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A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current in the forward direction like a
normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown
voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after
Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property.
A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially
designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage.
A Zener diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from
the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material. In
the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band electrons
into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these
bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings
on both sides. A reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and
allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. For
example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of
3.2 V if reverse bias voltage applied across it is more than its Zener voltage. However,
the current is not unlimited, so the Zener diode is typically used to generate a reference
voltage for an amplifier stage, or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.
The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process. While
tolerances within 0.05% are available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%.
Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the
avalanche diode. The two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both
effects are present in diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the Zener
effect is the predominant effect and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient.
Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive
temperature coefficient.
In a 5.6 V diode, the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients neatly
cancel each other out, thus the 5.6 V diode is the component of choice in temperature-
critical applications.
Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V
with negligible temperature coefficients, but as higher voltage devices are encountered,
the temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient
of a 12 V diode.
All such diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the
umbrella term of "Zener diode".
Uses
POT RESISTOR:
The pot as we know it was originally known as a rheostat (or reostat in some
texts) - essentially a variable wirewound resistor. The array of different types is
now quite astonishing, and it can be very difficult for the beginner (in particular) to
work out which type is suitable for a given task. The fact that quite a few different
pot types can all be used for the same task makes the job that much harder -
freedom of choice is at best confusing when you don't know what the choices
actually are, or why you should make them. This article is not about to cover
every aspect of pots, but is an introduction to the subject. For anyone wanting to
know more, visit manufacturers' web sites, and have a look at the specifications
and available types.
The very first variable resistors were either a block of carbon (or some other
resistive material) with a sliding contact, or a box full of carbon granules, with a
threaded screw to compress the granules. More compression leads to lower
resistance, and vice versa. These are rare in modern equipment, so we shall
limit ourselves to the more common types :-)
Basic Pots
It is worthwhile to have a look at a few of the common pot types that are
available. Figure shows an array of conventional pots - both PCB and panel
mounting.
The remainder show a few of the many variations available. The fluted shaft
types are commonly referred to as "metric", but will accept a standard 1/4" knob -
albeit with a little play (it is less than a perfect fit, but is acceptable if the grub
screw is tight enough). Metric pots are also available in 16mm round and 25mm
round formats.
Most rotary pots have 270 degrees of rotation from one extreme to the other. A
"single turn" pot is therefore really only a 3/4 turn device, despite the name.
There are some other rotary types with only 200 degrees or so, and some
specialty types may have less than that again.
The standard schematic symbol for a pot is shown to the right(although some
Power - A pot with a power rating of (say) 0.5W will have a maximum voltage
that can exist across the pot before the rating is exceeded. All power ratings are
with the entire resistance element in circuit, so maximum dissipation reduces as
the resistance is reduced (assuming series or "two terminal" rheostat wiring).
Let's look at the 0.5W pot, and 10k is a good value to start with for explanation.
If the maximum dissipation is 0.5W and the resistance is 10k, then the maximum
current that may flow through the entire resistance element is determined by ...
P = I² * R ... therefore
I = √P / R ... so I = 7mA
In fact, 7mA is the maximum current that can flow in any part of the resistance
element, so if the 10k pot were set to a resistance of 1k, current is still 7mA, and
maximum power is now only 50mW, and not the 500mW we had before.
Voltage - Two separate issues here. One is directly related (in part, at least) to
the power rating, and is important to ensure that the life of the pot is not
reduced. Knowing about the other might save your life.
Dielectric Voltage - The dielectric (insulation of pot "guts" to the body) rating is
especially important if the pot is connected to mains operated, non-isolated
equipment. Wall mounted lamp dimmers and such are typical examples. This is
not commonly specified, but for safety, should be at least 2.5kV. A common way
to achieve this is to use a plastic shaft, with the body of the pot insulated from the
chassis, and inaccessible by the user (even if the knob falls off or is removed!)
This point cannot be stressed highly enough.
Most standard pots will safely withstand (maybe) 100V or so between the
resistance element and terminals, and the body and shaft. Miniature types will
usually be less than this. Never, ever, use a standard pot with a metal shaft to
control direct mains operated equipment.
Potentiometer Types
"But we already covered that, didn't we?" Not really - I merely glossed over the
basics. Now, we shall look at a few examples of pots you may come across.
Firstly, there is the resistive material and some typical characteristics ...
A full-wave rectifier circuit is a circuit that rectifies the entire cycle of the AC sine-wave. A
basic full-wave rectifier uses two diodes together with a transformer whose secondary winding is split
equally into two and has a common centre tapped connection, (C). Now each diode conducts in turn when
its Anode terminal is positive with respect to the centre point C as shown below.
The circuit consists of two Half-wave rectifiers connected to a single load resistance with each diode taking
it in turn to supply current to the load. When point A is positive with respect to point B, diode D1 conducts in
the forward direction as indicated by the arrows. When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle)
with respect to point A, diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R
is in the same direction for both circuits. As the output voltage across the resistor R is the sum of the two
waveforms, this type of circuit is also known as a "bi-phase" circuit.
As the spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now being filled in by the other diode the
average DC output voltage across the load resistor is now double that of the single half-wave rectifier circuit
and is about 0.637Vmax of the peak voltage, assuming no losses.
The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the half-wave rectifier provided each half
of the transformer windings have the same rms voltage value. To obtain a different d.c. voltage output
different transformer ratios can be used, but one main disadvantage of this type of rectifier is that having a
larger transformer for a given power output with two separate windings makes this type of circuit costly
compared to a "Bridge Rectifier" circuit equivalent.
The 4 diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current during
each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2
switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as
before.
We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier produces an output wave every half
cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of circuit to produce a steady DC supply. The full-wave
bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax) with less superimposed ripple
while the output waveform is twice that of the frequency of the input supply frequency. We can therefore
increase its average DC output level even higher by connecting a suitable smoothing capacitor across the
output of the bridge circuit as shown below.
The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a smooth DC output
voltage. Two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable a capacitor are its Working
Voltage, which must be higher than the no-load output value of the rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which
determines the amount of ripple that will appear superimposed on top of the DC voltage. Too low a value
and the capacitor has little effect. As a general rule of thumb, we are looking to have a ripple voltage of less
than 100mV peak to peak.
The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller AC ripple value for a given load
and a smaller reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an equivalent half-wave rectifier. Therefore, the
fundamental frequency of the ripple voltage is twice that of the AC supply frequency (100Hz) where for the
half-wave rectifier it is exactly equal to the supply frequency (50Hz). The amount of ripple voltage that is
superimposed on top of the DC supply voltage by the diodes can be virtually eliminated by adding a much
improved π-filter (pi-filter) to the output terminals of the bridge rectifier. This type of low-pass filter consists
of two smoothing capacitors, usually of the same value and a choke or inductance across them to introduce
a high impedance path to the alternating ripple component. Another more practical and cheaper alternative
is to use a 3-terminal voltage regulator IC, such as a LM7805 which can reduce the ripple by more than
70dB (Datasheet) while delivering over 1amp of output current.
DELTA-WYE TRANSFORMER:
In the United States, Delta-wye transformers are common in commercial, industrial, and
high-density residential locations, to supply three different types of power from one
power source:
An older method of providing these three different forms of power from three-phase was
with the high-leg delta transformer, but these have fallen out of use due to complex
application rules and hazards