FAMILY AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION Call it a clan, call it a network, call it a tribe, and call it a family.

Whatever you call it, whoever you are, you need one. Jane Howard

Introduction Gul family lives in a four room house in Gul Bahar in a middle class housing estate in Peshawar. Nadim Gul is a successful merchant, his wife Sumera Gul is a typical housewife and says a home, they have been married for 23 years and have four children aged !"2!. Naseem provides food and fiber to the family, his wife ta#es care of house and house #eeping activities. $hey can be called a normal family. Now for most of sociologist family"such as Gul family"begins as a need for performing certain essential as#s such as reproduction, sociali%ation, assignment of role and status etc, and contributing towards the survival of family and society as a whole . &hile others loo# at Gul family as a class society in miniature where one class 'man( oppressing another class 'woman(. 2 $his assignment is about the second view or perspective on the family. )irst we will present a brief of various sociological perspective then we will differentiate between family and marriage, though both are co"related. &hen we have completed this we will be tal#ing about our sub*ect matter"family in conflict perspective.

Perspectives in Sociology +n order to study anything, one must begin by ma#ing some assumptions about the nature of what is studied. )or e,ample, the ancient Gree#s believed that the universe was run according to the whims of the gods. By contrast, all scientists assume that the universe is orderly, and operates in certain regular ways which we may be able to discover. $hus, Newton developed the laws of gravity after observing that apples always fall down, never up. - wor#ing set of assumptions is called a .perspective, an .approach,/ or sometimes a .paradigm./3 Sociological perspective is a lens through which sociologist views the society. $he basic insight of sociology is that human behavior is shaped by the groups to which people belong and by the social interaction that ta#e place within those groups. &e are who we are and we behave the way we do because we happen to live in a particular society at a particular point in space and time. People tend to accept their social world un0uestioningly, as something 1natural.1 But the sociological perspective enables us to see society as a temporary social product, created by human beings and capable of being changed by them as well. $he sociological perspective invites us to loo# at our familiar surroundings in a fresh way. +t encourages us to ta#e a new loo# at the world we have always ta#en for granted, to e,amine our social environment with the same curiosity that we might bring to an e,otic foreign culture. 2ur world view is shaped by our personal e,perience and since people with different social e,periences have different definitions of social reality, sociology helps us to appreciate viewpoints other than our own and to understand how these viewpoints came into being. Sociology also helps us understand ourselves better. &ithout the sociological perspective 'which has been called the 1sociological imagination1(, people see the world through their limited e,perience of a small orbit of family, friends, co"wor#ers. $he sociological imagination allows us to stand apart mentally from our limited e,perience and see the lin# between private
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Hughes. M, Kroehler. C. (2005). Sociology The Core. 7th Ed: McGraw-H ll !"c. #. $5% &a"de". ', ( l)r d. *a+es. (1,,0). The Social Experience. McGraw H ll !"c. #. $7$ $ Horto" -..., / Hu"t C.0. (1,%1). Sociology. 2th ed: McGraw H ll 3oo4 co+#a"5. -. 15

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concerns and social issues. +t permits us to trace the connection between the patterns and events of our own and the patterns and events of our society. 3 $he prominent perspectives in sociology are structural-functional perspective, conflict perspective, symbolic-interaction perspective, social exchange perspective and feminist perspective which originated from conflict perspective. +t will be better to have a brief loo# on these perspectives. Structural Functional Perspective Structural"functionalist or functionalist ta#e a broad view of society and focus on macro aspect of social life. $hey view society as a set of elements or components that are related to one another in a more or less stable fashion through a period of time. $hey focus on the parts of society and identify the structural characteristics of each part much as biologists describe the principal features of the body4s organs. $hey then determine what the functions of each part are. 5 Social institutions are viewed as structural parts of society performing various essential tas#s and meeting some needs of the society. )amily is a structural component of the society and performs certain essential functions, contributing to the survival of society as a whole"the organic whole. Society, they hold, is organi%ed due to the consensus on some core values. Conflict Perspective 6onflict perspective focuses their attention on society as a whole. 6onflict theorists see society as in a continuous sate of conflict between groups and classes. 7e struggle for power and income is a continuous process but one in which many categories of people appear as opponents"classes, races, nationalities and even the se,es. Society is held together through the power of dominant groups or classes. $he shared values, which functionalist see as glue for holding society together, do no realty form rue consensus8 instead this is an artificial consensus in which the dominant groups or classes impose their values and rules upon rest of the people.9 $he source of conflict in society, they hold, is the scarcity of the resources people re0uire e.g. wealth, prestige and power are always in limited supply and their gain for on e individual and group are often associated with losses for others. : Sy !olic Interactionist Perspective Symbolic interactionism is base on here core assumptions. )irst, we respond to things in our environment on the basis of heir meanings. Second, meanings are not inherent in things, but emerge from social interaction. $hird, because we are continually interacting, shared cultural meanings are continually emerging and changing. ; $he interactionist perspective is more concerned with the micro or small"scale aspects of social life. $hey concentrate their attention on interaction between individuals and groups. $hey noted that people interact mainly through symbols, which include signs, gesture, and most importantly, through written and spo#en words. $he word has no inherent meaning. +t is simply a noise, but it becomes a word when people reach agreement that this noise carries a special meaning. $hus .yes,/ .no,/ .go,/ and thousands of other sounds became symbols as meaning is attached to each. People do not respond to the world directly8 they respond to meanings they impute to the things and happenings around them8 a traffic light, a lineup a tic#et window. < $his assignment is on conflict theory on family as a social institution. 6onflict theorist stress that the society is composed of two conflicting groups and classes. $hey also view the family institution not as a functional part of the society but a class society in miniature where one group is oppressing the other group. Before this discussion on family we have to be familiar with what we call the family, what are its various forms and patterns and what is the difference between marriage and family.
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6o3ertso". (1,%1). Sociology. 7ew 8or4. (orth -u3l shers. Cf. Ge"eseo 9tate u" :ers t5 o) 7ew 8or4. 6etr e:ed $0, Ma5 200%. ;ro+ htt#:<<www.ge"eseo.edu<CM9<d s#la5.#h#=#age>%1$1/d#t>soc olog5 5 Hughes M., / Kroehler *. C. (2005) sociology the core. 7th Ed: McGraw H ll co+#a"5. -: 1, 2 Horto" -..., / Hu"t C.0. (1,%7). Sociology. 2th ed: McGraw H ll 3oo4 co+#a"5. -. 17 7 Hughes M., / Kroehler *. C. (2005) op cit. -: 21 % 3 , Horto" -..., / Hu"t C.0. (1,%1). Opcit. -:15

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"#at is Marriage and $#at is Fa ily% =arriage and family are two different but correlated things. "#at is Marriage% =arriage >is a? socially recogni%ed and approved union between individuals, who commit to one another with the e,pectation of a stable and lasting intimate relationship. +t begins with a ceremony #nown as a wedding, which formally unites the marriage partners. - marital relationship usually involves some #ind of contract, either written or specified by tradition, which defines the partners4 rights and obligations to each other, to any children they may have, and to their relatives. +n most contemporary industriali%ed societies, marriage is certified by the government. relationship between spouses. @et4s define marriage8 !arriage is" a legally recogni#ed relationship, established by a civil or religious ceremony, between two people who intend to live together as sexual and domestic partners $ marriage is a legally recogni#ed union between a man and a woman in which he are united sexually% cooperate economically% and may give birth to, adopt or rear children. &he union is assumed to be permanent 'although in reality it may be dissolved b separation or divorce(. )) - more simple definition has been given by Aavid Bno, that !arriage is a social relationship in which two adults of the opposite sex make an emotional and legal commitment to live together.)* =ost marriages involve public announcement and are underta#en with he hope of permanence. Subse0uent children of the union are socially and legally recogni%ed as legitimate. Some more aspects of marriage need e,ploration. & otional co it ent' =ost people say they want to be married because they are .in love./ +t means marriage is a relationship sought by two people who want to share their lives together. =arriage is one way of helping to ensure that in future some one will be caring about you and you will be caring in return. +t is a relationship which provides stable feelings of belongingness. So at its basis marriage is an emotional commitment to share time and space together.
3 !

&e may assume ha marriage is something we are all familiar with and that every one agrees on what marriage is. +t is a legal

Legal co it ent' =arriage also involves a legal contract. $he .Ni#ah Nama/ is a legal document and a proof of that contract. Both husband and wife sign his contract. 7is contract can be dissolved when they want to dissolve it. $he typical obligations assumed by the wife are8 @ive where the husband decides Perform household and domestic duties 7ave se,ual relations with her husband $otal responsibility for child care

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94ol" c4, ?rle"e. @Marr age.@ M croso)tA E"cartaA 200, BC'CD. 6ed+o"d, (?: M croso)t Cor#orat o", 200%. 9tro"g ., etal. (1,,%). The Marriage and Family Experience. 7th Ed:. (adsworth -u3l sh "g Co+#a"5. -. 10 12 K"oE. Ca: d. (1,7,)Exploring Marriage and the Family . !ll "o s. 9cott ;o5res+a" a"d Co+#a"5. -: $ 1$ K"oE. Ca: d. (1,7,)Exploring Marriage and the Family . !ll "o s. 9cott ;o5res+a" a"d Co+#a"5. -: 5

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+n e,change he husband must provide food, clothing and shelter and many of the amenities of life to wife and children. Pu!lic announce ent' $he news of marriage is publici%e before he event of marriage. +t can be through various formal and informal means.

(ope for per anence' $he marriage is the most binding commitment ever made by couples. +t is a common saying that .don4t leave husband4s house until you are dead./ -nd .till death do us part./ =arriage represents a point after which here is no easy turning bac#.
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Legiti acy of c#ildren' $he children born to the couple are socially and legally approved as legitimate and are given due respect as compared to he invalid and illegitimate children born to the non"married. "#at is fa ily% &hat is the familyC $his 0uestion causes trouble not only for students on the family but for e,perts too. =any of us thin# family as a social unit consisting of married couple and their children8 =om, Pop, and Bids, living alone in a comfortable home. But this definition is too restrictive. =ost sociologist view family as a social group whose members are related by ancestry, marriage, or adoption and live together, cooperate economically and care for young.
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&hen you as# people who they include as a family memberC $he list will include8 >alphabetically? aunt, cousin, daughter, father, father in law, foster child, foster parents, grand father, grand mother, great grand parents, half siblings, mother, mother in law, nephew, niece, sibling, son, step father, step mother, sep siblings, uncles. =ost family members are related by descent, marriage, remarriage or adoption. $he ma*or reason that we have difficulty defining family is that we family/ is the nuclear family or the traditional family. But the is the merely an idea or model we have about families. $he winner. $raditional family e,ist more in imagination than in reality. Because we believe that traditional family is he .real family/, we compare all other family forms against these models. - more contemporary definition is one or more adults related by blood, marriage, or affiliation who cooperate economically, who may share a common dwelling place and who may rear children.)+ )amily is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without children. ; +t is a group of two or more person who are related by blood, marriage or adoption <. No matter how you define a family, basic characteristics of family is ha here is an intimate relationship among its members and that they have strong sense of belonging together. Structure of fa ily @i#e all other social institutions, family is a system of accepted norms and procedures for getting some important *obs done. $he term family is used in so many ways. - family may be

,t is not flesh and blood but the heart which makes us fathers and sons. Johann Schiller

feel

.real

nuclear family traditional

family is the middle class nuclear family in which women4s primary roles are wife and mother and men4s husband and bread

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3d 3d 12 Hughes M., / Kroehler *. C. (2005) op cit. -: $$0 17 9tro"g ., etal. (1,,%). The Marriage and Family Experience. 7th Ed:. (adsworth -u3l sh "g Co+#a"5. -. 11 1% 9hah d 9. M. (1,,%). Sociology An Introduction. 0ahore. -u3l shers E+#or u+. -: 2,2 1, K"oE. Ca: d. (1,7,). Opcit. -: %

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- group with common ancestors - #inship group unite by blood or marriage - married couple with or without children -n unmarried couple with children 2ne person with children.

- more sociological definition of family is8 .a #inship grouping which provide for the rearing of children and for certain other human needs./2! 2ur ma*or concern is the conflict perspective on family institution. )amily has so many dimensions"forms of family, types of family, functions, divorce and many others" but we will discuss our sub*ect matter"the conflict perspective.

Conflict perspective on fa ily Perspective or theory is a set of general principles or concepts used to e,plain data and o ma#e predictions that may be empirically tested. 6onflict theory in sociology has its roots in the wor# of Barl =ar,. &here as functionalist end to believe hat .what is, is good,4 conflict theorist seem to believe that .what is, is wrong./ 6onflict theory holds that life involves discord. 6onflict theorist see society not as basically cooperative but as divided, with individuals and groups in conflict with each other. $hey try to identify the competing forces within society. 2 $hey view society as divided between conflicting groups with conflicting goals and interests. )amily, in conflict perspective, is seen as a class society in miniature. )unctionalist also view family as a society in miniature whose different members function various essential tas#s contributing for the survival of the whole family. 7usband is a bread winner and wife ta#es care of the children and performs domestic tas#s. But to conflict theorist family is compose of conflicting classes"one class 'men( oppressing the other class 'women(. )amily is seen a social arrangement benefiting some people more than others. )redric# Dngel contented that marriage was he firs form of class antagonism in which the well being of one group derived from misery and oppression of another. $he motivation for se,ual pleasure was the economic e,ploitation of woman4s labour. 22 Sources of conflict in fa ily 7ow can we analy%e marriages and families in terms of conflict and powerC =arriage and family relationships are base on love and affection, aren4t theyC 6onflict theorist would agree that love and affection are important elements in marriages and families. But they believe that conflict and power are also fundamental. -amily relationships . love / affection 0 conflict and power =arriages and families are composed of individuals with different personalities, ideas, values, tastes, and goals. Dach person is not always in harmony with every other person in the family. +magine that you are living at home and want to do something your parents don4t want you to do, such as spend the wee#"end with a friend they don4t li#e. $hey forbid you to carry out your plan. .-s long as you live in this house, you will have to do what we say./ Eou argue with them, but in the end you stay home. &hy did your parents win the disagreementC $hey did so because they had greater power, according o conflict theorists. 6onflict theorists do not believe that conflict is bad8 instead, they thin# it is a natural part of family life. )amilies always have disagreements, from small ones, such as what do coo# for dinner, to ma*or ones, such as how to rear children.
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Horto" -..., / Hu"t C.0. (1,%7). Opcit. -:2$2 9tro"g ., etal. (1,,%). Opcit. -: 55 22 Hughes. M, Kroehler. C. (2005). Sociology The Core. 7th Ed: McGraw-H ll !"c. #. $5,

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)amilies differ in the number of underlying conflicts of interest, the degree of underlying hostility, and the nature and e,tent of the e,pression of conflict. 6onflict can ta#e the form of competing goals, such as husband4s wanting to buy $.F. set and a wife4s wanting to pay off credit cards. 6onflict can also occur because of different role e,pectations8 and employed mother wants to divide housewor# fifty"fifty, but her husband insists that household chores are .women4s wor#./23 )amily is a group of people with differences" in age, se, and personalities. $herefore the occurrence of conflict is 0uite natural. Source of po$er in fa ily &hen conflict occurs, who winsC )amily members have different resources and amount of power. )our important sources of power are8 @egitimacy =oney Physical coercion and @ove

&hen arguments arise in a family, a man may want his way .because + am the head of the house/ or a parent .because + am your mother./ $hese appeals are based on legitimacy"that is, the belief that the person is entitled to prevail by right. $his is one source of power in family. $he second source of power is money. +t is a powerful source in marriages and families. .-s long as you live in this houseG./ is a directive based on the power of the purse. Because parents have greater economic power"man particularly8 this economic power translates into marital power. $hose family members who earn a greater sum of family earnings have greater power than those who earn less or do not earn at all. Physical coercion is another important source of power. .+f you don4t do as + tell you, you will get a span#ing/ is one of the most common forms of coercion of children. But physical abuse of a spouse is also common. )inally, there is the power of love. @ove can be used to coerce someone emotionally, as in .if you really loved me, you4d do what + as#./ 2r love can be a freely given gift, as in the case of a person4s giving up something important, such as a plan, desire, or career, to enhance a relationship. Dvery one in family has power, although the power may be different and une0ual. -dolescent children, for e,ample, have few economic resources, so hey must depend on their parents. $his dependency gives the parents power. But adolescents also have power through the e,ercise of personal charm, ingratiating habits, temper tantrums, wheedling, and so on. 23 "o an as se)ual property Sociologist Handall 6ollins says that historically men have been the .se,ual aggressors/ and women the .se,ual pri%es for men./ =ales are dominant due to their greater strength, si%e, and aggressiveness. &omen have been victimi%ed by smaller si%e and their

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9tro"g ., etal. (1,,%). Opcit. -#: 51-55 9tro"g ., etal. (1,,%). Opcit. -#: 51-55

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vulnerability as child bearers. 2ver entire history, women have been ta#en as a se,ual property, ta#en as booty in war, used by their fathers in economic bargaining, and considered the property of their husbands. -ccording to 6ollins, men have ordered society so that women are their se,ual property. $hey claim e,clusive se,ual rights to a woman much in the manner that they determine access to economic property li#e buildings and land and other elements of property. =arriage becomes a socially enforced contract of se,ual property. - woman4s virginity is was the property of her father and her se,uality the property of her husband. Now that women4s bargaining position has improved due to economic and political changes in recent years. &hen they are no longer dependent on and under control of their fathers8 they became potentially free to negotiate their own se,ual relationships. But women found that within the free marriage mar#et they had to trade their se,uality for the economic and status resources of men. -s men have much greater economic resources and status in the society. Now for women to get these resources and ma,imi%e her bargaining power, she has to appear both as se,ually alluring and as inaccessible as possible. She has to hold her se,uality in reserve as a sort of grand pri%e that she e,changes for male wealth and status. Inder such an arrangement, femininity and female virginity came to be ideali%ed, and women were placed on a pedestal, so that an element of se,ual repression was built into courtship ties, freeing themselves from economic dependence on men, they have gained he resources to challenge he double standard. $he se,ual bargains they stri#e can focus less upon marriage and more upon immediate entertainment, companionship and se,ual gratification. 25 Ot#er approac# to fa ily in conflict perspective -lthough conflict theory emerged from the ideas of )riedrich Dngels and Barl =ar,, other social scientists have approached the issue of family somewhat differently. Sigmund )reud and Georg Simmel also advanced a conflict approach to the family. $hey contended that intimae relationships inevitably involve antagonism as well as love. =ore recently, sociologists have suggested that conflict is a part of all systems and interactions, including family systems and marital interactions. $hey see family members as confronting two conflicting demands8 to compete with one another for autonomy, authority, and privilege, and simultaneously o share one another4s fate in order to survive and even flourish. 29 Criti*ue on Conflict perspective on Fa ily - number of difficulties arise in conflict theory. $his theory seems to see whatever is there in the society, every social arrangement, every social grouping and stratification, is wrong. $here is nothing good in the society. Dven the loving couples and the caring parents are not good. $he intimacy among family members is not a positive phenomena but a tool in the members hand to dominate other members. )irst, conflict theory derives from politics, in which self"interest, egotism, and competition are dominant elements. People4s behavior is also characteri%ed by self"sacrifice and cooperation. @ove is an important 0uality in relationships. 6onflict theorists don4t often tal# about the power of love or bonding8 yet the presence of love and bonding may distinguish the family from all other groups in society. &e often ma#e sacrifice for the sa#e of hose we love. &e will defer our own wishes o another4s desires8 we may even sacrifice our lives for a loved one. Aon4t weC Second, conflict theorists assume that differences lead to conflict. Aifferences can also be accepted, tolerated or appreciated. Aifferences do not necessarily imply conflict. Just thin# that who cooperate with each otherC &hether without differences would there be cooperationC +f there won4t be any difference with whom would you cooperate, both would become the same.

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&a"de" '., ( l)r d *. (1,,0). The Social experience: an introduction to sociology. McGraw H ll !"c. -: $7$ &a"de" '., ( l)r d *. (1,,0). opcit. -: $7$

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$hird, conflict in families is no easily measured or evaluated. )amilies live much of their lives privately, and outsiders are not always aware of whatever conflict e,ists or how pervasive it is. -lso, much over conflict is avoided because it is regulated through family and societal rules. =ost children obey their parents, and most spouses, although they may argue heatedly, don not employ violence.2: )ourth, according to conflict perspective woman is a se,ual property and she e,changes her se,uality in return for wealth and status. &hat for daughters, sisters or aged peopleC &hat will they doC +f women get the freedom to ma#e se,ual relationships as they want and the men are free from women responsibility. &ho will ta#e care of children, for aged and other dependent members of the familyC 2f course State does share some responsibility but the primary responsibility of protection of the children and aged is a family responsibility.

Conclusion Pointing to the conclusion, family is not a social arrangement to oppress one group by the other group. +f the parents do not allow their children to do a particular wor#, it is not oppression but it is for their own betterment. $he parents have to sociali%e their children in a particular way so that they become a normal member of the society. $o conflict theorist families should not be established. )amily institution is a domestic slavery for women. 7ow stupid to thin# that our mother, daughter, sister, and wife are our slaves. Aoes it ma#e any senseC + see family as a functional component of the society performing #ey role in sociali%ation of the children and many other essential tas#s. +t is the family which provides emotional support. +t is the family in which one can found un*ealous *oy over his or her success. +t is family where one finds enduring sympathy in time of trouble. )amily as social institution in the conte,t of 2 st century. +n human conte,t, a family 'from @atinK familia( is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, or co"residence. +n most societies it is the principal institution for the sociali%ation of children. D,tended from the human 1family unit1 by biological" cultural affinity, marriage, economy, culture, tradition, honour, and friendship are concepts of family that are physical and metaphorical, or that grow increasingly inclusive e,tending to community, village, city, region, nationhood, global village and humanism. - family group consisting of a father, mother and their children is called a nuclear family. $his term can be contrasted with an e,tended family. -ccording to sociologist &illiam ). 2gburn, the family L under the pressures of urbani%ation and industriali%ation L was stripped of many of its traditional functions until its only remaining functions were psychologicalK 1to sociali%e children and to provide emotional sustenance and support for family members.1 :. 1-fter &orld &ar ++, $alcott Parsons played a central role in defining the issues that informed the study of the family. 7e treated the family as a small group that served basic functions for the larger society, including reproduction, regulation of se,ual behavior, sociali%ation into adult roles, and emotional support. 7e argued that small, isolated nuclear families in which men speciali%ed in instrumental, goal"oriented activities and women speciali%ed in e,pressive, relationship oriented activities were particularly well adapted to the demands of an urban, industrial society. Parsonian structural"functionalism was profoundly ahistorical, and discouraged historical analysis of the family. +t treated the family as a static unit . . . .1 ;. +n <3!, the essayist continuedK .+t, therefore becomes necessary to forego parenthood, at least for a considerable time, and to conceive of marriage purely as a relation"shop for comradeship and se,ual satisfaction. 7ence, there are arising more liberal views of se,ual morality. $he institutions of trial marriage and the companionate. . are being welcomed both in theory and practice. Strangely enough this new conception of marriage, which as arisen as a necessity, has come to be acclaimed as a virtue . . . . a revolt against the narrow morality of the past and against a society which demanded continuous propagation as the e,pense of individual happiness. . . + am inclined to thin# that the renunciation of parenthood, has for the most part, been forced upon us by the conditions under which we live rather than selected by freedom of choice. &hen we remove from the home nearly all the activities in which husbands and wives can participate on behalf of their children, the rearing of offspring, even when it is not financially precluded, becomes a tiresome and irrelevant process. 7aving rendered parenthood difficult and meaningless, our ne,t logical step is to abolish it - man and woman who have been thus divested of the prospects of household and children are
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spo#en of euphemistically as Mthe new family.4 . $he restlessness felt by so many married couples is cue not so much to the choice of the wrong partner or to the disturbing presence of children as to the brea#"up and dissemination of their interests throughout the greater community . . . Now that both husband and wife are see#ing career away from each other and their home, now that they have stripped off the burdens of children and household encumbrances, what is left for them to be companionable aboutC Some social genius of the future may wor# out a scheme for true self"reali%ation in wedloc#. but surely the current proposal of the revamping of family institutions are fraught with no large promise of success./ . +n <3!, a sociologist wrote that .. . . the specific functions which the family once performed within these categories have been largely transferred to other insti"tutions, while at the same time new specific functions, elaborations, refine"ments, and additions have developed within the family. N Hecreational functions are being transferred, some to and some from the family. =any activities formerly car"ried on in the bac#yard or in the family living room have been moved to schools, churches, and group"wor# institutions. Eet at the same time the radio, the automobile, the growing practice of having play and game rooms, and the enforced economy of the depression have operated to restore recreation to the home. . . . +n so far as housing becomes more spacious and ade0uate, the additional space will probably be used largely for leisure"time activities. )amilies of higher economic status carry on hobbies and other recreations in the house or on the grounds, which among the poorer classes must be conducted in the settle"ment house, the par#, or the street. &hile activities themselves may be largely outside, the home becomes more important as a telephonic center for preparation and ma#ing contacts, and as a storage place for e0uipment. $he organi%ation of the individuals leisure life increasingly centers in the home as homes become more ade0uate and living standards rise./ 3. +n <5!, sociologist 7ollingshead wroteK .$he home is the center of family life, and the hope >ironic sic? of most wor#ing"class families is a single"family dwelling with a yard8 but a fifth to one"half are forced to live in multiple dwelling units with inade0uate space for family living. -dded to this is the wor#ing"class mos that one is obligated to give shelter and care in a crisis to a husband4s or wife4s relatives or to a married child. $hus, in a considerable percentage >sic? of these families the home is shared with some relative. $hen, too., resources are stringently limited, so when a family is faced with unemployment, illness, and death it must turn to someone for help. +n such crises, a relative is called upon in most instances before some public agency. $he relative normally has little to offer, but in most cases that little is shared with the family in need, even though grudgingly. N &hile crises draw family members to"gether, they also act as divisive agents8 for when a family has to share its lim"ited living space and meager income with relative, #in ties are soon strained, often to the brea#ing point. 2ne family is not able to give aid to another on an e,tensive scale without impairing its won standard of living8 possibly its own security may be *eopardi%ed. +n view of this ris#, some persons do everything short of absolute refusal to aid a rela"tive in distress . . . $his ordinarily results in the permanent destruction of #in ties, but it is *ustified by the belief that ones won family4s needs come first./ 5. Setting the 6onte,tK Social and 6ultural +nfluences on =arriage and )amily @ife +ntimate relationships, including those that occur among young adults, do not e,ist in a vacuum. )or this reason, we begin with a brief summary of ma*or changes that have been sweeping through -merican society during the past several decades, while pinpointing their effect on marriage, intimate partnerships, and family relationships. -mong the most formidable cultural changes to influence marriage is the increasing pervasiveness of individualism. Broadly understood, the ethic of individualism elevates self"fulfillment over social obligations. -mericans are increasingly li#ely to define the .good marriage/ in terms of the fulfillment or satisfaction it brings to its individual partners rather than a marriage4s longevity. -s recounted by sociologist -ndrew 6herlin, the family has been transformed from a preindustrial public institution with clearly prescribed roles and functions to a postindustrial private entity that is predicated on personal fulfillment, including affection, companionship, and self" discovery. =arriage and Eoung -dulthoodK -mbivalence and Postponement &hat do we #now about young adults4 attitudes toward marriageC $oday4s young adults came of age in the midst of remar#able ambivalence about marriage, and their attitudes reflect these conflicted sentiments. 2n the one hand, marriage remains a highly desirable option for a preponderance of young adults. $he vast ma*ority '<!OL<5O( of young people aspire to get married someday, and about ;5O of them will get married. +n this sense, marriage would seem to be highly valued by today4s young adults. Eet, on the other hand, emerging adults e,press wariness about marriage and are especially reticent about what they view as premature marriage. -ccording to a National =arriage Pro*ect survey of young adults in their 2!s, ;9O of 2!"somethings believe that .it is e,tremely important . . . to be economically set before you get married./ No doubt, these concerns are fed by the fact that marriage is now a much less stable institution, and -mericans, particularly young adults, are increasingly unli#ely to view marriage as a lifetime commitment. &here intimate relationships are concerned, young -mericans appear caught between a love of freedom and a longing for commitment and companionship. $herefore, the strict se0uence of life"course transitions articulated in the old children4s rhyme, .)irst comes love, then comes marriage, then comes >child4s name? in a baby carriage,/

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fails to resonate with many young -mericans as it once did. +n fact, that middle stepPmarriagePis now defined in a wide variety of ways, ranging from same"se, unions to covenant marriages. +t is rather ironic that at a time when marriage is a less stable institution than ever before, everyone wants a piece of the marriage pie. 6ountercurrentsK &ho =arries Darly and &hyC $he danger of focusing only on a general trend evidenced in the nation at large, however, is that doing so ignores the conflicting currents that often e,ist beneath the surface. &here marriage among young adults is concerned, a number of countercurrents that run against the general trend of postponement are evident. $herefore, it is not true that there is a wholesale retreat from marriage among emerging adults. -s noted, the vast ma*ority of young people aspire to get married, and over ; in ! will actually do so. Such aspirations and behaviors hardly signal wholesale retreat. =oreover, alongside a later overall age at first marriage, the age range at which young adults now get married has e,panded considerably. '+magine a bell curve whose center has not only moved to the right, but whose base is now wider.( Si%ing Ip the Benefits of =arriage +s marriage a wise or unwise choice for young adultsC &hat benefits, if any, are to be had in getting marriedC +n the last couple of decades, conflicting bodies of research have spawned a debate about the benefits of marriage, and the playing out of this debate in the popular media has li#ely influenced young adults4 decisions about when to marry. Some scholars, such as @inda &aite and several researchers associated with the National =arriage Pro*ect, have argued that marriage is beneficial to men, women, and society at large. -lso, relationship 0uality 'that is, the satisfaction or happiness with one4s intimate relationship( is significantly greater for married persons than for cohabiting couples. =oreover, the research of &aite and others has uncovered lin#s between marriage and a number of other positive social outcomes, such as greater physical health, psychological well"being, and wealth. =arried people are also more satisfied with their se, lives than are single persons. Some have even argued that marriage is good for the environment because it is an institution that promotes the economical use of resources, including more efficient household energy consumption. 6ohabitation among Eoung -dultsK 6ontours, 6auses, and 6onse0uences $he past several decades have witnessed the proliferation of premarital cohabitation 'unmarried persons .living together/( among young -merican adults. -ppro,imately 9 in ! young adults will cohabit at some point their lives, and even as early as the <<!s, cohabitational unions outnumbered marital unions among young adults. -bout half of all nonmarital births to white and 7ispanic women occur in the conte,t of cohabitational unions. &hen cohabitation began to become more widespread, some observers were concerned that cohabitation would largely supplant marriage as a form of intimate partnership. &hile a collective flight from marriage has surfaced in some Duropean countries, cohabitation does not generally serve as a substitute for marriage among -merican couples. $he ma*ority of cohabiting persons will eventually marry, whether their current partner or some other. )uture IncertainK Eoung -dulthood and the -merican =arriage"Go"Hound &hat does the future hold for marriage among young adults in the Inited StatesC -lthough social scientists are notoriously poor at predicting the future, doing so with regard to the future of marriage and intimate relationships in the Inited States seems li#e an especially perilous enterprise. &e began this review with the observation that marriage in -merica is mar#ed by a high degree of ambivalence. $his ambivalence is especially pronounced among emerging adults. $he vast ma*ority of young -merican men and women aspire to get married, and more than ; in ! will do so someday. 7owever, that .someday/ is increasingly li#ely to be postponed among the young adult population at large. Eoung adults value their personal freedom and worry about getting established 'educationally, professionally, and personally( before getting married. $hey have been raised in an era in which self" fulfillment has been elevated as a virtue and the stability of marriage can no longer be ta#en for granted. HDS$-IH-N$ 2PDH-$+2NS =-N-GD=DN$ PH+N6+P@DS and PH-6$+6DS P-H$ . HDS$-IH-N$ B-S+6S +N$H2AI6$+2N $2 HDS$-IH-N$S and $7D HDS$-IH-N$ +NAIS$HE

DIH2PD-N HDS$-IH-N$ 7+S$2HE $here is evidence that food was sold in public mar#etplaces seven"thousand years ago and historical accounts describe the

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ban0uets and feasts en*oyed by the ancient Gree#s and Homans twenty"five hundred years ago. $he oldest written recipes date from the fourth century B.6. in a coo#boo# written by -picius. $he earliest recorded cuisine, then is that of the ancient Homans. )rance with its haute cuisine, became a leader in fine dining by improving on many basic food preparation and service techni0ues that had been developed earlier in several Duropean countries including +taly and Spain. Before the 9!!s, *ust a few inns were available for travelers, who primarily traveled for trade and religious purposes8 there was little travel for pleasure. +n fact, the word .travel/ comes from .travail/ which means to toil at hard labor. +n the mid" :!!s, a )renchman began selling soups, which he suggested were health restorers in an establishment called a restauer ')rench for .to restore/(. -nd the term restaurant was born. I.S. HDS$-IH-N$ 7+S$2HE +n the Inited States, an increasing number of taverns and inns became popular in cities during the early ;!!s. -s they grew in wealth and si%e communities began to support more e,travagant and e,pensive eating out alternatives. -merican Plan K $he hotel pricing structure in which some 'or all( of a guest4s meals are included in the basic guest room rate. ')ull"Board( =odified -merican Plan K 7alf"Board ' Qimmer mit 7albpension ( - la 6arte '=enus(K =enu pricing in which each meal component is sold 'priced( individually. Duropean PlanK $he hotel pricing structure in which guests pay only for the meals they consume8 food charges are not part of the basic room rate. ' accommodation only L Qimmerpreis ohne Pension ( $he secret of successK $he secret of success in restaurant operation includes cleanliness e,cellent service and high"0uality silverwareRlinen8 most importantly8 the food should be very good . $he successful restaurant operators generally own their own farms to provide mil#, butter, and eggs. +n the <5!s, the =cAonald4s restaurant chain began its rise to popularity. 2ther chains followed with specialties including fried chic#en, roast beef sandwiches, fish, and pi%%a among many others. $heir advantage8 clean premises, standardi%ed menus, 0uic# service and low prices. Before the <:!s, many -mericans did not drin# wine at allK =any #now little about the beverage and were reluctant to try it. Since that time, wines have dramatically increased in popularity and by the <;!s, some of the best 6alifornia wines had e,cellent reputations and could successfully compete with their )rench counterparts. By the early <;!s -merican began to eat out more fre0uently. 2ne reason was demographics 'more single and divorced persons and a growing proportion of wor#ing women(.

$he $ravel R $ourism +ndustry $he travel R tourism industry identifies three ma*or segmentsK " " hospitality transportation services

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destination alternatives

6ommercial 2perations 'foodservices(K )oodservices offered in hotels and restaurants and other organi%ations whose primary financial goal involves generation of profits from the sale of food and beverage products. Noncommercial 2perations 'foodservices(K )oodservice operations whose financial goal does not involve generating profits from the sale of food and beverage products, also called institutional foodservices. Self"operated 'Noncommercial foodservices(K - type of non"commercial foodservices operation in which the program is managed and operated by the organi%ation4s own employees. 6ontract =anagement 6ompany"operated 'Noncommercial food services(K - type of non"commercial foodservices operation in which the program is managed and operated by a company speciali%ing in foodservices management. &7-$ +S - HDS$-IH-N$C - restaurant is a for"profit foodservice operation whose primary business involves the sale of foodRbeverage products to individuals and small groups of guests. Hestaurants may have few or many seats8 they may be free"standing or located within a hotel, resort or shopping mall. $hey may or may not serve alcoholic beverages in addition to food and may have e,tensive or limited menus.

$hey may offer fine dining at high prices 'gourmet food served by highly e,perienced service staff to guests seated at tables covered with tablecloths and set with the finest tableware. $hey may also be 0uic#"service properties with lower prices offering food served at a counter by a cashier. $hey may offer a theme to complement the dining area with modest tablesRchairs and Ror booths and counters. Hestaurants offer alternative service methods.

Hestaurant '+ndependent(K Properties ownedRoperated by an entrepreneur which are not affiliated with a franchised or multiunit organi%ation. Hestaurant '=ultiunit(K Properties which are affiliated with a franchise or other organi%ation containing multiple 'sometimes thousands( properties8 also called a .chain/. )ranchiseK -n arrangement whereby one party 'the franchisor( allows the owner of the hospitality business 'the franchisee( to use the franchisor4s logo, name, systems, and resources in e,change for a fee. )ranchisorK $hose who own and manage the brand and sell the right to use the brand name to franchisees. Heceiving K $he transfer of ownership from a supplier to the hospitality operation which occurs when products are delivered. StoringK $he process of holding products under optimal storage conditions until they are needed for production or use. +ssuing K the process of moving products from storage areas to the point of use 'place of production( Preparing K $he steps involved in getting an ingredient ready for coo#ing or serving. )or e,ample, celery must be cleaned and chopped before being coo#ed in a stew or cleaned and sliced before use on an appeti%er tray. 6oo#ingK $he application of heat to food to ma#e the food more palatable andRor en*oyable for consumption. 7oldingK $he tas# of maintaining food items at proper serving temperature after they are prepared. 7olding involves #eeping hot foods hot and cold foods cold.

B-S+6 =-N-GD=DN$ -6$+F+$+DS

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Planning K Aefining goals, establishing strategies to achieve them and designing ways to get wor# done. 2rgani%ing K Aeveloping and grouping wor# tas#s. 6oordinatingK -rranging group efforts in an orderly manner. StaffingK )inding the right people for the *ob. Airecting K Supervising the wor# of staff members. 6ontrolling K Aetermining the e,tent to which the organi%ation .#eeps on trac#/ of achieving goals. Dvaluating K -ssessing the e,tent to which plans are attained 8 evaluation can identify issues 'problems( which should be considered by additional planning.

StaffingK Job descriptions and specifications should be developed for each position and should be #ept current. - *ob description indicates the tas#s which a person wor#ing within a position must be able to perform. By contrast, a *ob specification indicates the personal re0uirements *udged necessary for someone to successfully complete the tas#s re0uired by a position. 2rientationK $he process of providing basic information about the hospitality operation which must be #nown by all employees in every department. Positive discipline K Supervision activities designed to reinforce desired performance. Negative Aiscipline K Supervision activities designed to correct undesired performance.

-@$DHN-$+FD @D-ADHS7+P S$E@DS @eadership style Bureaucratic D,ample of @eadership -pproach Ao it by the boo# Iseful &hen standardi%ed wor# 'accounting, for e,ample( must be done )or e,perienced and motivated employees )or consultants and subcontractors for new employees doing relatively simple tas#s

Aemocratic

@et4s figure it out together

@aisse%"faire Aictator '-utocratic(

Eou figure it out Ao it my way S

Page 1$

S$DPS +N $7D 62N$H2@ PH26DSS Steps Step Standards must be established D,ample $he restaurant4s operating budget establishes a 35.5O food cost goal. $he income statement indicates that the actual food cost is 3<.3O $he variance of 3.;O '3<.3 L 35.5O(is une,plainable and e,cessive. Aecision"ma#ing 'problem"solving( techni0ues are used to generate R select solution alternatives. $wo tactics 'improved purchasing and use of portion control procedures ( are implemented.

Step 2 -ctual performance must be measured

Step 3 Fariance between standards and actual performance must be assessed Step 3 6orrective actions to address variances between standards and actual performance must be implemented

Step 5 6orrective actions must be evaluated to assure success

3:.;O 8 a step towards the 35.5O goal has been ta#en 8 further corrective actions will be planned and implemented.

B-S+6 P@-NN+NG $22@S Planning tool Fision D,ample FisionK to be the restaurant of choice for social groups in the community =ission statementK to meet needs of social groups by providing desired foodRbeverages and services at the prices which represent value for the guests. @ong"Hange Plan K to obtain 9!O of all social group business in the community within five years. Business PlanK to increase mar#et share of all social group business in the community by 5O within the ne,t 2 months. 2perating Budget =ar#eting plan K Strategies and tactics to increase social group revenues within the ne,t 2 months.

=ission

@ong"Hange Plan

Business Plan

=ar#eting Plan

2perating Budget K D,pected revenue generated from and costs associated with social group business.

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C(APT&+ , $7D HDS$-IH-N$ =-N-GDH -NA S-N+$-$+2N &hen you buy an automobile, you e,pect it to get you .from here to there/ safely and without brea#down or other incident. -s the purchaser, you have little or no concern about the challenges confronted by the manufacturer as the auto was designed, assembled, inspected, and shipped to the point of sale 'auto dealer(. +n much the same way guests visiting your restaurant purchase a meal and e,pect it to be safe to eat and pleasant tasting 'among other e,pectations(. $hey, in turn, may have no concern for the challenges the restaurant manager faces as products are purchased stored, issued, produced, and served. +nstead, they want to en*oy their meal and they have, literally, put their health and well"being into the hands of the manager and hisRher staff. $his chapter will e,plore what goes on .behind the scenes/ to help assure that food is safe for human consumption. &e4ll begin by e,plaining an obvious point that a concern for sanitation is critical. &hat is the best way to manage sanitation in a restaurantC $he answer is to #now and implement a system of 7a%ard -nalysis 6ritical 6ontrol Points '7-66P(. &e will review this system and illustrate how it can provide a practical approach to anticipating and preventing sanitationRrelated problems before they occur. S-N+$-$+2N +S 6H+$+6-@ Hestaurant managers have many responsibilities. $hey must, for e,ample, meet budget goals to satisfy their own boss and underta#e ongoing mar#eting efforts to discover what their guests want and need. $hen they must wor# to .deliver/ productsRservices that consistently meet previously determined 0uality and 0uantity standards. 7owever, no responsibility is more important than the manager4s obligation to protect the health and well"being of the guests and staff members who consume the products which the restaurant serves. )22AB2HND +@@NDSSK - sic#ness caused by consuming food which has been contaminated by microorganisms, chemicals, or physical ha%ards. Hestaurants #nown to have continual sanitation"related problems can never be successful. $hose with even occasional problems will li#ely suffer reduced guest counts and lost revenues for many months or longer if serious problems become #nown to the public. -AI@$DH-$DA )22A K )ood that is unfit for human consumption because it contains filth, is decomposed or produced under unsanitary conditions, contains poisons or harmful substances, or is otherwise unfit to eat. =+SBH-NADA )22AK )ood that is pac#aged with false andRor misleading information on its label. +NSPD6$+2N ')22A(K -ctivities including the inspection of animals slaughtering conditions and meat processing facilities to assure that food being produced is fit for human consumption. &72@DS2=D ')22A(K )ood which is suitable for human consumption. GH-A+NG ')22A PH2AI6$S(K -n assessment of foods relative to pre"established 0uality standards8 grading is optional for all food products. HDS$-IH-N$ Several sanitation concerns that directly involve the restaurant manager includeK " " " =-N-GDH

recogni%ing that sanitation R related problems pose an ever"present danger K $he manager must have an attitude of concern 'Problems can occur at my restaurant( learning about basic sanitation principles and practices training and supervising employees provide proper tools and e0uipment K Dmployees cannot, for e,ample, monitor food temperatures while products are being held before service if accurate thermometers are not available. @i#ewise, poorly monitored refrigeration

"

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e0uipment or inade0uate capacities of e,isting refrigerator units create problems caused by the manager not by the staff members

)22A SDHF+6D DS$-B@+S7=DN$ +NSPD6$+2N S62HD &2HBS7DD$ " " " " " " -A=+N+S$H-$+2N )22A $D=PDH-$IHD )22A S2IH6D )22A PH2$D6$+2N )-6+@+$E ADS+GN -NA 2$7DH 6H+$+6-@ +$D=S PDHS2N-@ 7EG+DND -NA 2$7DH )22A PH2$D6$+2N

7ow can restaurant employees show their concern about sanitationC " " " consistently handle food in ways that incorporate basic sanitation concern recogni%e and practice appropriate personal hygiene standards K a person4s ongoing health practices should include daily bathing, wearing clean clothes, and washing hands as necessary poor personal habits can create serious ha%ards, e,amples of inappropriate on"*ob behavior includeK smo#ing R eating and chewing gum 'unless on a brea# away from food( wearing *ewelry such as rings, bracelets, and watches. 'microorganisms on these items can contaminate foods when the *ewelry comes in contact with foods( Arin#ing water, coffee, or other beverages 'e,cept in a covered container that is handled in a way to prevent contamination of the foods R wor# surfaces with which it comes in contact(

-n employee4s personal health can be a serious concern, for e,ample, when a staff member reports to wor# with colds, intestinal illnesses, infected cuts on his R her hands, face, or arms. Staff members can infect food by snee%ing or coughing on food or when blood fluid or pus comes in contact with food. Staff members who have been diagnosed with illnesses caused by specific microorganisms 'salmonella, typhus, shigella spp and certain types of D.coli and hepatitis ( can be especially dangerous when wor#ing around food. =+6H22HG-N+S=SK =+6H22HG-N+S=S K @iving forms of life that are too small to be seen without magnification8 also called microbes. )ortunately, most microorganisms are not harmful to humans. +n fact, many are beneficial to us. =icroorganisms are involved in the production of foods 'for e,ample, yogurt and beer(, as an ingredient in some medicines, and even help clean up oil lea#s in the ocean8 others help synthesi%e nutrients in our bodies. )ortunately, relatively small but potentially very dangerous number of microorganisms are pathogens, which are harmful to humans. PH2PDH -NA )HDTIDN$ 7-NA&-S7+NG +S 6H+$+6-@ Dffective hand"washing procedures can do much to reduce the possibility of foodborne illness because organisms are fre0uently transferred to food from the hands of employees who handle the food.

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D,amples of times when hands should be washed includeK before reporting to wor# after using the restroom after ta#ing a brea# before beginning food preparation after touching any part of the body after snee%ing, coughing, eating, drin#ing, smo#ing, or using a hand#erchief R tissue after performing any tas# that might contaminate hands, such as cleaning tables or floors, handling clearing supplies, pic#ing up items from the floor, and ta#ing out the garbage

Some food handlers mista#enly believe that using plastic gloves eliminates the potential to spread microorganisms. +n fact, plastic gloves are effective only until the first time they come in contact with soil or microorganisms. )or e,ample , they are .clean/ when first worn. 7owever, after an employee handles money, ties his R her shoes or scratches his R her face, they are *ust as contaminated as would be s#in on an uncovered hand. NoteK many persons have allergies to late,, which is used in the manufacturing of many plastic gloves. Eou should consider purchasing late,"free gloves for your restaurant if these items will be used.

$7D .HD6+PD/ )2H D))D6$+FD 7-NA"&-S7+NG Step L wet hand with hot running water

Step 2 L apply soap Step 3 L lather soap by rubbing between hands '2! seconds minimum( Step 3 L use a brush to clean under fingernails and between fingers Step 5 L rinse hand thoroughly under hot running water Step 9 L dry hand with a clean paper towel or hand dryer Step : L if possible, turn off water faucet with paper towel P-$72GDNSK =icroorganisms that are capable of causing disease, often called .germs/ 62NA+$+2NS )2H 2P$+=-@ GH2&$7 =icroorganisms are living forms of life, and li#e humans , they re0uire certain conditions to remain alive. $hese includeK moistureK moisture in a usable form must available for growth and reproduction. 6onsider, for e,ample, the moisture available in fresh meats and poultry upon which microorganisms thrive. By contrast, thin# about moisture in fro%en meats and poultry, which is not usable to them, and which, therefore reduces 'prevents( their growth while in fro%en product. NoteK )ree%ing products does not #ill organisms in the food being fro%en8 rather, it only prevents the organisms from growing and reproducing while the food is fro%en. 2,ygenK some 'aerobic( organisms re0uire o,ygen. 2thers 'anaerobic( cannot survive if o,ygen is present. Still others 'facultative anaerobic( bacteria can grow regardless of whether o,ygen is available. 2rganisms that cause foodborne illnesses are of all three types. $imeK =icroorganisms can grow and reproduce 0uic#ly.

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$emperatureK Some 'psychrophilic( bacteria grow best at cold temperatures ' ! L 2 degree 6(. 2thers 'mesophilic( bacteria grow best at temperatures around that of the human body '3: degree 6(. Still other 'thermophilic( microorganisms grow best at temperatures above '33 degree 6(. 2rganisms that cause foodborne illnesses grow best at a temperature range of '5" 9! degree 6(. -cidity )oodK most organisms li#e protein"rich foods, such as meats, poultry, and seafood, for e,ample, and those that are high in protein such as casserole dishes containing these item, and beans, potatoes, and rice.

-DH2B+U =+6H22HG-N+S=SK =icroorganisms re0uiring o,ygen to live. -N-DH2B+6 =+6H22HG-N+S=SK =icroorganisms that can live only when o,ygen is not present. )-6I@$-$+FD -N-DH2B+6 =+6H22HG-N+S=SK =icroorganisms that can live with or without o,ygen present PSE67H2P7+@+6 B-6$DH+- K $hose which grow best at cold temperatures =DS-P7+@+6 B-6$DH+- K $hose which grow best at temperatures around that of the human body $7DH=2P7+@+6 B-6$DH+-K $hose which grow best at temperatures above '33 degree 6(. 62N$H2@@+NG GH2&$7 2) =+6H22HG-N+S=S Eou have *ust learned that microorganisms causing foodborne illness re0uire si, elements for optimal growth and reproductionK =oisture 2,ygen $ime $emperature -cidity )ood

2f these, three are the most importantK time, food and temperature. @et4s loo# at these three factors more carefully8 minimi%e time K food"handling procedures must minimi%e the time that microorganisms have to grow and reproduce. =any e,perts suggest that this time should be limited to four hours or less. Potentially ha%ardous foodsK &hile all foods are potentially ha%ardous, you have learned that those high in protein content are among the most potentially ha%ardous. $emperature danger %oneK -s you learned in the previous section, the temperature range of most potential concern for foodborne illness is '5 to 5: degree 6(.

"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""" =+6H22HG-N+S=S -NA )22AB2HND +@@NDSSDS )ood can become contaminated by microorganisms in one of two waysK $he presence of microorganismsK food infections $he presence of to,ins 'poisons( in the food K food poisonings N2$ -@@ )22AB2HND +@@NDSSDS -HD )22A P2+S2N+NGS

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)22A +N)D6$+2NK - foodborne illness caused by the presence of microorganisms in food )22A P2+S2N+NGK - foodborne illness caused by the presence of poisons 'to,ins( in the food which are produced by microorganisms S2=D 62==2N )22AB2HND +@@NDSS Bacterial +nto,ications 'Poisonings( clostridium botulinum clostridium perfringens streptococcus aureus bacillus cereus

Bacterial +nfections Firal +nfections Norwal# virus 7epatitis salmonella Spp shigella vibrio Spp Dscherichia coli @isteria monocytogenes 6ampylobacter *e*uni

72& 6-N E2I $D@@ +) )22A +S 62N$-=+N-$DA C Some foods that are safe to eat may smell, can be cloudy, or might even feel somewhat slimy 'as in the case of fish or meat(, other foods, by contrast, that are not safe to consume may have no unusual smell, loo#, or feel. =ost contaminated food does not have an unusual taste 'if it did, guests eating it would eat only the first bite rather than the entire meal(. Some contaminated foods do not even contain living microorganisms, )or e,ample, food containing organisms causing food into,ications can be coo#ed to high temperature for a sufficient period of time to destroy the microorganisms in the food. Infortunately, however, the to,ins they produced while living may remain harmful because the poison is not .#illed/ or inactivated by heat. $he answer to the 0uestion above 'how can you tell if food is contaminatedC( is simply. .Eou cannot/. Since restaurant managers do not have access to sophisticated testing methods re0uired to detect the presence of microorganisms and R or their to,ins, it becomes necessary to focus their efforts on preventing rather than on detecting contaminated food.

$-6$+6S $2 PHDFDN$ )22AB2HND +@@NDSS " " " " Purchasing Heceiving Storing Production

Page 1,

" " "

-fter Production 7andling =anaging leftovers 6lean Ip

PI67-S+NG Hefrigerated R fro%en products need to be maintained within appropriate temperature ranges during transport from the supplier4s facility to the restaurant HD6D+F+NG Hefrigerated foods must be at a temperature below 5 degree 68 fro%en food must be at a temperature below :.; degree 6. )ruits and vegetables may be visibly inspected for decay , mold growth or other deterioration. 6anned items can be randomly chec#ed for bulges and dents along side seams and rims. S$2H+NG Proper storage temperatures areK Hefrigerated storage 5 degree 6 or below )ro%en food storage L :.; degree 6 or below Ary storage foods ! L 2 . degree 6

)ood should be stored away from walls and at least si, inches off the floors to allow for air circulation and for proper cleaning. Haw food products should be stored beneath coo#ed R ready"to"eat foods. +tems should not be stored under waterRsewer lines located overhead that can be a source of contamination. )oods should never be stored near saniti%ing, cleaning, or other chemicals. +f practical, chemicals should be stored in a different room to reduce still further misidentification and related problem. PH2AI6$+2N )ro%en foods should not be thawed at room temperature or left in a sin# full of water overnight. methods for thawing fro%en foodsK " " " thaw in the refrigerator, thaw as part of the coo#ing process thaw in a sin# with cold running water

$here are three appropriate

)oods in production should be #ept at room temperature for a minimal amount of time. - common practice of removing all items to be produced at the beginning of a shift for production during the shift is not a good one. Itensils such as #nifes and cutting boards and the wor# counters upon which they are used should be properly cleaned between food preparation tas#s to prevent cross"contamination. -)$DH"PH2AI6$+2N 7-NA@+NG Some items such as proportioned stea#s are served to guests immediately after production and the time within the temperature danger %one is minimal. 7owever, other items such as casserole dishes and sauces may be held for e,tensive time periods before service. &hen this occurs, it is necessary to consistently assure that the product is held above 5: degree 6 until it is served to guests. Some restaurants provide self"service salad bars and R or hot food counters and allow guests to help themselves to these or other items. +t is *ust as important to #eep food being held in public areas at temperatures of 5: degree 6 or higher or at 5 degree 6 or below as it is for foods held in nonpublic areas of the #itchen. Snee%e Guard ')ood services( K - see"through sold barrier used to protect foods in self"service counter and other areas from guests who might otherwise cough or snee%e onto food.

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=-N-G+NG @D)$2FDH -ccurate food production estimates will minimi%e the amount of leftovers that remain at the end of guest service. 7owever, foods which do remain to be used at an other time must be 0uic#ly brought to a temperature below 5 degree 6. $actics to do this include storing items in shallow containers, using ice baths, and fre0uently stirring products in containers ' to relocate the warmer center"of"container product to the sides, bottom, and top of the container to speed up heat dispersion(. +t is generally best to not free%e leftovers for late used8 microorganisms can grow and reproduce during the product4s cool"down period, will not die after the product is fro%en. '$hey will *ust be inactivated (, and the organisms will continue to grow during the initial time that the product is being thawed. 6@D-N"IP )inal tactics in the process to prevent foodborne illness relate to clean"up activities for tableware and potsRpans along with furniture, fi,tures, and e0uipment. $ableware and Pots R Pans Numerous activities are necessary after products have been produced and served to guests. $hese include readying tableservice items and pots R pans for future use. @et4s define two termsK 6leaning and saniti%ing. 6leaning involves removing soil and residues of food from items being cleaned. By contrast, saniti%ing involves eliminating disease"causing microorganisms that remain after cleaning. 6leaning 'foodservices( K $he removal of soil and residues of food from the items Saniti%ing ')oodservices( K $he elimination of disease"causing microorganisms that remain after cleaning. -fter items have been cleaned they can then be sterili%ed by one of two methodsK Ise of heat 'typically ;2.2 degree 6( in mechanical dish or pot R pan washers and ':3.< degree 6( in manual wash sin#s 6hemicals such as chlorine or 0uaternary ammonium compound"based chemicals in specified concentrations being cleaned.

Aish and pot R pan washing machines range from single rac# units to conveyor"type machines through which items to be washed can be continually fed. $hese machines have controlled wash, rinse and saniti%ing cycles of specified water temperatures and durations. By contrast, manual dish wash and pot R pan washing sin#s re0uire at least three separate sin#s for these purposes. =ost manual washing systems are designed to perform re0uired tas#s in a left"to"right se0uence. +tems to be washed can be placed on the soiled dish counter and can then be scraped and rinsed before being placed in the wash sin#. -fter cleaning with the proper detergent in the proper concentration, items are then placed in the rinse sin# and finally, in the saniti%ing sin#. $hey are then removed to the clean counter where they can drain and air dry before being or reused. -nother sanitation precautionK don4t towel"dry. $his principle becomes easier to implement when the clean counter is of sufficient si%e 'length( to hold the number of items 'rac#s( being washed at one time. Arawing of =anual Aish and Pot R Pan &ashing Sin# 2 3 3 5

Soiled dish'potRpan( counter with disposer in trough and overhead sprayRrinse attachment Saniti%ed sin# &ash sin# Hinse sin# 6lean dish 'potRpan( counter

Page 21

NoteK )or illustration purposes only8 not do drawn to scale )urniture, )i,tures, and D0uipment D0uipment including that used for food production and service must be cleaned according to the manufacturer4s instructions. Basic tactics include using a clean cloth, brush, or scouring pad and warm soapy water. 6lean from the top"to"bottom 'or from one side to another( and then rinse with fresh water and a clean cloth. -n approved chemical saniti%ing solution can be swabbed or sprayed onto food"contact service, and areas should be allowed to air dry before further use. 7and"washing facilities must be conveniently located and continually stoc#ed with li0uid or powered soap. 2$7DH S-N+$-$+2N +SSIDS 6hemical )ood can also be contaminated by chemicals. $o,ins can be found in shellfish D,amples of manmade chemicals that cause foodborne Some colorings in fruits and vegetables such as maraschino cherries may also cause illnessesRallergies. 7a%ards and mushrooms. illnesses.

Pesticides are applied to many fruits and vegetables to protect them before harvest. Hesidues may remain on these products when they reach the restaurant and proper washing is a .must/. 2ther chemicals including those used for facility and e0uipment cleaning and saniti%ing sometimes get into Ronto foods and can cause serious illness and even death. Storing cleaning items away from food products carefully labeling of items and using them according to the manufacturer4s instructions are among tactics to minimi%e ris#s from using these items. 6hemical poisonings can also occur if foods are stored R processed in inappropriate containers, such as those made from cadmium or galvani%ed metals. Physical )oods can be contaminated with physical ha%ards which can cause illness, in*ury and sometimes death. 7a%ards

Physical ha%ards 'foods(K )oreign ob*ects in food such as glassware and metal shavings that can cause illness and in*ury if they are consumed. D,amples of physical ha%ards include glass fragments 'from glassware bro#en around food and R or in food preparation areas(, metal shavings 'from can openers(, wood splinters 'from toothpic#s R s#ewers used in food production(, human hair labels from food containers and stones or roc#s which may be found in bags of rice, beans, and other grains. )ood handlers must process foods safely, carefully inspect products being produced, and should not wear unnecessary *ewelry which can be .lost/ in food while it is being produced. Pest 6ontrol 7a%ards Pests including rats, mice flies, and coc#roaches, carry disease"causing bacteria and can cause food contamination as they move about food preparation areas and onto food ingredients. $hey to reducing problems caused by pests involves prevention. )inally it is important to use a pest control program to eliminate those that have entered the restaurant. )ood should be stored properly and garbage should be promptly removed from food preparation areas and should be #ept covered until removal on a regularly"scheduled basis. -ll areas of the restaurant should be regularly cleaned and tight"fitting screens, doors, and R or air curtains can help prevent the entry of flying insects. Proper house#eeping procedures can reduce problems of coc#roaches, rats and mice infestation. 6rac#s small holes, and other areas where these pests can enter must be discovered and concealed. +ncoming foods R supplies should be chec#ed at time of receiving for signs of infestation as should the restaurant4s own storage areas. -n integrated pest management program '+P=P( is recommended which involves a five"step effort ofK +nspection +dentification

Page 22

Sanitation -pplication of pest management control procedures Dvaluation of effectiveness with follow"up inspections

7-66P and $7D =-N-GD=DN$ 2) S-N+$-$+2N 7-66P ' 7a%ard -nalysis 6ritical 6ontrol Points (K - practical system using proper food"handling procedures along with monitoring and record #eeping to help assure that food is safe for consumption. Procedures specified in the 7-66P program were initially developed for the IS space program to protect astronauts who on their flights into outer space, would lac# medical assistance desired in case of a foodborne illness. $he system was later adapted by food manufacturers who produced large 0uantities of food for distribution around the country and the world. =any restaurant organi%ations have now adapted the system. 7-66P emphasis is on anticipating and correcting potential food safety problems before they occur rather than on ta#ing corrective actions after a problem arises. $he 7-66P system incorporates the basics of microbiology 'the study of factors which help promote growth of microorganisms( and proper food handling procedures which incorporate these .basics/ into an on"going management and control system. S$DPS +N $7D 7-66P SES$D= . 2. 3. 3. 5. 9. :. -ssess 7a%ards +dentify critical control points '66P4s( Aefine limits for each 66P =onitor 66P4s +mplement corrective actions when critical limits are e,ceeded Dstablish record #eeping system Ferify success of 7-66P System

7a%ard 'food contamination(K =icroorganisms, chemicals and physical ob*ects which can contaminate a food product. 6ritical 6ontrol Points ' 66P (K Something that can be done in the movement of food from the times of receiving to service which will help prevent eliminate, or reduce ha%ards to persons consuming the food. 6ritical control points are steps or procedures in the food handling process which are used to control K $ime $emperature Product acidity Heceiving procedures relating to products including ready"to"eat foods if a subse0uent step in production will not prevent a ha%ard.

D,amples of 66P4s include coo#ing, cooling, reheating, and holding hot and cold products at the temperature which recogni%e the importance of the danger %one ' 5 to 9! degree 6(. 2f these, coo#ing and reheating relate to efforts to destroy harmful microorganisms. $he remaining three 'cooling, hot food holding and cold food holding( involve efforts to prevent or, at least to slow the rate of bacterial growth.

Page 2$

)resh seafood and fro%en ground beef become special concerns during the preparing step. $hey are potentially ha%ardous foods and are treated carefully by production personnel trained to handle these products. NoteK +n this restaurant, fro%en ground beef is thawed as part of the storage 'refrigeration( process, and procedures are in place to assure that thawing is done properly. 6oncerns about fresh seafood during the preparing step include minimi%ing the time that the product is at room temperature during cleaning and portioning. +t is held in a refrigerated unit in the wor# station until it is prepared for immediate service. Ground beef is removed from the refrigerator after thawing at the time it is to be added to the casserole dish. $he casserole is ba#ed and is then held at a temperature above 5: degree 6 until service. -ny product that remains at the end of the meal period is not reused. &hen reviewing the holding step, you will note that fresh seafood is not a critical control point. &hy C +n this property, it is not held S )resh seafood fillets are only purchased for use as an entre, and they are prepared to order for immediate service. By contrast, fro%en ground beef is an ingredient in a casserole dish, which is made using a batch"coo#ing process after which proper holding temperatures are re0uired.

Batch coo#ingK $he preparation of food needed in large 0uantities in small volumes 'batches( rather than all"at"once to ma,imi%e food 0uality by reducing holding times until service. 6ritical limit ' 7-66P Program (K Boundaries 'ma,imumRminimum limits( which define the e,tent to which a critical control point must be controlled to minimi%e ris#s of food borne illness. 6asserole dishes containing the ground beef will need to be held at a temperature above 5: degree 6 until service as measured at fre0uent intervals by an accurate thermometer. - coo# on the serving line may chec# the internal temperature of a casserole dish every fifteen minutes. 7olding temperature of a potentially ha%ardous food is below 9! degree 6. =-N-G+NG )22AB2HND +@@NDSS +N6+ADN$S @et4s review the restaurant4s interaction with the guest's(K 2btain information about the complainers 'complainants( and the restaurant visit in 0uestionK gather information such as the complainants4 name, address, and telephone number and the date and time of the visit to the restaurant. Aetermine all possible information about the incidentK what occurred C what e,actly was consumed C &hat were the symptoms that suggest it might be food borne illness C how long after visiting the restaurant did the illness symptoms occurC &ere there other persons in your party C did they become ill C 'if a physician has not been contacted, urge the guest to do so(. Aid you ta#e leftovers home C did you eat any other food between the time of your visit and the outbrea# of the illness C our list of 0uestions can continue8 our point is the need to determine all possible information relative to the alleged incident. =aintain records. =a#e careful notes of all conversations with the guests including the time of the conversations.

6onclusion K estaurant

anage ent

=anagement in general is a multifaceted approach. Eou must be able to oversee all elements of the business and have a general ability to do every tas# beneath you. +deally, you should have some e,perience in actually doing each one of the *obs over which you have responsibility, but if not you must be able to step in at a momentVs notice. +n the food industry, a managerial role is even more complicated and restaurant management resources are well researched.

Page 21

&hen you have overall responsibility in a food and beverage position, you must understand that you have many additional responsibilities that you might not ordinarily e,pect to find in the business world. +f you are in overall command of the entire organi%ation you allocate time to pro*ects, staffing, logistics, mar#eting, finances and a whole host of other areas beneath. $his can sometimes be overwhelming, but restaurant management resources are available to help you get everything in a proper perspective. $he area that re0uires most attention in restaurant management is the actual cost of your product. $his can ma#e the difference between losing money or ma#ing a good profit and portion control and timely supply are two #ey elements. Inderstand that employees beneath you may not have the same perspective when it comes to cost management and you will have to lay down some strict guidelines to #eep everything under control. &hile food and drin# may be the primary cause for concern, a busy restaurant relies on a whole host of other supplies and products, even the smallest of which can ma#e the difference between smooth operation or a ma*or issue. Some of your restaurant management resources will be ade0uate inventory control procedures and staff must understand the meaning of *ust"in"time and frugality when it comes to the use and restoc#ing of these vital items. $ime management is crucial for managers at all levels and if youVre in charge of an eatery, this is especially so. 2ne of your biggest challenges will be coping with problems that come up on a regular basis and there will be many of them. Eou will have to be s#illed at putting out fires and somehow building this time into your already busy schedule appropriately. Hemember, that even though you will be pulled in all directions as the owner and manager of a restaurant, you must still be efficient. &hatever programs and pro*ects you have opened, must be completed and one of the biggest s#ills you learn will be the art of delegation. Never be a micromanager, but always be willing to allocate tas#s accordingly. 2ne of the more important things that you can do when you are starting out as a restaurant owner or manager is to ma#e sure that you spend particular emphasis at the outset in selecting the right staff. $he business will rise or fall according to the 0uality and ability of your staff, as when the chips are down, you will have to rely on them to wor# on their own initiative from time to time. AonVt be afraid to turn to outside help, especially when you are starting out. Hestaurant management resources can help you to focus on priorities and the ins and outs of management from those who have seen it all.

7ospital management

$he word 1hospital1 comes from the @atin 1hospes1 which refers to either a visitor or the host who receives the visitor. )rom 1hospes1 came the @atin 1hospitalia1, an apartment for strangers or guests, and the =edieval @atin 1hospitale1 and the 2ld )rench 1hospital.1 +t crossed the 6hannel in the 3th century and in Dngland began a shift in the 5th century to mean a home for the elderly or infirm or a home for the down"and"out.i 7ospital is an institution or the organi%ation for the treatment, care, and cures of the sic# and wounded, for the study of disease, and for the training of physicians 'teaching hospitals(, nurses, and allied health care personnel. 7ospital =anagement &hat is the importance of 7ospital =anagementC $he answer to this 0uestion is simply that supervisors and managers of hospitals must not only have vocational, technical #nowledge about hospitals and treatment, but also should have #nowledge about contemporary management and its functions and principles. $he wor# module of any *ob is based on two pillars, namely technical wor# and management wor# . &hat to be managed in 7ospitalC @i#e other organi%ations and institution hospitals or any healthcare facility passes through the following stages or in other words they need the management of below sections for the smooth running of their organi%ations, but the hospitals are very comple, in its nature. W 2perations 'actions( W )inance 'money and resources(, W Personnel'human relations( W +nformation'needed information for wise decisions( W $ime 'your own and that of others(

Page 25

-ccording to the Pro*ect AefinitionK .- pro*ect is a se0uence, set or series of uni0ue, comple, and connected activities, having one goal or purpose to be completed with time frame, allocated budget and according to its specification, now we can say the leading, controlling, organi%ing and planning of all these activities is called pro*ect management. Now we can say it easily, that a hospital or any healthcare facility is a pro*ect in its nature, therefore8 applying the rule of pro*ect management will be no far away from it. )or the lower level *obs at hospitals and healthcare facilities, the principles of Supervision can become a starting point for teaching or studying the principles of management. - person in one of the lowest level *obs found at employers must also plan, organi%e and control wor#, even if it is *ust to clean an office or do some washing in one of the departments of the hospital. $op =anagement members of the hospitals such as 6hief D,ecutive 2fficer, )inancial =anager etc, must be able to plan, organi%e, control and lead the wards and departments with a focus on understanding and influencing the environment, setting the strategy and gaining commitment, planning, implementing and monitoring strategies and evaluating and improving performance. $he $op =anagement must therefore have high capabilities with regard to human relations inwards and outwards, strategic planning, team building, leadership, and negotiation and performance management. =iddle =anagement members must be able to plan, organi%e, control and lead departments and sections with a focus on assistance upwards for application of scientific methods and assistance downwards for application of scientific methods. $hey must have the same capabilities as Senior =anagers as well as Supervisory =anagers and also be good at interviewing techni0ues, goal achievement, conflict handling tactics and pro*ect management. Supervisory =anagement members must also be able to plan, organi%e, control and lead sections, units and individuals with a focus on operations, finance, people, information and time. @ac# of =anagement s#ills in employer or employees at every hierarchy level of the hospital or healthcare facility can be detrimental. @ac# of =anagement s#ills can lead to poor performance, lac# of improvement, low profit, decisions ma#ing, disheartening of employees, lower productivity, and *eopardi%e your organi%ation. $herefore8 it is obligatory that hospital managers should have the updated and cotemporary #nowledge of =anagement. +n below sections, you will read more about hospital management, that how to manage hospitals or any healthcare facility in order to achieve the intended ob*ectives to meet the organi%ational goals.

BDE +SSIDS $2B $-BDN 6-HD 2)K @2-A 2) &2HBK $he load of wor# increased on pathological laboratories is increased every patient should go prior to his treatment to medical or pathological laboratories, so by this the laboratories are overloaded, this overload is more in those laboratories who are attached to the hospital or in hospital territory, and in contrast there is less load on those laboratories which are outside the hospital or private laboratories. $he hospitals and laboratories which are located in surrounding area can enter into common understanding. Houtinely the hospitals are collecting the samples from the patient and after the e,amination they are giving reports to the patients bac#. So in this way the load will be decrease on the laboratories and hospitals. $H-+NDA -NA SB+@@DA S$-))K 7ospitals need trained and s#illed technologists and staff, as it is obvious that many hospitals have no professional technologists because they are not paid satisfactory. $he professional technologists have their own private laboratories in the city and they can earn more than monthly salary of the hospitals, so if the hospitals are welling to attract and absorb the professionals in hospital so they must pay for them a good wage salary and other bonuses. $hese medical technicians who are wor#ing in the hospitals must be trained and they need these trainings, these training programs must be underta#en by different medical association. &-S$D 62N$H2@K

Page 22

$he wastage management is the crucial step in the hospitals, and it is so important that the staff should be aware of the cost of wastages 2P$+=I= I$+@+Q-$+2NK =any of the hospitals have small number of technician and these technicians are busy in other clerical wor#s so this is the big problem in the hospitals. $hose laboratories have many problems which is facing the above said problem. $he laboratories which is owned by the pathologists the so these pathologists are also busy with its administrative responsibilities. So it is important for the hospitals to train e,tra staff for the administrative and clerical wor#s in order to improve the 0uality of the wor# in laboratories. =-U+=I= I$+@+Q-$+2N 2) @-B SDHF+6DK =a#ing lin#s with small hospitals and nursing. +t is impossible for the patient to wait for long hours to get the result of their lab e,am. $hey have to go to the laboratories at specific time. +t is also possible that technician go to the home of the patients and to collect the sample from the patients and after the lab e,am the result should be given bac# to the patient, so by this way the patients can charged for the services. =any of the patients are willing to pay for their lab e,ams. Helations with general practitioners who can collect the sample from the patient and then these samples are chec#ed in the laboratory after e,amining it is given bac# to the patient. +t is good to have a 23 hours service instead of having fi,ed time collection of sample, because in 23 hours service program ta#e and give the results and reports 0uic#ly, so in this way their will be no delay in treatment of the patient. +t is also possible that laboratories can give the results of the laboratory tests via phone to the medical or pathology specialist in the urgent cases, so in this there will be also no delay in the treatment of the patient.

H-A+2@2GE SDHF+6DSK -s it is obvious to all of us by moving this world forward and advanced in technology and physics so the radiology also moved with this advancement and the advancement of the radiological services also need more capital or financial investment. $he cost of operation is also increasing with the consumption of inputs such as ,"ray films, chemicals which is used for the washing and cleaning of films. But the radiology department center is the big department in the hospital for that the cost or the e,penses of this department is high from the other departments, on the other hand its profit is also high in contrast to other departments. So it is most important to #eep this department managed and well e0uipped because the surplus or the profit which are coming from this department should be spent on the less income department by this way we can run the hospital daily e,penses.

=-N-GDH+-@ P2+N$SK

. D0uipment Brea#downK $he brea#down and even the collapse of the e0uipments and other instruments are common in all hospitals, so the collapse pave the way for the idling of instruments, so in the result they are not doing properly and the income will also decreased and hence at the end the results of the patients test is also delayed. $he ma*ority of the machinery and the instruments which are so important they are mainly imported from the other countries, so in case of the brea#down and failure the spare parts of these e0uipments is not easily found in the mar#et, so we have ma#e the maintenance program for these e0uipments. 2.@ocationRPlaceK

Page 27

+n many hospitals the radiology departments are situated in a very important place because the patients can not move with films in the front of the departments and wards. So for that the radiology departments are located from the beginning in a very strategic place. 3. StorageRwarehouseK . -s usually the ,"ray films are stored in rac#s with separators according to case or patients numbers. $he appropriate storage of the ,"rays paves the way for recovery. +n many hospitals and health facilities the storage system is not appropriate and also unnecessary storing ta#e place. $he records which are older than 3 or 3 months should be distracted. 3.@ac# of S#illed $echniciansK $here is lac# of professional technicians, so it is crucial that the technicians must be trained, some of the technicians have got on the *ob training. +n many hospital they have few programs for training, so they are limited to main areas, so it so important to e,pand the training programs. 5.-@@26-$+2N 2) &2HBK +n many hospitals it is a big problem that the trained staff is engaged in e,tra"curricular wor#s li#e some clerical wor#s such washing films and preparing reports and ma#ing registration, so it is the misusage of the s#ill and it is so harmful for the organi%ation. 6omputeri%ationK it is so important in many ways, and it thin# in this era it is so important and crucial, it has many profits such asK a. $he data will be regularly and easily chec#ed and retrieved and cross match of information is so easy. b. 6ontrol of inventory and even the asset management will go so swift and easily. 9.&-S$-GDK +n many hospitals there is no proper mechanism for the waste management, all the e,pensive should be used in a proper manner and we must not loose it because it will eat the profit which is made by the hospital. So the staff will must be trained on waste management. By this way we can control the flow of the wastage. :.=-N-GD=DN$ 2) B@22A B-NBSK Blood is the part of life that is given to those who need it by those who have the resource to satisfy the need. Dmergencies occur every minute. )or each patient re0uiring blood, it is an emergency and the patients could have set bac# if blood is not available. -nd also the surgeries need blood, and also the blood is also re0uired in blood disease, such as leu#emia4s, thalassemia, and a blood cancer. $he main tas#s of blood ban#s are as followsK" o 6ollection of Blood o $esting of the blood. o Storage of Blood. o Supply of Blood to the hospitals and other health facilities are not doing properly and the income will also decreased and hence at the end the results of the patients test is also delayed.

7D-@$7 =-N-G=DN$ +N)2H=-$+2N SES$D=K $he healthcare industry is continuously evolving and becoming more technologically advanced. $he need for information managers in this field is escalating rapidly. $he ma*or provides a solid foundation of #nowledge about management in the healthcare industry and, specifically, the management of information systems within the healthcare field. Dmphasis is on managing and advancing the application of information technology and systems to improve the effectiveness of healthcare delivery in a variety of settings. $his ma*or meets the industry4s desire for professionally educated individuals in the converging healthcare fields of people and information management. Graduates with a degree in 7ealthcare +nformation Systems =anagement will be

Page 2%

able toK -naly%e the informatics processes as it relates to the healthcare enterprise +ntegrate information management processes with clinical processes to provide effective healthcare delivery Aevelop a plan to integrate the convergence of various healthcare information technologies into a healthcare organi%ation. +dentify the implications of federal regulations on healthcare +$ 6ompare and contrast the various process improvement strategies that can be used in a healthcare +$ environment -naly%e the relationship between the management of +$ and the management of people within a healthcare organi%ation . -AF-N$-GDS 2) 62=PI$DHK +t provides less staff to operate and manage. Aecrease the paper wor# and enhance the accuracy. +t is easy to trac#, compile +t can store large +t can provide only one clic# type of ease. and of get bac# data the entered and information information.

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.Planned approach towards wor#ingK" $he wor#ing in the organi%ation will be well planned and organi%ed. $he data will be stored properly in data stores, which will help in retrieval of information as well as its storage. 2.-ccuracyK" $he level of accuracy in the proposed system will be higher. -ll operation would be done correctly and it ensures that whatever information is coming from the center is accurate. 3.HeliabilityK " $he reliability of the proposed system will be high due to the above stated reasons. $he reason for the increased reliability of the system is that now there would be proper storage of information. 3. No HedundancyK" +n the proposed system utmost care would be that no information is repeated anywhere, in storage or otherwise. $his would assure economic use of storage space and consistency in the data stored. 5. +mmediate retrieval of informationK" $he main ob*ective of proposed system is to provide for a 0uic# and efficient retrieval of information. -ny type of information would be available whenever the user re0uires. 9. +mmediate storage of informationK" +n manual system there are many problems to store the largest amount of information.

62N6@IS+2NK Medinous (ospital Manage ent Syste is powerful, fle,ible, easy to use and is designed and developed to deliver real

conceivable benefits to hospitals and clinics. -nd more importantly it is bac#ed by reliable and dependable =ediNous support. $his (ospital Manage ent Syste
is designed for multispeciality hospitals, to cover a wide range of hospital

administration and management processes.It is an integrated end-to-end Hospital Management System that provides relevant information across the hospital to support effective decision making for patient care, hospital administration and critical financial accounting, in a seamless flow. MediNous is a flagship product of Nous Infosystems. The company egan operations in !""" with the mission to provide cost effective software solutions to its customers. Since then, Nous has come a long way in esta lishing itself as a preferred vendor for a worldwide clientele, y providing high #uality usiness solutions and services. Initially, Nous had started with offshore pro$ects from a %""& '(port oriented unit )'*+, registered with ST-I in .angalore. In a short span of time, Nous has set up set up offices in +S/, +0, 1ermany and /ustralia. Nous has also partnered with a company in 2u ai, to cater to the Middle 'ast market. The primary focus of the company is now eing directed to ecommerce, offshore pro$ects, anking and healthcare sectors in addition to the software consulting usiness in the +S/, +0, 1ermany, Middle 'ast and the emerging markets of /ustralia3/sia--acific

=entisSoft Solutions Pvt @td is the worldwide distributor for =ediNous and ta#es care of its business related activities. $he Nous team is motivated, #nowledgeable and posses a high degree of business acumen. $hese are the recipes that have formulated Nous into an innovative and #nowledgeable company. $horough professionals, with authority in the technologies they handle, the members of our team have immense e,perience and training bac#ing them to meet client4s demands. $he team at Nous is adept at delivering results under tight schedules and constraints of time. &ith a view to #eeping abreast of the rapid changes in information technology, Nous is committed to deliver 0uality solutions to the varying information technology demands. &e have invested in a state"of"the"art development center to cater to the growing demand for world class +$ solutions. +n this development center we are developing pac#aged software solutions and customi%ed software solutions for our esteemed clients.

=iddle =anagement members must be able to plan, organi%e, control and lead departments and sections with a focus on assistance upwards for application of scientific methods and assistance downwards for application of scientific methods. $hey must have the same capabilities as Senior =anagers as well as Supervisory =anagers and also be good at interviewing techni0ues, goal achievement, conflict handling tactics and pro*ect management. Supervisory =anagement members must also be able to plan, organi%e, control and lead sections, units and individuals with a focus on operations, finance, people, information and time.

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@ac# of =anagement s#ills in employer or employees at every hierarchy level of the hospital or healthcare facility can be detrimental. @ac# of =anagement s#ills can lead to poor performance, lac# of improvement, low profit, decisions ma#ing, disheartening of employees, lower productivity, and *eopardi%e your organi%ation. $herefore8 it is obligatory that hospital managers should have the updated and cotemporary #nowledge of =anagement. +n below sections, you will read more about hospital management, that how to manage hospitals or any healthcare facility in order to achieve the intended ob*ectives to meet the organi%ational goals.

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