
For the given motor time setting = starting time + 2 sec
i.e. tstl = 7 + 2 = 9sec
This is more than hot stall withstand time. So adopt a setting of
7 sec only.
For slip ring motors
current setting
starting current
CTsec
Istl = 1.25
thermal setting
CTpri
time setting
tstl = 0.5 hot stall withstand time.
Prolonged start protection :
current setting
starting current at 80% voltage
CTsec
Ist = 0.8
thermal setting
CTpri
If the starting current at reduced voltage is not available from
the manufacturer, assume
starting current at 80% voltage = 0.8 starting current at 100% voltage
So
0.8 starting current CTsec
Ist = 0.8
thermal setting
CTpri
0.8 6 148.7 1
Ist = 0.8
0.76
200
= 3.76 Amps
For slip ring motors
full load current CTsec
Ist = 1.2
thermal setting
CTpri
Time setting
set at 1.2 starting time
or
max. starting time + 5sec whichever is greater.
For the given motor set at tst = 7 + 5 =12 sec.
Page 121 / 153

6
7.Motor protection
Earth fault setting :

For residual and solid ly earthed system
CTsec
Ie/f = 0.1 full load current
CTpri
For insulated system
CTsec
Ie/f = 0.8 full load current
CTpri
Assuming this is a resistance earthed system, current setting
1
Ie/f = 0.1 148.7
200
= 0.0743 Amps. I.e. 74 mA
This may be set at 40 mA
Page 122 / 153

7
7.Motor protection
Page 123 / 153

8
8.Commissioning Tests
CT polarity tests:
In many protection schemes the relative polarity of CT is more
important and therefore the correct polarity must be ensured before they
are connected. The normal current flow convention of CT is when the
primary flows from P1 toP2, the secondary current flows from S1to S2
in the external circuit as shown in the fig 8.1
fig
8.1
fig 8.2
A simple way to check the polarity is flick test which uses a
battery, center zero ammeter, and a push button connected as shown in
the fig8.2. When the push button is pressed the ammeter makes a
positive flick and a negative flick when the push button is released, if
the assumed polarity is correct.
CT ratio check :
The polarity and ratio check can be carried out by the primary
inject ion tests described below:
The circuit for the test is shown in the fig 8.3. A short
circuit is placed across the phases on one side of the CTs and single
phase inject ion is carried out on the other side. One ammeter A2 is
provided in the phase side of the CT circuit and another ammeter A3 is
provided in the residual circuit of the CT. current is injected through the
primary conductor and measured on test set ammeter A1. The secondary
Page 124 / 153
8.Commissioning
Tests
current is measured on the ammeter A2. The ratio of the value on A1 to

that on A2 should approximate to the ratio marked on the CT nameplate.
fig 8.3
The ammeter A3 in the residual circuit will read few milliamps if the CT
polarity is correct. The reading A3 twice that of A2 shows wrong
polarity. Single phase inject ion should be carried out for each pair of
phases.
If an earth fault relay with low setting is provided in the
residual circuit its operating should be temporarily short circuited during
the test to avoid overheating.
P olarity
check using series injection :
olaritycheck
The test circuit is as shown in the fig8.4 & 8.5 below.
Inject current approximate to rated current. The ammeter A3
will read three times A2 if the polarity is correct. If the reading of
ammeter A3 is equal to A2,the relative polarity of one of the CT is
wrong.
Page 125 / 153

2
8.Commissioning
Tests
Test circuit for bar primary CTs

fig 8.4
Test circuit for ring type CTs

fig 8.5
CT magnetizing curve:
Page 126 / 153

3
8.Commissioning
Tests
A variable voltage supply is connected across the secondary

terminals of the CT as shown in the fig 8.6. If the knee point voltage is
higher than local mains supply use a step up interposing transformer.
F ig 8.6
The voltmeter is connected in such away that the ammeter
doesnt read the voltmeter current. It will be useful to find roughly the
voltage at which saturation starts by increasing the voltage until there is
a large increase in current for a small change in voltage. From this it can
be decided at what values to take readings to give sufficient point to plot
the curve. Initially take readings in large steps (say 20 or 30 volts) and
smaller steps (say 10 or 5 volts) when saturation starts. Tabulate and
plot the readings.
Voltage
current in mA
0
0
20
1
40
16
60
23
80
31
90
37
100
46
110
65
120
105
The knee point voltage is the voltage at which an increase of

10% voltage will result in 50% increase in magnetizing current .
From the above reading
For 100vols
Ie = 46 mA
For (100 +10 ) % i.e. 100 volts Ie = 65mA
i.e. increase
For 100vols
Ie =
For (110 +10 ) % i.e.
65 mA
110 volts
100 =
Ie =
Page 127 / 153

4
65 46
41%
46
105 mA
105 65
8.Commissioning
Tests
i.e. increase
100 =
61%
65
Hence knee point voltage is between 100 and 110 volts.

Voltage transformer polarity check :
The polarity of the voltage transformer can be checked with the
test described for current transformer. While checking, the battery
should be connected to the primary winding and the polarity winding
connected to the secondary winding. If the VT is of capacitor type then
the polarity of the transformer at the bottom of the capacitor should be
checked.
Voltage transformer ratio check :

the check can be carried-out when the main circuit is first made
alive. The secondary winding voltage of the VT is compared with
secondary winding voltage of a VT already connected to the same busbars.
Voltage transformer phasing check :
The secondary connection of a three phase voltage transformer
or a bank of three single phase transformers should be checked for
correct polarity as detailed below:
fig 8.7
Page 128 / 153

5
8.Commissioning
Tests
With the main circuit alive the secondary voltage of the VT

between phase to phase and phase to neutral should be measured for
correct magnitude. If an existing proven VT is available in the same
primary system and the secondary earthing is employed then the correct
phasing can be proved by measuring the voltage between the respective
phases of both the VT s. This voltage should be normally little or no
voltage if the phasing is correct.
If the VT has a broken delta territory winding then a check
should be made for the voltage across the broken terminals Vn and VL,
when a rated balanced three phase voltage applied to the primary of
the VT. The broken delta voltage should be below 5volts when rated
burden connected.
Secondary injection tests:

Over current and earth fault relays:
fig 8.8
The over current relays can be checked using an over current
test set. Alternatively a test setup as shown in the fig 8.8 may be used.
While checking over current relays care should be taken to avoid
excessive currents flowing through the coil for a long time to avoid
excessive heating.
Instantaneous over current relays are checked for minimum
current required for operation (pick-up) of the relay and maximum
Page 129 / 153

6
8.Commissioning
Tests
current at which the relay resets (drop-off) for each current setting of the
relay.
Definite time over current relays are first checked for pick-up
and drop-off as detailed above with timer setting at zero. Then the time
delay should be checked at 1.3 times (approx.) the current setting.
For inverse time over current relays the follow ing checks
should be performed.
1) Check that starting current ( i.e. the current at which the disc just
begins to move but does not completes its travel to close the
contact.) is within specified limits.
2) Check that the closing current ( i.e. the minimum current at which
at which the disc completes its travel to close its contact) is
within its limits.
3) Check the operating time of the relay at 2,5,10 times the current
setting (plug setting ). These times should be within the tolerance
limits. (For electronic and numerical relays the checking of
starting and closing current does not arise.
Differential relays :
The sensitivity of the differential relay can be checked using a
over current test set as described below:
fig 8.9
fig 8.10
While checking unbiased differential relay the current setting
should be checked by slowly raising the current until the relay pickup.
Page 130 / 153

7
8.Commissioning
Tests
This should be checked for all the setting and finally for the required
setting.
The biased differential relay can be checked with the over
current test set by inject ing current simultaneously to the operating coil
and the bias coil as shown in fig8.10 above, at different points of the
bias characteristic by adjusting the rheostats R1 and R 2. Record the
operating currents for different values of bias current. The ratio of the
operating current A1 to the through current A2 is approximate to the
value of the bias slope of the relay.
The relative value of the resistor R 2 and R 1 should roughly the
same as the ratio of the bias slope of the relay.
e.g. for bias slope of 30%, R2 /R1 = 0.3
To determine the position of the characteristic inject a current
of I2 Amps through R2 and adjust R1 until the relay operates.
Let the operating current be I1
I2 + ( I1 + I2 )
I1
Then the average bias
IB =
= I2 +
2
2
I1
Then the bias slope of the relay is
IB
Repeat the test for other values of currents to plot the curve.
Negative phase sequence relays :
Page 131 / 153

8
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig 8.11
The current setting of the negative phase sequence relay is
usually expressed in terms of negative phase sequence currents. The
relay can be checked with over current test set. If the relay is provided
with an external filter current inject ion should be made before the filter.
The relay can be checked for phase to earth fault or phase to
earth fault simulation. If the relay is checked for phase to earth fault
simulation 1/3rd of the injected current is negative sequence current. If
the relay is checked for phase to phase fault simulation 1/3 times of the
injected current is negative sequence current.
For phase to earth fault simulation of a relay rated for 1amps
and I2s setting of 10%
10
I2s
= 1 = 0.1Amps
100
In order to obtain 0.1Amps negative phase sequence current a
test current of 3 0.1 Amps should be injected into each phase in turn.
Test current = 0.1 3 2 = 0.6 Amps.
The factor 2 is for two times the set current and the
factor 3 is for phase
to neutral simulation.
For phase to phase fault simulation of a relay rated for 5amps
and I2s setting of 7.5%
Page 132 / 153

9
8.Commissioning
Tests
7.5
5 = 0.375Amps
100
In order to obtain 0.375Amps negative phase sequence current,
a test current of 3 0.375 Amps should be injected into each pair of
phase in turn.
Test current = 0.375 3 4 = 2.6 Amps.
The factor 4 is for four times the set current and the
factor 3 is for phase to phase
simulation.
I2s
If the relay has an inverse time characteristic check operating

time at different points of the curve.
Directional relays :
Page 133 / 153

10
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig 8.12
The directional characteristic and maximum torque angle of
many relays can be checked with a phase shif ting transformer as shown
in the fig8.12. The phase shif ting transformer permits the phase angle of
the relay voltage to be varied with respect to the relay current. Adjust
the current flowing through the relay current coil to correspond to rated
current and the applied voltage to the voltage coil corresponds to the
rated voltage. Rotate the phase shif ter till the phase angle meter reads
zero degree (unity PF). Check the relay is in operated position. If not
reverse the voltage or current connection and check the operation of the
relay at UPF. Rotate the phase shif ter in the clockwise direction until the
relay contact opens and then rotate back in the anti clockwise direction
and note the phase angle meter reading 1,when the relay contact just
close. Continue to rotate in the anti clockwise direction till the relay
contact open again, then rotate backwards in clockwise direction and
note the phase angle meter reading 2, when the contact just close. The
maximum torque angle line of the relay is given by the bisector of 1
2 and the angle between this line and the zero degree line (UPF)gives
the maximum torque angle of the relay which should be within 4 of
the declared maximum torque angle (MTA).
Page 134 / 153

11
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig 8.13
Distance relays:
Distance relay s are required to measure impedance accurately
over a wide range of current and voltages. The impedance measurement
of these relays can be checked using a phase shif ting transformer
explained earlier for checking directional relays. These equipment
measures the impedance at static conditions i.e. the current increased
slowly or the voltage is decreased slowly until the relay operates. While
testing high speed distance relays, it is important to apply simulated
fault conditions suddenly, because during the fault condition the relay
voltage falls suddenly from nominal voltage to fault voltage and the
current from the load value to fault value accompanied by changes in
phase angles. So in order to check the distance relays under dynamic
condition most of the manufacturers of relay have developed dynamic
test set. The basic principle of operation of the dynamic test set is as
detailed below:
Page 135 / 153

12
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig 8.14
Normal working voltage is applied to the relay through a
voltage auto transformer. When the fault contactor is closed the fault
current If is applied to the relay. At the same instant the voltage applied
to the relay collapses to the fault voltage VL. The magnitude of the fault
voltage VL depends on the ratio of the source impedance to line
impedance (Zs / Z L). The voltage auto transformer has 10%and 1%
tapings to allow the line impedance Z L to be matched to the relay ohmic
setting. By varying the source impedance Z S the relay ohmic setting can
be checked over a wide range of voltage and current magnitudes.
Usually the distance relay ohmic setting is checked at actual
line angle. For this a choke and resistance with tapping of the line
impedance Z L are provided. Angles other than line impedance angles
may be chosen for checking the characteristic of mho or reactance relays .
The points usually checked on the mho and reactance relay
characteristic are shown in fig 8.15.
Page 136 / 153

13
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig 8.15
P rimary injection tests :
Over current and earth fault relays :
The sensitivity of the over current relays can be checked by
phase to phase inject ion. Phase to phase inject ion is explained earlier in
CT ratio and polarity checks. For checking earth fault relays single
phase inject ion should be used as shown in fig8.16.
Page 137 / 153

14
8.Commissioning
Tests
Directional relays :
The directional feature of the directional over current, earth
fault, distance and other wattmetric relays can be checked by the use of
load current.
The phase fault directional over current relays can be checked
by use of load current when the load current is appreciable and the
direction is in no doubt. The relay contact should close in the operating
direction and open in the reverse direction. The direction of the current
to the relay can be reversed by cross connecting the voltage or current
leads to the relay through the test plug as shown in fig 8.17.
fig 8.17
Earth fault over current relays are usually fed from broken delta
voltage of the three phase voltage transformer and residual current of the
main current transformers. Under normal condition the relay is not
energized, so it is necessary to simulate the earth fault condition. With
one phase of the voltage transformer disconnected and short circuited
while the current transformers of the other two phases disconnected
and short circuited as shown in fig8.18, simulates a condition of earth
fault on the phase from which voltage is disconnected. The relay should
operate when the load current flows in the operating direction.
Page 138 / 153

15
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig 8.18
Mho relays can be made to operate with load current flowing in
the operating direction by removing the restraint voltage from the relay.
In most modern distance relays a convenient switch link or plug is
provided o the relay to facilitate this test. The removal of the restraint
voltage from the mho relay changes the mho circle characteristic into a
plain directional characteristic with the same characteristic angle as
shown in the fig8.19.
fig 8.19
With lagg ing current flowing in the operating direction the relay will
operate a soon as the restraint voltage is removed. The relay should be
Page 139 / 153

16
8.Commissioning
Tests
then checked for non operation for load flow in the opposite direction.
This can be done by inserting a test plug with crossover connection of
the current transformer leads as shown in the fig 8.20 to reverse the
current flow to the relay.
fig 8.20
differential protection :
Generator
Generatordifferential
The sensitivity of this type of differential scheme can be
checked by primary inject ion test as shown in the fig 8.21.
Page 140 / 153

17
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig 8.21
Primary current is passed through one of the main CT and
slowly raised until the relay operates. This gives the true operating
current necessary in the primary to cause operation, that includes the
magnetizing current of the CT shunting the relay. the voltage across
the relay coil and stabilizing resistance should also be measured at the
time of operation of the relay to check the voltage developed by the
main CT that causes the relay operation. The sensitivity check should be
carried out by inject ing through the CT primary of each phases in turn to
check all units of the relay.
Another method of checking the sensitivity is by use of
machine itself to supply the primary current by carefully controlling the
machine excitation from a low value to the required primary current. For
this the main circuit breaker is left open and a three phase short circuit is
provided in the generator link cubicle to simulate an internal fault as
shown in fig 8.22.
Page 141 / 153

18
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig 8.22
The machine is then run up to full speed and the excitation is raised
slowly until the three elements of the relay operates. The suitability of
this type of checking depends on the type of excitation and degree of
control available.
The stability of the generator differential protection can be
checked by providing a short circuit at the bus side of the generator
circuit breaker as shown in fig8.23.
Page 142 / 153

19
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig 8.23
The circuit breaker should be closed and excitation of the machine
raised until full load current is circulated in the primary circuit. The
operating coil of the relay should be short circuited and an ammeter of
twice the rated current of the CT should be used initially until the
correct polarity of the CT is confirmed. Wrongly connected or open
circuited CT will produce higher spill current reading in the ammeter. If
the ammeter reads very little current when circulating full load in the
primary circuit, the ammeter may replaced with a higher sensitive meter
to measure the spill current which will in the order of milli-amperes.
The stability of motor and generator protection can be checked
by primary injection as detailed below :
fig 8.23(a)
Current injected through R & y phases as shown in fig 8.23(a)
keeping the R & Y windings short circuited. While primary current is
flowing, the relay should maintain stability and the reading of the
ammeters should read few milli-amps only. Wrongly connected or
open circuited CT will produce higher spill currents. It is advisable to
short circuit the relay coils and stabilizing resistors throughout the test.
Repeat the test for Y & B and B & R phases to confirm the stability in
all the phases.
Page 143 / 153

20
8.Commissioning
Tests
T rans
former biased differential protection :
ransformer
The sensitivity of the relay can be checked with a single phase
primary injection test set as described for generator differential
protection. The test can also be carried out by inject ing current through
one CT to simulate earth fault or two CTs to simulate phase fault as
shown in fig 8.24 & 8.25.
Earth fault simulation
fig 8.24
Page 144 / 153

21
8.Commissioning
Tests
Phase fault simulation

fig 8.25
The stability of the transformer differential protection can be
checked by circulating full load current through the main CTs primary
windings. The best source of power for this test is a generator of
adequate current rating. Full load current can be circulated through the
by putting a shot circuit at one side of the transformer external to the
protection. Connect the terminals of the generator to the other side of the
transformer and slowly excite the generator at rated speed until full load
current flows through the primary winding of the transformer.
Approximately 12% of the transformer winding rated voltage will have
to be raised to circulate full load current.
Page 145 / 153

22
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig 8.26
If there is no machine available to circulate full load current
through the transformer, connect the transformer to the local bus bars
that have voltage rating of approximately 5% to 12% of one of the
winding. The transformer short circuit impedance must be known in
order to calculate the bus-bar voltage required to circulate full load
current. If both the above possibility is not available of protection can be
checked when the transformer is first put in load.
When the load current flowing through the transformer winding
the protective relay should remain stable and the spill current in the
operating coil of the relay should be very small, provided the CT ratios
associated with each winding of the transformer are chosen correctly
and the transformer tap changer is at the nominal tap. Measure the spill
current through the relay during the load test with the tap changer at its
maximum and minimum tap. This spill current expressed as a
percentage of load current indicates the minimum amount of bias of
the relay required to maintain stability for through faults. If the relay
operates on load with the bias set correctly, the circuit diagram should
be checked for correct CT connection according to the vector group of
the transformer being protected. The possible errors in diagram or actual
wiring and the respective spill current are tabulated below.
Page 146 / 153

23
8.Commissioning
Tests
POSSIBL E ERRORS
1
2
3
4
5
R
2I
3I
I
Y
2I
3I
3I
I
B
2I
3I
3I
I
2I
One set of CT reversed

Three pilots transposed
Y&B pilots transposed
One set of CT reversed and
three pilots transposed
One set of CT reversed and
Y&B pilots transposed
PILOT
CURRENT
S
R Y B
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
OPERATING
CURRENTS
Restricted earth fault relay :

The sensitivity of the restricted earth fault (REF) protection can
be checked by inject ing current using a single phase test set through
each of the main CT in turn as shown in fig 8.27.
Sensitivity check
fig 8.27
Page 147 / 153

24
8.Commissioning
Tests
Stability check
fig 8.28
While carrying out this test measure the voltage developed across the
relay coil and stabilizing resistance so as to check the voltage by the
main CT to relay operation.
The stability of the REF protection can be checked by inject ing
current through the neutral CT and each phase CT in turn as shown in
fig8.28. If the protection is combined with differential protection the
connection to the differential relay should be short circuited. While
primary current is flowing the relay should maintain stability and the
reading in ammeter connected in series with the relay coil should be few
milliamperes only. It is advisable to short circuit the relay coil and the
stabilizing through the test.
Negative phase sequence relays:

The sensitivity of the NPS relay can be checked by injecting
current using a single phase test set through each pair of phases the in
turn as shown in fig 8.29.
Page 148 / 153

25
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig 8.29
NPS relays are usually calibrated in NPS currents only. To check the
relay for phase to phase fault simulation, inject 3 times the setting
current
i.e. 1/3 times the injected current is the negative phase
sequence current.
To test the relay at four times the set current for a NPS setting
of 7.5% and a CT ratio of 1000/5A with phase to phase fault
simulation, inject a primary current of
7.5
1000 3 4
i.e. 520 Amps.
100
For phase to earth fault simulation the same test current should be
7.5
1000 3 4
i.e. 900 Amps.
100
The relay should also be checked for load test when it is first put on
service. When the load is balanced and phase sequence of the current
supplied to the relay is correct, the relay should not operate. To confirm
the relay for operation on NPS current, two of the main CT inputs to the
relay should be transposed. This can be done by either using a test plug
inserted into the relay or by reconnecting the leads too the terminals of
the relay. in this case all the phase current entering the relay is NPS
current and the relay will operate if the current is above the set current.
Page 149 / 153

26
8.Commissioning
Tests
Bus-bar protection :
In bus-bar protection scheme all the current transformers are
connected to form a circulating current scheme. So the ratios of al the
CTs should be same and connected with correct polarity. The polarity
and ratio of the bus-bar protection scheme can be checked by choosing
one CT circuit as reference after checking its ratio and polarity and use
it to check the remaining CT circuits.
To check the polarity and ratio of the reference CT provide a
short in the bus-bars as shown in fig 8.30.
fig 8.30
Inject current through R and Y phase of the bus-bars. The ratio
of the ammeter reading A1 to that of A2 should approximate to the ratio
marked on the CT name plate. The ammeter A3 connected in the neutral
test link will read a few milliampere if the CT polarity is correct.
Reading A3 twice that of A2 shows wrong polarity. Repeat the test with
current inject ion in Y and B phases bus-bars. During the test the
operating coil of the relay and stabilizing resistance should be short
circuited to avoid overheating as they are not continuously rated. A
convenient way to do this is by manually operating the supervision
relay which in turn short circuit the bus- wires. If the scheme of
Page 150 / 153

27
8.Commissioning
Tests
duplicate bus bar type in the CTs are switched between the main and
reserve bus wires by isolator auxiliary switches, then it is advisable to
carryout the test with bus bar isolators in both the position in order to
check the wiring.
After checking the ratio and polarity of the reference CTs, the
other CTs can be checked against the reference CT. This is carried out
by providing a temporary short circuit on the test circuit and inject ing a
primary current in R & Y phases of the reference circuit as shown in the
fig 8.31
fig 8.31
The ammeter A2 provide the ratio check and A3 check the polarity as
explained earlier. Repeat the test with current inject ion in Y & B phases.
If the scheme is a duplicate bus bar type the test should be carried out
with the bus bar isolators in both the positions to check the wiring.
The sensitivity of the bus bar protection relay can be checked
by passing single phase primary current through one CT only as shown
in fig 8.32 and measuring the current necessary to cause operation of the
Page 151 / 153

28
8.Commissioning
Tests
fig8.32
circulating current relay with maximum number of CTs in id le shunt.
If the scheme provided with an overall check feature, the sensitivity of
this can be checked in the same manner and at the same time. The
sensitivity check should be carried out for each discriminating zone. A
voltmeter should be connected across the relay coil and stabilizing
resistor in order to check the correctness of value of stabilizing resistor.
Page 152 / 153

29
Table 1
Relay location
D
C
B
A
Total impedance
in Z pu
Fault current in Amps

at 3.3KV base
Min
Max
Max
Min
0.1013
0.0815
0.0065
0.0029
0.2795
0.1013
0.0815
0.0065
17268
21466
269160
603292
6257
17268
21466
269160
Total load
current at
3.3KV
base
CT.
Ratio
CT. Ratio
to the
base of
33kv
Relay current setting
percent
700
1500
6000
20000
Page 153 / 153
250/5
500/5
150/1
500/1
833/5
1666.6/5
6000/1
20000/1
100
100
100
100
primary
current at
3.3kv base
833
1666.6
6000
20000

Protection System

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PROTECTIVE RELAYS

(Setting, Testing and Commissioning)

Instrument transformer for protection

Symmetrical fault calculation

Generator protection relays

The art and science of protective relaying

10. Protection Techniques in Electrical Systems

1.Instrument Transformers for Protection

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

The knee point voltage can be easily estimated if the flux

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

Effect on open circuited CT :

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

increase of 10% secondary voltage would increase the magnetizing

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

If the characteristic of the relay is to be maintained up to 10 times the

Page 107 / 153

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

Page 129 / 153

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

Page 1411/ 153

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

0.8 to 1.2 times rated voltage

0.5to Vf (voltage factor) times rated voltage

Limits of error for protective voltage transformer.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

Method of primary connection and

-doBetween line and earth in an non effectively

Residual connection of voltage transformer :

Page 1613/ 153

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER FOR PROTECTION

It necessary for the primary winding neutral of the voltage

Page 1815/ 153

2.Symmetrical Fault Calculation

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

Thus a complete network, as seen from any given point, may be

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

The elements of the power system are usually specified as follows:

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

impedance of transformers are usually marked on the name plate on the

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

Zp = (Zps + Zpt Zst)

In order to calculate the fault level at different locations first

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

The fault currents at various points for a fault at bus-5 is

Fault current at bus-5

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

Assume a common base of 10MVA

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

An impedance diagram as shown in fig 2.6 can be drawn with

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION

2.SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION