You are on page 1of 15

Back to home page click here

A SHORT GUIDE TO THE AMERICAN POLITICAL SYSTEM


Contents Introduction The Constitution The Presidency Presidential Primaries The House Of Representatives The Senate The Supreme Court Political Parties and Elections The ederal System Recent Trends ! "ivided "emocracy !merican E#ceptionalism Conclusion

INTRODUCTION The $nited States is the most po%erful nation on earth& politically& economically and militarily& 'ut its political system is in many important respects unlike any other in the %orld( This essay then %as %ritten originally to inform non)!mericans as to ho% the !merican political system %orks( *hat has 'een striking& ho%ever& is ho% many !mericans ) especially young !mericans ) have found the essay useful and insightful( There is considera'le evidence that many !mericans kno% and understand little a'out the political system of their o%n country ) possi'ly more than is the case %ith any other developed democratic nation( In the $(S(& the +ational !ssessment of Educational Progress ,+!EP- tests %hat !merican students are learning( It has found that the t%o %orst su'.ects for !merican students are civics and !merican history( One +!EP survey found that only /0 of eighth graders ,children aged 12)13- could descri'e the three 'ranches of government( On a recent trip to the $nited States& I %as eating cereal for 'reakfast and found that the %hole of the reverse side of the cereal packet %as devoted to a short e#planation of the e#ecutive& legislative and .udicial 'ranches of the !merican government( I find it hard to imagine that many democratic nations %ould feel it necessary to e#plain such a su'.ect in such a format( So I hope that this e#planation helps ((( THE CONSTITUTION

$nlike Britain 'ut like most nation states& the !merican political system is clearly defined 'y 'asic documents( The "eclaration of Independence of 1//4 and the Constitution of 1/56 form the foundations of the $nited States federal government( The "eclaration of Independence esta'lishes the $nited States as an independent political entity& %hile the Constitution creates the 'asic structure of the federal government( Both documents are on display in the +ational !rchives and Records !dministration Building in *ashington& "(C( %hich I have visited several times( The $nited States Constitution is the shortest %ritten constitution in the %orld %ith .ust seven articles and 7/ amendments( !s %ell as its 'revity& the $S Constitution is nota'le for 'eing a remarka'ly sta'le document( The first ten amendments %ere all carried in 1/56 ) the same year as the original constitution ) and are collectively kno%n as the Bill of Rights( If one accepts that these first 18 amendments %ere in effect part of the original constitutional settlement& there have only 'een 1/ amendments in over 788 years ,the last su'stantive one ) reduction of the voting age to 15 ) in 16/1-( One of the ma.or reasons for this relative immuta'ility is that ) 9uite deli'erately on the part of its drafters ) the Constitution is a very difficult instrument to change( irst& a proposed amendment has to secure a t%o)thirds vote of mem'ers present in 'oth houses of Congress( Then three)9uarters of the state legislatures have to ratifiy the proposed change ,this stage may or may not 'e governed 'y a specific time limit-( !t the heart of the $S Constitution is the principle kno%n as :separation of po%ers:& a term coined 'y the rench political& enlightenment thinker ;ontes9uieu( This means that po%er is spread 'et%een three institutions of the state ) the e#ecutive& the legislature and the .udiciary ) and no one institution has too much po%er and no individual can 'e a mem'er of more than one institution( This principle is also kno%n as :checks and 'alances:& since each of the three 'ranches of the state has some authority to act on its o%n& some authority to regulate the other t%o 'ranches& and has some of its o%n authority& in turn& regulated 'y the other 'ranches( +ot only is po%er spread 'et%een the different 'ranches< the mem'ers of those 'ranches are deli'erately granted 'y the Constitution different terms of office %hich is a further 'rake on rapid political change( So the President has a term of four years& %hile mem'ers of the Senate serve for si# years and mem'ers of the House of Representatives serve for t%o years( ;em'ers of the Supreme Court effectively serve for life( The great 'enefit of this system is that po%er is spread and counter)'alanced and the :founding fathers: ) the == delegates %ho drafted the Constitution ) clearly %ished to create a political system %hich %as in sharp contrast to& and much more democratic than& the monarchical system then in force in Britain( The great %eakness of the system is that it makes government slo%& complicated and legalistic %hich is a particular disadvantage in a %orld ) unlike that of 1//4 ) in %hich political and economic developments are fast)moving and the $S! is a ) indeed the ) super po%er( Since the Constitution is so old and so difficult to change& for it to 'e meaningful to contemporary society it re9uires interpretation 'y the courts and ultimately it is the Supreme Court %hich determines %hat the Constitution means( There are very different approaches to

the interpretation of the Constitution %ith the t%o main strands of thought 'eing kno%n as originalism and the Living Constitution( Originalism is a principle of interpretation that tries to discover the original meaning or intent of the constitution( It is 'ased on the principle that the .udiciary is not supposed to create& amend or repeal la%s ,%hich is the realm of the legislative 'ranch- 'ut only to uphold them( This approach tends to 'e supported 'y conservatives( >iving Constitution is a concept %hich claims that the Constitution has a dynamic meaning and that contemporary society should 'e taken into account %hen interpreting key constitutional phrases( Instead of seeking to divine the vie%s of the drafters of the document& it claims that they deli'erately %rote the Constitution in 'road terms so that it %ould remain fle#i'le( This approach tends to 'e supported 'y li'erals( >inks? ull te#t of the $S Constitution click here @uide to the $S Constitution click here Constitution "ay in the $nited States click here THE PRESIDENCY !lthough the :founding fathers: %anted to avoid a political system that in any %ay reflected the monarchical system then prevalent in Britain and for a long time the Presidency %as relatively %eak& the vast e#pansion of the federal 'ureaucracy and the military in the 78th century has in current practice given a greater role and more po%er to the President than is the case for any single individual in most political systems( The President is 'oth the head of state and the head of government& as %ell as the military commander)in)chief and chief diplomat( He presides over the e#ecutive 'ranch of the federal government& a vast organisation num'ering a'out 3 million people& including 1 million active) duty military personnel( *ithin the e#ecutive 'ranch& the President has 'road constitutional po%ers to manage national affairs and the %orkings of the federal government and he may issue e#ecutive orders to affect internal policies( The President may sign or veto legislation passed 'y Congress and has the po%er to recommend measures to Congress( The Congress may override a presidential veto 'ut only 'y a t%o)thirds ma.ority in each house( The President has the po%er to make treaties ,%ith the :advice and consent: of the Senate- and the po%er to nominate and receive am'assadors( The President may not dissolve Congress or call special elections& 'ut does have the po%er to pardon criminals convicted of offences against the federal government& enact e#ecutive orders& and ,%ith the consent of the Senateappoint Supreme Court .ustices and federal .udges( The President is elected for a fi#ed term of four years and may serve a ma#imum of t%o terms( Originally there %as no constitutional limit on the num'er of terms that a President could serve in office and the first President @eorge *ashington set the precedent of serving simply t%o terms( ollo%ing the election of ranklin " Roosevelt to a record four terms& it %as decided to limit terms to t%o and the relevant constitutional amendment %as enacted in 16=1(

Elections are al%ays held on the first Tuesday after the first ;onday in +ovem'er to coincide %ith Congressional elections( The President is not elected directly 'y the voters 'ut 'y an Electoral College representing each state on the 'asis of a com'ination of the num'er of mem'ers in the Senate ,t%o for each state regardless of siAe- and the num'er of mem'ers in the House of Representatives ,roughly proportional to population-( The states %ith the largest num'er of votes are California ,==-& Te#as ,25- and +e% Bork ,76-( The states %ith the smallest num'er of votes ) there are si# of them ) have only three votes( The "istrict of Colum'ia& %hich has no voting representation in Congress& has three Electoral College votes( In effect& therefore& the Presidential election is not one election 'ut =1( The total Electoral College vote is =25( This means that& to 'ecome President& a candidate has to %in at least 7/8 electoral votes( The voting system a%ards the Electoral College votes from each state to delegates committed to vote for a certain candidate in a C%inner take allC system& %ith the e#ception of ;aine and +e'raska ,%hich a%ard their Electoral College votes according to Congressional "istricts rather than for the state as a %hole-( In practice& most states are firmly "emocrat ) for instance& California and +e% Bork ) or firmly Repu'lican ) for instance& Te#as and Tennessee( Therefore& candidates concentrate their appearances and resources on the so)called C'attleground statesC& those that might go to either party( The three largest 'attleground or s%ing states are lorida ,76 votes-& Pennsylvania ,78- and Ohio ,15-( Others are Dirginia ,12-& *isconsin ,18-& Colorado ,6-& Io%a ,4- and +evada ,4-( This system of election means that a candidate can %in the largest num'er of votes nation%ide 'ut fail to %in the largest num'er of votes in the Electoral College and therefore fail to 'ecome President( Indeed& in practice& this has happened three times in $S history& most recently in 7888( If this seems strange ,at least to non)!mericans-& the e#planation is that the :founding fathers: %ho drafted the !merican Constitution did not %ish to give too much po%er to the people and so devised a system that gives the ultimate po%er of electing the President to mem'ers of the Electoral College( The same Constitution& ho%ever& ena'les each state to determine ho% its mem'ers in the Electoral College are chosen and since the 1578s states have chosen their electors 'y a direct vote of the people( The $nited States is the only e#ample in the %orld of an indirectly elected e#ecutive president( The President may 'e impeached 'y a ma.ority in the House and removed from office 'y a t%o)thirds ma.ority in the Senate for Ctreason& 'ri'ery& or other high crimes and misdemeanorsC( Since 1626& there has 'een an E#ecutive Office of the President ,EOP- %hich has consistently and considera'ly e#panded in siAe and po%er( Today it consists of some 1&488 staff and costs some E288; a year( The position of Dice)President is elected on the same ticket as that of the President and has the same four)year term of office( The Dice)President is often descri'ed as :a heart 'eat a%ay from the Presidency: since& in the event of the death or incapacity of the President& the Dice) President assumes the office( In practice& ho%ever& a Dice)Presidential candidate is chosen ,'y the Presidential candidate- to :'alance the ticket: in the Presidential election ,that is& represent a different geographical or gender or ethnic constituency- and& for all practical purposes& the position only carries the po%er accorded to it 'y the President ) %hich is usually very little ,a ma.or e#ception has 'een "ick Cheney under @eorge * Bush-( The official duties of the

Dice)President are to sit as a mem'er of the CCa'inetC and as a mem'er of the +ational Security Council and to act as e#)officio President of the Senate( !lthough the President heads the e#ecutive 'ranch of government& the day)to)day enforcement and administration of federal la%s is in the hands of the various federal e#ecutive departments& created 'y Congress to deal %ith specific areas of national and international affairs( The heads of the 1= departments& chosen 'y the President and approved %ith the :advice and consent: of the Senate& form a council of advisors generally kno%n as the President:s CCa'inetC( This is not a ca'inet in the British political sense? it does not meet so often and does not act so collectively( In fact& the President has po%ers of patronage that e#tend %ay 'eyond appointment of Ca'inet mem'ers( In all& the President appoints roughly 2&888 individuals to positions in the federal government& of %hich a'out a third re9uire the confirmation of the Senate( !s the divisions in !merican politics have deepened& so the confirmation process has 'ecome more fractious and prolonged ) %hen first elected& Barack O'ama had to %ait ten months 'efore all his nominees %ere in their .o's( The first $nited States President %as @eorge *ashington& %ho served from 1/56)1/6/& so that the current President Barack O'ama is the 33th to hold the office( our sitting Presidents have 'een assassinated? !'raham >incoln in 154=& Fames !( @arfield in 1551& *illiam ;cGinley in 1681& and Fohn ( Gennedy in 1642( The President is sometimes referred to as POT$S ,President Of The $nited States- and the Presidency is often referred to 'y the media as variously the *hite House& the *est *ing& and the Oval Office( Such is the respect for the Presidency that& even having left office& a President is referred to 'y the title for the remainder of his life( >inks? *hite House click here Current mem'ers of the ca'inet click here PRESIDENTIAL PRIMARIES !n important feature of the !merican political system is that the t%o ma.or parties ) the "emocrats and the Repu'licans ) hold a system of primaries to determine %ho %ill 'e their candidate in the general election( These primaries are particularly important %hen it comes to the four)yearly Presidential election( The key point to understand is that formally the "emocratic and Repu'lican Parties choose their Presidential candidate through a vote of delegates at a national convention and not directly through the various 'allots in the various primaries( Each party allocates delegates to each state& roughly proportionate to its siAe in num'ers of citiAens( There are t%o types of delegates( The normal delegates are those %ho are chosen 'y voters to 'ack a specific candidate( Technically these delegates are pledged to that candidate 'ut there are circumstances in %hich they can s%itch their support( Then there are %hat the "emocrats call super delegates and the Repu'licans call unpledged delegates %ho are nota'le

figures in the party such as former presidents& state governors and mem'ers of the t%o houses of Congress %ho are free to 'ack %hichever candidate they %ish( They can do this any time they like( They can also change their mind 'efore the convention( or the 7885 convention& the "emocrats had a total of 3&836 delegates including super delegates and so& to %in the nomination& the "emocratic front runner needed a total of 7&87= delegates( or the 7817 convention& the Repu'licans had a total of 7&774 delegates including unpledged delegates and so& to %in the nomination& the Repu'lican front runner needed a total of 1&113 delegates( Ho% the normal delegates are chosen is a matter for each party in each of the =8 states( Some hold caucuses %hich re9uire voters to turn up to discussions on the merits of the contending candidates( ;ost hold conventional)style elections( In the case of the "emocrats in Te#as& there is 'oth a caucus and an election( !nother variation is that& in some cases& one can only take part in a caucus or election if one is registered for that political party 'ut& in other cases& anyone in the state ) including those registered for another party or none ) can vote( Ho% normal delegates are then allocated to the different candidates is also a matter for each party in each of the =8 states( In most of the Repu'lican contests ,'ut not all-& the candidate %ho %ins the most votes in that state:s primary %ins all the party:s delegates for that state ) a system kno%n as :%inner takes all:( In all the "emocrat contests& delegates are allocated roughly proportional to the vote secured 'y the candidate su'.ect to a minimum performance( The allocation process varies& 'ut typically it is 'ased on the performance of the candidate in particular Congressional districts( In practice& the parties have clearly decided on a candidate %ell 'efore the holding of the convention %hich 'ecomes more a coronation than a selection( Ho%ever& it is not unkno%n for a party to reach the convention %ith no clear choice( ! deadlocked convention happens %hen no candidate arrives %ith a ma.ority of votes( ! second 'allot takes place and delegates are then free to vote for %homever they %ant( This could include the other candidates or even people %ho are not candidates( "elegates keep on voting until someone %ins a ma.ority( The most famous deadlocked convention ) it involved the "emocrats ) took place in 1673( It re9uired 182 'allots to chose the "emocratic candidate ) %ho then lost to the Repu'lican candidate in the general election( THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES The House of Representatives is the lo%er cham'er in the 'icameral legislature kno%n collectively as Congress( The founders of the $nited States intended the House to 'e the politically dominant entity in the federal system and& in the late 15th and early 16th centuries& the House served as the primary forum for political de'ate( Ho%ever& su'se9uently the Senate has 'een the dominant 'ody( The House consists of 32= mem'ers& each of %hom represents a congressional district and serves for a t%o)year term( House seats are apportioned among the states 'y population according to each decennial census( Typically a House constituency %ould represent around =88&888 people(

;em'ers of the House are elected 'y first)past)the)post voting in every state e#cept >ouisiana and *ashington& %hich have run)offs( Elections are al%ays held on the first Tuesday after the first ;onday in +ovem'er in even num'ered years( Doting in congressional elections ) especially to the House ) is generally much lo%er than levels in other li'eral democracies( In a year %hen there is a Presidential election& turnout is typically around =80< in years %hen there is no Presidential election ,kno%n as mid)terms-& it usually falls to around one third of the electorate( In the event that a mem'er of the House of Representatives dies or resigns 'efore the end of the t%o)year term& a special election is held to fill the vacancy( The House has four non)voting delegates from !merican Samoa ,1651-& the "istrict of Colum'ia ,16/1-& @uam ,16/7- and the Dirgin Islands ,16/4- and one resident commissioner for Puerto Rico ,16/4-& 'ringing the total formal mem'ership to 338( ;uch of the %ork of the House is done through 78 standing committees and around 188 su') committees %hich perform 'oth legislative and investigatory functions( Each cham'er of Congress has particular e#clusive po%ers( The House must introduce any 'ills for the purpose of raising revenue( Ho%ever& the consent of 'oth cham'ers is re9uired to make any la%( !ctivity in the House of Representatives tends to 'e more partisan than in the Senate( The House and Senate are often referred to 'y the media as Capitol Hill or simply the Hill( >ink? House of Representatives click here THE SENATE The Senate is the upper cham'er in the 'icameral legislature kno%n collectively as Congress( The original intention of the authors of the $S Constitution %as that the Senate should 'e a regulatory group& less politically dominant than the House( Ho%ever& since the mid 16th century& the Senate has 'een the dominant cham'er and indeed today it is perhaps the most po%erful upper house of any legislative 'ody in the %orld( The Senate consists of 188 mem'ers& each of %hom represents a state and serves for a si#) year term ,one third of the Senate stands for election every t%o years-( Each state has t%o Senators& regardless of population& and& since there are =8 states& then there are 188 senators( This e9uality of Senate seats 'et%een states has the effect of producing huge variations in constituency population ,the t%o senators from *yoming represent less than half a million electors& %hile the t%o senators from California represent 23; people- %ith gross over)representation of the smaller states and serious under)representation of racial and ethnic minorities( ;em'ers of the Senate are elected 'y first)past)the)post voting in every state e#cept >ouisiana and *ashington& %hich have run)offs( Elections are al%ays held on the first Tuesday after the first ;onday in +ovem'er in even num'ered years(

In the event that a mem'er of the Senate dies or resigns 'efore the end of the si#)year term& no special election is held to fill the vacancy( Instead the @overnor of the state that the Senator represented nominates someone to serve until the ne#t set of Congressional elections %hen a normal election is held to fill the vacancy( ;uch of the %ork of the Senate is done through 14 standing committees and over 38 su') committees %hich perform 'oth legislative and investigatory functions( Each cham'er of Congress has particular e#clusive po%ers( The Senate must give :advice and consent: to many important Presidential appointments( Ho%ever& the consent of 'oth cham'ers is re9uired to make any la%( !ctivity in the Senate tends to 'e less partisan and more individualistic than in the House of Representatives( Senate rules permit %hat is called a fili'uster %hen a senator& or a series of senators& can speak for as long as they %ish and on any topic they choose& unless a superma.ority of three)fifths of the Senate ,48 Senators& if all 188 seats are filled- 'rings de'ate to a close 'y invoking %hat is called cloture ,taken from the rench term for closure-( The Senate and House are often referred to 'y the media as Capitol Hill or simply the Hill( >ink? Senate click here THE SUPREME COURT The Supreme Court consists of nine Fustices? the Chief Fustice of the $nited States and eight !ssociate Fustices( They have e9ual %eight %hen voting on a case and the Chief Fustice has no casting vote or po%er to instruct colleagues( The Fustices are nominated 'y the President and confirmed %ith the :advice and consent: of the Senate( !s federal .udges& the Fustices serve during Cgood 'ehaviorC& meaning essentially that they serve for life and can 'e removed only 'y resignation or 'y impeachment and su'se9uent conviction( The Supreme Court is the highest court in the $nited States( The court deals %ith matters pertaining to the federal government& disputes 'et%een states& and interpretation of the Constitution( It can declare legislation or e#ecutive action made at any level of the government as unconstitutional& nullifying the la% and creating precedent for future la% and decisions( The Supreme Court in practice has a much more :political: role than the highest courts of European democracies( or e#ample& the scope of a'ortion in the $S! is effectively set 'y the Supreme Court %hereas& in other countries& it %ould 'e set 'y legislation( Indeed in 7888& it made the most political decision imagina'le 'y determining ) 'y seven votes to t%o ) the outcome of that year:s presidential election( It decided that @eorge * Bush had 'eaten !l @ore& although @ore %on the most votes overall( ! recent and momentous instance of this e#ercise of political po%er %as the Supreme Court decision in the case of the challenge to Barack O'ama:s signature piece of legislation& the Patient Protection and !fforda'le Care !ct& often du''ed O'amacare( +o less than 74 states challenged the legality of these health reforms under a clause in the constitution governing

interstate commerce( In the end& the Court ruled 'y five to four that& %hile the individual mandate provision in the !ct is not itself a ta#& the penalties imposed for not 'uying health insurance do represent ta#es and therefore the entire re9uirement falls %ithin the remit of Congress:s right to impose ta#es( @iven ho% difficult it is to change the $S Constitution through the formal method& one has seen informal changes to the Constitution through various decisions of the Supreme Court %hich have given specific meanings to some of the general phases in the Constitution( It is one of the many ironies of the !merican political system that an unelected and unaccounta'le 'ody like the Supreme Court can in practice e#ercise so much political po%er in a system %hich proclaims itself as so democractic( Since the Supreme Court makes so many :political: decisions and its mem'ers are appointed so rarely and then for life& the appointment of Fustices 'y the President is often a very charged and controversial matter( Belo% the Supreme Court& there is a system of Courts of !ppeal& and& 'elo% these courts& there are "istrict Courts( Together& these three levels of courts represent the federal .udicial system( ! special feature of the !merican political system in respect of the .udiciary is that& although federal .udges are appointed& nation%ide 5/0 of all state court .udges are elected and 26 states elect at least some of their .udges( Outside of the $nited States& there are only t%o nations that have .udicial elections and then only in limited fashion( Smaller S%iss cantons elect .udges and appointed .ustices on the Fapanese Supreme Court must sometimes face retention elections ,although those elections are a formality-( >ink? Supreme Court click here POLITICAL PARTIES & ELECTIONS To an e#tent 9uite e#traordinary in democratic countries& the !merican political system is dominated 'y t%o political parties? the "emocratic Party and the Repu'lican Party ,often kno%n as the :@rand Old Party: or @OP-( These are very old and very sta'le parties ) the "emocrats go 'ack to 1573 and the Repu'licans %ere founded in 15=3( In illustrations and promotional material& the "emocratic Party is often represented as a donkey& %hile the Repu'lican Party is featured as an elephant( The origin of these sym'ols is the political cartoonist Thomas +ast %ho came up %ith them in 15/8 and 15/3 respectively( The main reason for the dominance of these t%o parties is that ) like most other !nglo)Sa#on countries ,nota'ly Britain- ) the electoral system is :first past the post: or simple ma.ority %hich& com'ined %ith the large voter siAe of the constituencies in the House and ,even morethe Senate& ensures that effectively only t%o parties can play( The other key factor is the huge influence of money in the !merican electoral system( Since effectively a candidate can spend any amount he can raise ,not allo%ed in many other countries- and since one can 'uy 'roadcasting time ,again not allo%ed in many countries-& the $S can only :afford: t%o parties or& to put it another %ay& candidates of any other party face a formida'le financial 'arrier to entry(

Some people tend to vie% the division 'et%een the "emocratic Party and the Repu'lican Party in the $nited States as the same as that 'et%een >a'our and Conservative in Britain or 'et%een Social "emocrats and Christian "emocrats in @ermany( The comparison is valid in the sense that& in each country& one political party is characterised as Centre)>eft and the other as Centre)Right or& to put it another %ay& one party is more economically interventionist and socially radical than the other( Ho%ever& the analogy has many %eaknesses( 1( The Centre in !merican politics is considera'ly to the Right of the Centre in most European states including Britain& @ermany& rance& Italy and ,even more especiallythe Scandinavian countries( So& for instance& most mem'ers of the Conservative Party in the $G %ould support a national health service& %hereas many mem'ers of the "emocratic Party in the $S %ould not( 7( !s a conse9uence of the enormous geographical siAe of the $nited States and the different histories of the different states ,e#emplified 'y the Civil *ar-& geography is a factor in ideological positioning to a much greater e#tent than in other democratic countries( or instance& a +orthern Repu'lican could 'e more li'eral than a Southern "emocract( Conversely there is a group of "emocratic Congressmen that are fiscally very conservative ) they are kno%n as C'lue dogC "emocrats or even "I+O ,"emocrats In +ame Only-( 2( In the $nited States& divisions over social matters ) such as a'ortion& capital punishment& same)se# relationships and stem cell research ) matter and follo% party lines in a %ay %hich is not true of most European countries( In Britain& for instance& these sort of issues %ould 'e regarded as matters of personal conscience and %ould not feature prominently in election de'ates 'et%een candidates and parties( 3( In the $S!& religion is a factor in politics in a %ay uni9ue in %estern democracies( Candidates openly proclaim their faith in a manner %hich %ould 'e regarded as 'iAarre els%here ,even in a Catholic country like rance- and religious groupings ) such as the Christian Coalition of !merica Hclick hereI ) e#ert a significiant political influence in a manner %hich %ould 'e regarded as improper in most European countries ,Poland is an e#ception here-( =( In the $nited States& the :%hipping system: ) that is the instructions to mem'ers of the House and the Senate on ho% to vote ) is not as strict or effective as it is in most European countries( !s a conse9uence& mem'ers of Congress are less constrained 'y party affiliation and freer to act individually( 4( In the $S!& political parties are much %eaker institutions than they are in other democracies( Bet%een the selection of candidates& they are less active than their counterparts in other countries and& during elections& they are less influential in campaigning& %ith individual politicians and their campaigns having much more influence( /( The cost of elections is much greater in the $S than in other democracies %hich has the effects of limiting the range of candidates& increasing the influence of corporate interests and pressure groups& and enhancing the position of the incum'ent office holder ,especially in the %inning of primaries-( !s long ago as 156=& the Chairman of the Repu'lican +ational Committee ;ark Hanna stated? "There are two things that are important in politics. The first is money, and I can't remember what the second one is." 5( *hereas in other countries& voters shape the policies and select the candidates of a party 'y .oining it& in the $S! voters register as a supporter of one of the ma.or parties and then vote in primary elections to determine %ho should 'e the party:s candidate in the :real: election(

One other oddity of the !merican party system is that& %hereas in most countries of the %orld the colour red is associated %ith the >eft)%ing party and the colour 'lue %ith the Right)%ing party& in the $nited States the reverse is the case( So the :'lue states: are those traditionally %on 'y the "emocrats& %hile the :red states: are those normally controlled 'y the Repu'licans( T%o interesting features of !merican political elections are lo% turnout and the importance of incum'ency( Traditionally turnout in $S congressional elections is much lo%er than in other li'eral democracies especially those of *estern Europe( *hen there is a presidential election& turnout is only a'out half< %hen there is no presidential election& turnout is merely a'out one third( The e#ception %as the elections of 7885? the e#citement of the candidacy of Barack O'ama led to an unusually high turnout of 420& the highest since 1648 ,the election of Fohn Gennedy-( *hile Congress as an institution is held in popular contempt& voters like their mem'er of Congress and indeed there is a phenomenon kno%n as :sophomore surge: %here'y incum'ents tend to increase their share of the vote %hen they seek re)election( ;ore generally most incum'ents %in re)election for several reasons? they allocate time and resources to %aging a permanent re)election campaign< they can %in CearmarksC %hich are appropriations of government spending for pro.ects in the constituency< and they find it easier than challengers to raise money for election campaigns( >inks? The "emocratic Party click here The Repu'lican Party click here THE FEDERAL SYSTEM $nderstanding the federal nature of the $nited States is critical to appreciating the comple#ities of the !merican political system( ;ost political systems are created top)do%n( ! national system of government is constructed and a certain amount of po%er is released to lo%er levels of government( The uni9ue history of the $nited States means that& in this case& the political system %as created 'ottom)up( irst& some t%o centuries or so ago& there %ere %ere 12 autonomous states %ho& follo%ing the *ar of Independence against the British& created a system of government in %hich the various states some%hat reluctantly ceded po%er to the federal government( !round a century later& the respective authority of the federal government and the individual states %as an issue at the heart of the Civil *ar %hen there %as a 'loody conflict over %ho had the right to determine %hether slavery %as or %as not permissa'le( *ith the e#ception of S%itAerland& no other *estern democracy diffuses po%er to the same degree as !merica( So today the po%ers of the federal government remain strictly limited 'y the Constitution ) the critical Tenth !mendment of 1/61 ) %hich leaves a great deal of authority to the individual states( Each state has an e#ecutive& a legislature and a .udiciary(

The head of the e#ecutive is the @overnor %ho is directly elected( The legislature consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives ,the e#ception is the state of +e'raska %hich has a unicameral system-( The .udiciary consists of a state system of courts( The =8 states are divided into counties ,parishes in >ouisiana and 'oroughs in !laska-( Each county has its court( !lthought the Constitution prescri'es precisely %hen Presidential and Congressional elections %ill 'e held& the dates and times of state and local elections are determined 'y state governments( Therefore there is a plethora of elections in the $nited States and& at almost all times& an election is 'eing held some%here in the country( State and local elections& like federal elections& use the :first past the post: system of election( The de'ate a'out federalism in the $S is far from over( There are those %ho argue for a stronger role for the federal government and there are advocates of locating more po%er at the state level( The recent rise of the electorally)successful Tea Party movement o%es a good deal to the vie% that the federal government has 'ecome too dominant& too intrusive and too profligate( ;ean%hile many states ) especially those %est of the Rockies ) have %hat has 'een called Cthe fourth arm of governmentC? this is the 'allot or referendum initiative( This ena'les a policy 9uestion to 'e put to the electorate as a result of the collection of a certain num'er of signatures or the decison of the state legislation( Over the last century& some 2&888 such initiatives have 'een conducted ) in some cases ,such as California- %ith profound results( RECENT TRENDS In all political systems& there is a disconnect 'et%een the formal arrangements& as set out in the constitution and relevant la%s& and the informal arrangements& as occurs in practice( !rgua'ly& in the $nited States this disconnect is sharper than in most other democratic systems 'ecause?

the $S Constitution is an old one ,late 15th century- %hereas most countries have had several constitutions %ith the current one typically 'eing a 78th century creation the $S Constitution is relatively immuta'le so it is very difficult to change the provisions to reflect the reforms that have come a'out over time from the pressure of events since the $S adopted its Constitution& the $S has 'ecome the pre)eminent %orld economic and political po%er %hich has 'rought a'out ma.or changes in ho% the Presidency operates& most especially in the international sphere

*hat this means is that& in the last century and most especially since the end of the Second *orld *ar& the reality of ho% the !merican political system operates has changed 9uite fundamentally in terms %hich are not al%ays evident from the terms of the Constitution ,and indeed some might argue are in some respects in contravention of the Constitution-( The main changes are as follo%s?

The 'alance of po%er 'et%een the Congress and the President has shifted significantly in favour of the President( This is evident in the domestic sphere through practices like :impoundment: ,%hen money is taken from the purpose intended 'y Congress and allocated to another purpose favoured 'y the President- and in the international sphere through refusal to invoke the *ar Po%ers Resolution in spite of ma.or military invasions( "ifferent terms for this accretion of po%er 'y the Presidency are Cthe unitary e#ecutiveC and Cthe imperial presidencyC( The impact of private funding of political campaigns and of lo''yists and special interest groups in political decision making have increased considera'ly( Candidates raise their o%n money for campaigns& there is effectively no limit on the money that can 'e spent in such campaigns ,thanks to %hat is called super Political !ction Committees-& and the levels of e#penditure ) especially in the presidential primaries and election proper ) have risen astronomically( In the presidential race of 7817& 'oth Barack O'ama and ;itt Romney spent over one 'illion dollars( !ll this has led to some o'servers descri'ing the !merican political system as a plutocracy& since it is effectively controlled 'y private finance from 'ig 'usinesses& %hich e#pect certain policies and practices to follo% from the candidates they are funding& and 'ig donors& %ho often e#pect preferment such as an am'assadorship from a candidate elected as President( There has 'een a gro%th of %hat is called Cpork 'arrelC politics through the use of CearmarksC( The term Cpork 'arrelC refers to the appropriation of government spending for pro.ects that are intended primarily to 'enefit particular constituents& such as those in marginal seats& or campaign contri'utors( Such appropriations are achieved through CearmarksC %hich can 'e found 'oth in legislation ,also called Chard earmarksC or ChardmarksC- and in the te#t of Congressional committee reports ,also called Csoft earmarksC or CsoftmarksC-( The nature of political de'ate in the $nited States has 'ecome markedly more partisan and 'itter( The personal lifestyle as %ell as the political record of a candidate might %ell 'e challenged and even the patriotism or religiosity of the candidate may 'e called into 9uestion( *hereas the politics of most European countries has 'ecome more consensual& $S domestic politics has 'ecome polarised and tri'al( !s a result& the political culture is often more concerned %ith satisfying the demands of the political :'ase: rather than attempting to achieve a national consensus(

A DIVIDED DEMOCRACY Of course& all nation states are divided& especially in terms of po%er and %ealth& 'ut also ) to different e#tents ) 'y gender& race& ethnicity& religion and other factors( Indeed the constitution and institutions of a democratic society are deli'erately intended to provide for the e#pression and resolution of such divisions( Ho%ever& it is often o'served that the $S! is an especially divided democracy in at least three respects? 1( It is divided horizontally through the :separation of po%ers:& so that the e#ecutive& the legislature and the .udiciary are 9uite distinct in terms of 'oth po%ers and personalties( 7( It is divided vertically through the federal system of government %ith the division of po%ers 'et%een the federal government and the state governments a very important issue that argua'ly %as once the su'.ect of a civil %ar( 2( It is divided politically through the sharp ,and often 'itter- differences of vie% on many economic issues like tackling the recession and reforming health care and social issues ranging from gun control to gay rights( Since 7886& such differences have 'een

highlighted 'y the presence of the first 'lack President in the *hite House and the rapid emergence of a Tea Party movement that is 'oth virulently anti)O'ama and anti) mainstream Repu'licanism( One of the most visi'le and dramatic illustrations of ho% the divisons in !merican politics frustrate decision)making is the regular failure to agree a federal 'udget 'efore the start of the ne% financial period( This results in %hat is kno%n as federal :shutdo%n: %hen most federal employees are sent home 'ecause they cannot 'e paid and many federal institutions therefore close do%n( This is not an isolated occurrence? it has happened 1/ times since 16// ,the last one %as in 166=)1664-( AMERICAN EXCEPTIONALISM Reading this short essay& it %ill 'e evident to many ,especially non)!merican- readers that the $nited States is different from other democracies( This o'servation has given rise to the notion of C!merican e#ceptionalismC( This is an ill)defined term %hich has 'een used differently at different times( One important version of C!merican e#ceptionalismC revolves around the lack of a clear ideological or class)'ased division 'et%een the t%o ma.or political parties( The $S! has never had a credi'le socialist or anti)capitalist party< 'oth the main parties are pro)capital and pro)'usiness and speak to the :middle class:( Other versions of the concept revolve around the alleged :superiority: of the $nited States 'ecause of its history& siAe& %ealth and glo'al dominance plus the :sophistication: of its constitution and po%er of its values such as individualism& innovation and entrepreneurship( In perhaps its most e#treme form& the concept has a religious dimension %ith the 'elief that @od has especially chosen or 'lessed the country( Of course& it is easy to vie% the !merican political system as e#ceptional in negative terms such as the unusual influence of race& religion and money as compared to other li'eral democracies( In truth& for all its special features& the !merican political system needs to 'e seen as one among many models of democracy %ith its o%n strenghs and %eaknesses that need to 'e assessed in comparison to those of other democracies( >ink? "iscussion of C!merican e#ceptionalismC click here CONCLUSION The de'ate a'out the effectiveness of the $S political system is a part of the %ider de'ate a'out %hether or not the $nited States is in relative decline on the %orld stage( In his 'ook CTime To Start Thinking? !merica !nd The Spectre Of "eclineC Hfor my revie% click hereI& Ed%ard >uce %rites? " ometimes it seems !mericans are engaged in some "ind of collusion in which voters pretend to elect their lawma"ers and lawma"ers pretend to govern. This, in some ways, is !merica's core problem# the more !merica postpones any coherent response to the onset of relative decline, the more difficult the politics are li"ely to get." ROGER DARLINGTON

>ast modified on 78 Fuly 7812 If you %ould like to comment on this essay e)mail me If you %ould like me to speak on this su'.ect contact me or a comparison of the !merican and British political systems click here or guides to the political systems of other nations click here Back to home page click here

You might also like