Professional Documents
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Module Notes
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Hydraulics..................................................................................................................7
SI Units...................................................................................................................8
Mass and Weight...................................................................................................9
Dimensions.............................................................................................................9
Linear, constant acceleration.................................................................................9
Dimensional Homogeneity...................................................................................10
Pressure...............................................................................................................10
Frictional Shear Stress.........................................................................................10
Properties of Fluids..............................................................................................11
Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity [GK mu]........................................................11
Kinematic Viscosity [GK nu]..............................................................................11
Fluid Flow.............................................................................................................11
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics...............................................................................12
The Laws of Hydrostatics.....................................................................................12
Pressure Measurement........................................................................................13
Absolute and Gauge Pressure.........................................................................13
Pressure Head..................................................................................................13
The Mercury Barometer...................................................................................13
The Aneroid Barometer....................................................................................14
The Deadweight Piston Gauge........................................................................14
The Bourdon Gauge.........................................................................................14
Pressure Transducers......................................................................................14
The Piezometer Tube.......................................................................................14
The U-tube Manometer....................................................................................15
The Differential Manometer..............................................................................15
Worked Examples Pressure Measurement......................................................16
Tutorial Questions Pressure Measurement......................................................19
Stability and Buoyancy of Floating Bodies...........................................................20
Archimedes Principle........................................................................................20
Determination of Metacentric Height, MG........................................................21
Worked Examples - Buoyancy.............................................................................22
Tutorial Questions - Buoyancy.............................................................................23
Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Surfaces.......................................................24
Moment of a Force, Rotation and Equilibrium.....................................................25
Worked Examples Hydrostatic Forces..............................................................26
Tutorial Questions Hydrostatic Forces..............................................................29
Hydrodynamics Fluids in Motion...........................................................................30
Types of Flow.......................................................................................................30
Determination of Laminar/Turbulent Flow Reynolds Number, Re....................30
Analysis of Fluid Flow..........................................................................................31
Worked Examples - Continuity.............................................................................32
Tutorial Questions Continuity ...........................................................................32
Work, Energy and Efficiency...................................................................................33
Water Energy.......................................................................................................33
Gravitational or Potential Energy.........................................................................33
Energy Head........................................................................................................34
Prepared: June 2007
Page 2 of 80
Page 3 of 80
Page 4 of 80
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 : Fluid Flow................................................................................................11
Figure 2 : Pressure Variation
with Depth................................................................................................................12
Figure 3 : Pressure in Connected Fluids.................................................................12
Figure 4 : Gauge Pressure Scale............................................................................13
Figure 5 : Mercury Barometer..................................................................................13
Figure 6 : Aneroid Barometer..................................................................................14
Figure 7 : Deadweight Piston Gauge.......................................................................14
Figure 8 : Bourdon Gauge.......................................................................................14
Figure 9 : Pressure Transducer...............................................................................14
Figure 10 : (a) Piezometer (b) Manometer with Secondary Gauge Fluid..............15
Figure 11 : Differential Manometer..........................................................................15
Figure 12 : Worked P.M. Example 1........................................................................16
Figure 13 : Solution for P.M. Example 1..................................................................16
Figure 14 : Worked P.M. Example 2........................................................................17
Figure 15 : Worked P.M. Example 3........................................................................18
Figure 16 : P.M. Tutorial Questions Figures............................................................19
Figure 17 : Buoyancy Force....................................................................................20
Figure 18 : Equilibrium Conditions...........................................................................21
Figure 19 : Hydrostatic Force on Submerged Surface............................................24
Figure 20 : Moment of Force...................................................................................25
Figure 21 : Worked Example H.F. 1........................................................................26
Figure 22 : Worked Example H.F. 2........................................................................27
Figure 23 : Worked Example H.F. 3........................................................................27
Figure 24 : Worked Example H.F. 3 Solution..........................................................28
Figure 25 : Worked Example H.F. 3 Solution (Moments)........................................28
Figure 26 : H.F. Tutorial Questions ........................................................................29
Figure 27 : Flow Continuity......................................................................................31
Figure 28 : Worked Examples Continuity................................................................32
Figure 29 : Work - Directed Force...........................................................................33
Figure 30 : Pressure Energy....................................................................................34
Figure 31 : Bernoulli Energy Diagram.....................................................................35
Figure 32 : Worked Examples E. 1..........................................................................36
Figure 33 : Worked Examples E. 2..........................................................................37
Figure 34 : Jet Impact on Stationary Flat Plate.......................................................39
Figure 35 : Jet Impact on a Stationary Curved Vane..............................................39
Figure 36 : Forces on a Pipe Bend..........................................................................40
Figure 37 : Forces on a Pipe Contraction................................................................40
Figure 38 : Worked Examples M. 1.........................................................................41
Figure 39 : Worked Examples M. 2.........................................................................42
Figure 40 : Worked Examples D.E..........................................................................44
Figure 41 : Pipeline Design Table...........................................................................46
Figure 42 : Table of Minor Losses...........................................................................48
Figure 43 : Entry to a Pipe.......................................................................................49
Figure 44 : Sudden Increase in Pipe Diameter.......................................................49
Figure 45 : Sudden Decrease in Pipe Diameter......................................................50
Figure 46 : Bends, Elbows, and Tee Junctions.......................................................50
Figure 47 : Divergent Taper or Diffuser...................................................................51
Prepared: June 2007
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Page 6 of 80
Hydraulics
Hydraulics [from the Greek word for water] is the study of the problems of the flow
and storage of water, but is often applied to other liquids.
Fluid mechanics is the section of applied mechanics concerned with the statics and
dynamics of liquids and gases.
A fluid can offer no resistance to any force causing change of shape.
Change of shape is caused by shearing forces.
If a fluid is at rest there are no shear forces acting.
Fluids may be either liquids or gases.
A liquid is difficult to compress and occupies a fixed volume.
A gas is easily compressed and expands to fill any vessel.
Page 7 of 80
SI Units
The Systeme International has six basic units:
length
metre (m)
mass
kilogramme (kg)
time
second (s or sec)
electric current
ampere (A)
absolute temperature
kelvin (k)
luminous intensity
candela (cd)
Page 8 of 80
Dimensions
In mechanics all quantities can be expressed in terms of fundamental dimensions
mass
length
time
thus
therefore
dimensions of acceleration = L / T2
and
force = ML / T2
change in speed v u
=
change in time
t
1
2
( u + v)
or
v =u +at
(1)
s = 21 (u + v )t
(2)
s = ut + 21 at 2
(3)
Page 9 of 80
s = 21 (u + v ) ( v u) a
2as =v 2 u2
or
v 2 =u 2 +2as
(4)
Dimensional Homogeneity
If an equation is to represent something real then terms on both sides must have
the same dimensions so that like is compared with like.
e.g.
v = u + at
dimensions of v are
LT-1
dimensions of u are
LT-1
dimensions of at are
LT-2 x T = LT-1
Note that some practical formulae do not appear to be dimensionally correct. The
reason is that a coefficient may not be a pure number. E.g., g may be written as
9.81 but has the units LT-2.
Pressure
The weight of the block acting on an area A of the surface produces a pressure p
on that surface, where
Pressure
p=
Force W
=
Area
A
W
m2
Area A
p
shear stress
shear force F N
=
m2
area
A
Area A
F
Page 10 of 80
Properties of Fluids
MASS DENSITY
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
or
kg/m s
units m 2 /sec
Fluid Flow
As fluids flow along pipes or channels, the fluid particles
next to the boundary (pipe wall or channel bed) are held at
rest by friction. This generates internal shearing (friction)
forces between the layers of fluid as they slide over one
another. The viscosity of a fluid determines the rate at
which its particles can slide over one another under a given
shear stress.
Figure 1 : Fluid Flow
i.e.,
dv
=
dy
Page 11 of 80
W =m g =volume g =Ahg
hence
pA =ghA +p at A
i.e., p = gh + pat
Page 12 of 80
Pressure Measurement
Absolute and Gauge Pressure
Pressure Head
The standard unit of pressure is N/m 2. However, it follows directly from the
equation p = gh that p h for a given fluid. Thus, pressure p may be expressed
in terms of the height h of a column of fluid (density, ) required to produce that
pressure (regardless of how the pressure is, in fact, produced).
The unit of measurement is then metres (m) and the pressure is expressed in
terms of metres head of fluid. E.g., metres head of water or metres head of
mercury.
Page 13 of 80
Pressure Transducers
Fluid is admitted to the small chamber on one side of the
diaphragm. Changes in pressure result in changes in the
stress and consequently the electrical resistance of the
diaphragm. The resistance change is measured on a digital
voltmeter and calibrated with the pressure change.
Figure 9 : Pressure Transducer
N.B. The deadweight piston gauge, Bourdon gauge and pressure transducers
measure gauge pressure.
Page 14 of 80
Figure 10 :
(a) Piezometer
N.B. The piezometer is open to the atmosphere and measures gauge pressure.
This is true for all manometers.
Page 15 of 80
Solution:
(a) Draw a datum level X X through the lower
meniscus. The pressure at level X X will be the same in
both limbs of the U tube manometer. See Figure 13.
For the right-hand limb:
p X = m gh = 13600 9.81 h
p X = p Y + gx = p Y + 860 9.811.3
Solution:
Note that the right-hand meniscus is now lower than the left-hand meniscus. The
pressure at Y is sub-atmospheric, i.e. a negative gauge pressure
For the right-hand limb pX = 0 (atmospheric pressure)
For the left-hand limb
p X = p Y + gx + m gh = 30 10 3 +1100 9.81 0.7 +13600 9.81 h
Solution:
For the left-hand limb pX = pM + ga
For the right-hand limb pX = pN + g(a b h) + mgh
Equating the two expressions for pX
p M p N = m gh gh gb = g[ h ( m ) b]
35 10 3 = 9.81[ h (13600 1000) 1000 0.3]
h =0.307m
(A)
(B)
(C)
B1
= metacentre
The distance MG is called the metacentric height and this greatly affects the
stability of the body.
Stable Equilibrium
Neutral Equilibrium
Unstable Equilibrium
= metacentric radius
and MB
= MG + BG
MG
= MB BG
I
V
Solution:
Weight of tank = 2 340[ ( 2.4 1.4) + (1.4 0.8) + ( 2.4 0.8) ] = 4352 N
Mass
Weight
4352
=
= 0.433 m 3
g
1025 9.81
0.433
= 0.129m
2.4 1.4
y 0.129
= 0.065m above the base of the tank.
Centre of Buoyancy, B is =
2
2
0.8
= 0.4m above the base of the tank.
Centre of gravity, G is
2
Hence BG = 0.4 0.065 = 0.335m
Depth of immersion, y =
MB =
I
bd 3 1
d2
1.4 2
=
.
=
=
=1.267 m
V
12 bdy 12 y 12 0.129
Where A is the submerged area, h is the vertical distance from the water surface
to the centroid of the submerged area.
It is also useful to know where the resultant force acts in relation to the water
surface. The point at which the force acts is known as the centre of pressure.
This distance xp is measured parallel to the submerged surface and can be
determined from the general formula:
xp =
cg
Ax
+x
Where cg is the second moment of area about the centroid of the submerged area.
is the distance from the water surface to the centroid of the submerged area
measured parallel to the submerged surface.
x
x=
h
sin
Solution:
x=
1.2
+1.5 = 1.386 +1.5 = 2.886m
sin 60
60
1.2m
F =
g hA =1000 9.812.499 3 1.5
F =109.92 10 3 N =109.92 kN
xP = x +
x
xp
IG
bd
1
d
=x+
=x+
12 bd x
Ax
12 x
1.5m
a
CG
x P = 2.886 +
32
= 2.886 + 0.260 = 3.146m
12 2.886
CP
3.0m
Petrol
Solution:
F = g hA = g
h
bh = 12 gh 2 b
2
2.1m
FR
F1
F2
x1
xR
1.2m
Water
x2
IG
h bh 3
1
h h
= +
= + = 23 h
A x 2 12 bh ( h 2) 2 6
Hinge
800mm
500mm
Mg
mg
45
750mm
Solution:
a=
500
= 707 mm
sin 45
x = a +375 =1082mm
h = x sin 45 = 765mm
)
x
F =3.315 10 3 N =3.315 kN
xP = x +
IG
d 4
4
d2
=x+
2 =x+
64 d x
Ax
16 x
x P =1.082 +
xp
0.75 2
=1.082 + 0.032 = 1.114m
16 1.082
Figure 24 : Worked Example H.F. 3 Solution
0.8m
0.375 cos 45
Hinge
M 0.8 =
3315(1.114 0.707 )
60 0.375 cos 45
9.81
45
Mg
0.375m
= 137.5 16 = 121.5
121.5
M =
=152 kg
0.8
mg
F
Xp-a
Diagram 1
Figure 26 : H.F. Tutorial Questions
Diagram 2
Types of Flow
Steady flow
Unsteady flow
Uniform flow
Non-uniform flow
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
vd
= average velocity
d = pipe diameter
= fluid density
Solution:
Q150 = A150 v150 =
0.15 2
0.5 = 8.84 10 3 m 3 s
4
0.225 2
0.8 = 31.8 10 3 m 3 s
4
150mm
225mm
v 300 =
Q 300
Q 300
4 40.64 10 3
=
=
= 0.575 m s
A 300 0.32 4
0.32
300mm
i.e., Work done = Ps = force x distance moved Work done is a scalar quantity.
The units are Nm or joules (i.e., 1 Nm = 1 joule).
A body which has the capacity to work is said to possess energy. As a body does
work it expends energy (e.g., the man moving the block). Thus, units of energy are
the same as those of work (joules).
There are many forms of energy; e.g., electrical energy, chemical energy, heat
energy, nuclear energy, mechanical energy, etc. Obviously, they all have the
same units. A fundamental law of physics states that energy can be neither
created nor destroyed but can change from one form to another.
The amount of energy expended by the man moving the block = Work done +
energy wasted. The energy wasted is mainly heat generated (moving the block is
a lot of work!)
Efficiency =
Work output
100%
Energy input
P s
P s + heat energy generated
Water Energy
Water in a reservoir possesses energy since it can be used to do the work of
driving a turbine (usually to produce electrical energy). Water energy is a
mechanical energy and may be held (by the water) in three forms:
Gravitational or potential energy
Kinetic energy
Pressure energy
Energy Head
Since fluids move as a continuum rather than as a discrete mass m, it is
convenient to consider their energy per unit weight or energy head.
i.e., Potential energy head = mgz /(mg) = z
Hence, energy head has the dimension of length and is measured in metres.
Kinetic Energy
A body (e.g., of water) may possess energy due to its motions as well as its
position. The kinetic energy of a body may be defined as the amount of work
which must be done by a force in order to bring it to rest.
Let a body of mass m moving with speed v be brought to rest with uniform
retardation (-a) by a constant force P in distance s.
Using v2 = u2 + 2as where v = 0 and u = v and a = (-a)
0 = u2 2as i. e., s = u2/2a
Work done = Ps = Pu2/2a however, P = ma and hence
Work done = mau2/2a = mu2, and hence kinetic energy = mu2
thus
1 2
mv
2
mg
v2
2g
(metres)
Pressure Energy
A fluid also possesses energy (the ability to do work) because of the pressure
within it.
If the outlet pipe shown has a close fitting, frictionless
piston and the distance moved per second is v then
work done per second = force x distance moved/sec
Figure 30 : Pressure Energy
= pA v where A v = Q
Hence work done per second = pQ
Now, the weight of fluid which has done this work per second = mass flow rate g
= volume flow rate g = Qg
pQ
Hence work done per unit weight of fluid = Qg= pressure energy / unit weight of
fluid
i.e., pressure energy head = p/(g) (metres)
Energy Losses
Frictional Energy Loss
As fluid flows down a pipe (or channel) it must do work (use energy) to overcome
the frictional shear stress exerted on it by the pipe wall (or channel bed). This
energy is converted from the mechanical energy of the fluid into heat energy which
is lost through the pipe wall (or channel bed). The frictional energy loss per unit
weight of fluid or head loss due to friction is given by the symbol h f.
p
v2
+
+z
g 2g
or
p 2 v 22
+
+z 2 +h f +h L
g 2g
( = sum of )
Solution:
QA
3 60
4 3
vA =
=
=
= 6.37 m s
2
2
2
d A 4 0.1 4 0.1 60
vB =
QB
dB2 4
4 3
= 2.83 m s
0.15 2 60
p A v 2A
p
v2
+
+ zA = B + B + zB + h L
g 2g
g 2g
Figure 32 : Worked Examples E. 1
3
150 10
6.37
180 10
2.83 2
3
+
+ zA = 3
+
+ z B + ( 0.12 5)
10 0.85 9.81 2 9.81
10 0.85 9.81 2 9.81
h = z A z B =
2 9.81
Solution:
Q1
0.1
4 0.1
v1 =
=
=
= 0.63 m s
d12 4 0.45 2 4 0.45 2
v2 =
Q2
2
d2 4
4 0.1
= 1.42 m s
0.32
1
Figure 33 : Worked Examples E. 2
v12
v 22
p1
p
+
+ z1 = 2 +
+ z2 + hf
g 2g
g 2g
Continuity requires a greater velocity at the throat than the inlet, there is
consequentially a difference of pressure between the inlet and throat and
measurement of this pressure difference allows the flow rate to be calculated.
The orifice meter works on a similar principal to the venturimeter and is cheaper
and simpler to install but it generates larger energy losses. It consists of a circular
disc, with an orifice machined in its centre, which is easily bolted between pipe
lengths.
The flow rate through a Venturi and Orifice meter can be found from the equation
a1a 2
Q = Cd
2gH
a12 a 22
where the cross-sectional areas are a1 for the inlet pipe and a2 for the throat or orifice.
The term
a1a 2
a 12 a 22
Momentum Equation
When a force acts on a fluid in motion, there is a rate of change of momentum in
the fluid in the direction of the force, in accordance with Newtons Second Law of
Motion.
m( v u )
i.e.,
Resultant force on a fluid =
t
=
volume( v u )
t
Resultant force on a fluid, F = Q change in velocity (in the direction of the force)
This equation is applied in various situations, including the impact of fluid jets on
plates and vanes (turbines and pumps) and the forces occurring on pipe nozzles,
contractions and bends.
Any force Fy is of necessity a shear force. Thus, for an ideal fluid F y = 0. When
shear forces are involved, it is necessary to know the proportion of flow in each
direction along the plate before F y can be estimated.
thus = tan-1|
k sin
|
k cos 1
Consider the component forces Fx and Fy from the pipe bend acting on the water
(Figure (b) above).
Resolving forces on the fluid in the x direction:
Fx + pA pA cos = Q(v cos - v)
Resolving forces on the fluid in the y direction:
Fy + pA pA sin = Qv sin
The force of the water on the pipe bend is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction:
Fx = ( pA + Qv )( 1 cos )
N .
Fy = ( pA + Qv ) sin
N.
This force is put to good use in garden sprinklers and filter bed distributor arms at
sewage works.
Thrust Blocks
In water engineering practice, thrust blocks must be designed to reduce earth
pressures and allow the bend or contraction to be held in position.
Solution:
Applying Newtons 2nd law of motion, the resultant force on the water in the taper,
v1 =
v2 =
Q1
2
d1 4
Q2
2
d2 4
p1 v12 p 2 v 22
+
=
+
g 2g g 2g
4 0.75
= 2.653 m s
0. 6 2
4 0.75
= 4.716 m s
0.45 2
2
1
Q
Figure 38 : Worked Examples M. 1
p2
300 103 2.6532 4.716 2
=
+
2
2
10 3
10 3
F = 300 10 3
0.6 2
0.45 2
292.5 10 3
10 3 0.75 ( 4.716 2.653)
4
4
2. A 450mm diameter pipeline conveying 1.0 m3/s of water contains a 22.5 bend
in the horizontal plane. If the pressure in the bend is 250 KN/m 2, calculate the
magnitude and direction of the force on the bend.
Fy
Solution:
v=
Q
4 1.0
=
= 6.29 m s
2
d 4 0.45 2
Fx
0.45 2
3
=
250
10
(1 cos 22.5) N
4
22.5
v
Fy
= tan 1
Fx
17.62
= tan 1
= 78.75
3.5
Turbulent Flows
Turbulent flow in pipes is highly complex and cannot be solved by maths alone.
For turbulent flows Newtons Laws of Viscosity do not apply. Reynolds
experiments and work by Darcy Weisbach showed that frictional head loss was
proportional to the square of the velocity. The following equation was developed:
Lv 2
hf =
2gd
Where hf is the friction head loss, L is the pipe length, is the flow velocity, d is the
pipe diameter, is the Darcy friction factor. Note is dimensionless. The
equation is sometimes written with 4f replacing , this is the American version.
N.B. The head loss due to friction per unit length of pipe (h f/L) is the hydraulic
gradient (i). Thus i = hf/L = 2/2dg. This will be the gradient of the TEL and HGL.
Also,
Q
4Q
=
A d 2
16
h f =
2
2g
hf =
and hence
LQ 2
d 5
or
hf =
L 4Q
2dg d 2
LQ 2
12.1d 5
Thus, for a given flow rate, hf 1/d5, i.e. halving the size of pipe to be used will
increase frictional head losses 32 times. The head loss due to friction is a multiple
(L/d) of the kinetic (v2/2g), i.e. hf = (L/d)(v2/2g).
Originally it was thought that was constant, however, experiments showed that it
was related to Reynolds Number and pipe roughness.
3.7d Re
Where ks is height of pipe surface roughness, d is the pipe diameter and Re is the
Reynolds Number of the flow.
In this format it is difficult to find directly, modifications were made by Barr:
1
5.1286
k
= 2 log s +
0.89
3.7d Re
Solution:
Figure 40 shows the layout. Since no information is given that exit or entry to the
pipe is sharp no shock loss need be considered. Apply Bernoullis equation to A
and B on the free surface of the reservoir, where the velocities are zero and the
pressures atmospheric. Take B as datum level.
Total energy per unit wt at A = Total energy per unit wt at B + frictional loss
H+
pA
v2
p
v2
L v 2
+ A =0 + B + B +
g
2g
g
2g
d 2g
pA = pB = 0 and vA = vB = 0, so that
L v2
H =
d 2g
2
i.e. v =
6 1.2 2 9.81
v =
2.22 m s
= 4.92
0.04 720
1.2 2
2.22 = 2.51m 3/s (Answer)
4
pC pA
v 2 L
=
h 1 + 1
g g
2g
d
Putting pA = atmospheric pressure = 0, h = 3m, = 0.04, L1 = 240m, V = 2.22m,
d= 1.2m
pC
2.22 2
0.04 240
= 0 3
1 +
= 5.26m of water
g
2 9.81
1 .2
Ks = 1.500 mm.
i = 0.004 to 0.1
continued
ie hydraulic gradient =
1 in 250 to 1 in 10
Velocities in m/s
discharges in I/s
Gradient
75
80
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
0.00400
1/ 250
0.256
0.503
0.342
1.511
0.358
1.799
0.418
3.282
0.487
5.978
0.551
9.743
0.612
14.713
0.669
21.013
0.723
28.762
0.776
38.074
0.826
49.057
0.875
61.816
0.00420
1/ 238
0.263
0.516
0.351
1.549
0.367
1.844
0.428
3.365
0.499
6.127
0.565
9.986
0.627
15.080
0.686
21.536
0.741
29.478
0.795
39.021
0.846
50.277
0.896
63.353
0.00440
1/ 227
0.269
0.528
0.359
1.586
0.376
1.888
0.439
3.445
0.511
6.273
0.579
10.224
0.642
15.438
0.702
22.047
0.759
30.177
0.814
39.946
0.867
51.468
0.917
64.854
0.00460
1/ 217
0.275
0.540
0.367
1.622
0.384
1.931
0.449
3.523
0.523
6.416
0.592
10.456
0.656
15.788
0.718
22.547
0.776
30.860
0.832
40.850
0.886
52.633
0.938
66.320
0.00480
1/ 208
0.281
0.552
0.375
1.658
0.393
1.973
0.458
3.600
0.534
6.555
0.605
10.683
0.671
16.130
0.733
23.035
0.793
31.529
0.850
41.735
0.905
53.773
0.959
67.756
Minor Losses
Wherever the uniform cross section of a pipeline is interrupted, then the fluid loses
contact with the pipe wall temporarily which induces additional turbulence causing
energy losses known as minor losses. These occur at fittings such as bends and
valves and the head loss is hL, where
hL =
K L 2
2g
These are also known as separation losses. They need only be taken into account
in short pipelines where there are a number of fittings. An example of this is a
short pumping main where minor losses may account for up to a third of the total
energy loss.
There are two methods of analysing pipelines which include minor losses. The first
is to simply add each minor loss into the Bernoulli Equation;
P1 V12
P
V2
+
+Z1 2 + 2 +Z 2 +h f +h L1 +h L 2
pg 2g
pg 2g
( L +l) v 2
2gd
Fitting
Elbows
22.5
45.0
90.0
Long radius bends
22.5
45.0
90.0
Gate valve
Fully open
Quarter closed
Half closed
Three-quarters closed
Sudden enlargement
Inlet dia. : outlet dia.
1
:
2
1
:
3
1
:
5 and over
Sudden contraction
Inlet dia.
2
3
5
: outlet dia.
:
1
:
1
:
1 and over
KL
l
=n
d
0.2
0.4
1.0
9
18
45
0.1
0.2
0.4
5
9
18
0.12
1.0
6.0
24.0
5
45
270
1080
0.60
0.80
1.0
27
36
45
0.35
0.45
0.50
16
20
22
Entry to a pipe
A v2
h l = 1 1 1
A 2 2g
or
hL =
( v1 v 2 ) 2
2g
v2
2g
h L = 2 1
A C
Now
v 22
2g
AC
= CC coefficient of contraction
A2
hL
=
1
C C
v 22
2g
Typical KL values:
Return bend (180)
2.2
0.4
90 tee junction
1.6
90 elbow
1.0
45 elbow
0.4
Reference:
Manual of British
Engineering Practice
Vol. II
v2
h L = 0.14 1
2g
The value of KL depends on the type of geometry of the valve. Details are given in
the manufacturers information.
e.g. Gate valve
fully open
KL = 0.25
25% open
KL = 25
i.e.
A v2
h L = 1 1
A 2 2g
hL =
v2
2g
Note: The nozzle creates convergent flow however; there are some energy losses,
so a coefficient of discharge, Cd, is introduced.
The pressure energy is converted to potential energy, but the kinetic energy
(v2/2g) is lost. hL = 0
Through a pipeline nozzle, the potential energy causes the water to be
projected in a high velocity jet, i.e. v2 > > v1
Solution:
Apply Bernoullis theorem to A and B (Figure 51), assuming velocity at A is zero
and that pA = pB = atmospheric pressure = 0. zB = 0 and zA = H.
Total energy at A = Total energy at B + loss at entry + frictional loss.
H =
v2
1
v2
L v 2
+
+
2g
2 2g
d 2g
v2
0.04 450
v2
1.5 +
=181.5
2g
0.1
2g
12 2 9.81
=1.3 v =1.14 m / s
181.5
1
4
2. Water is discharged from a reservoir into the atmosphere through a pipe 39m
long. There is a sharp entrance to the pipe and the diameter is 50mm for 15m from
the entrance. The pipe then enlarges suddenly to 75mm in diameter for the
remainder of its length. Taking into account the loss of head at entry and at the
enlargement, calculate the difference of level between the surface of the reservoir
and the pipe exit which will maintain a flow of 2.8 l /s. Take as 0.0192 for the
50mm pipe and 0.0231 for the 75mm pipe.
Solution:
Figure 52 shows the arrangement. If Q = discharge, then
Q = 14 d12 v1 = 14 d 2 2 v 2
v1 =
4Q 4 2.8 10 3
4Q 4 2.8 10 3
=
=
1
.
426
v
=
=
= 0.634 m/s
m/s
and
2
d12
0.05 2
d 22
0.075 2
H=
1.426 2
2g
0.0232 24 ( 0.792 )
1 0.0192 15 0.634
+
+
1 +
+
0.05
2g
0.075
2g
2
(Answer)
3. Two reservoirs are connected by a pipeline which is 150mm in diameter for the
first 6m and 225mm in diameter for the remaining 15m. The entrance and exit are
sharp and the change of section is sudden. The water surface in the upper
reservoir is 6m above that in the lower. Tabulate the losses of head which occur
and calculate the rate of flow in m3/s. Friction coefficient is 0.04 for both pipes.
Draw also the hydraulic gradient and the total energy gradient.
Solution:
The arrangement is shown in Figure 53. The velocities v1 and v2 are related by the
2
2
continuity of flow equation Q = 14 d1 v1 = 14 d 2 v 2
2
9
0.225
3
v1 =
v2 = v2 = v2
0
.
150
2
4
+
+
+
+
zero. Taking datum level at B,
2 2g d 1 2g
2g
d 2 2g 2g
Substituting for v1 gives
2
v2
1 9 v 2 0.04 6 9 v 22 9 v 22 0.04 15 v 2
H = 2 +
+ 1
+
+ 2
2 4 2g
0.15 4 2g 4 2g
0.225 2g 2g
6=
2
v 22
( 2.53 + 8.10 +1.56 + 2.67 +1.00) =15.86 v 2
2g
2g
v2 =
6 2 9.81
= 2.72 m / s
15.86
Discharge =
1
4
(Answer)
v 22
2.72 2
= 0.377
The head losses can be found as multiples of
, i.e.
2g
2g
Uniform Flow
Velocity of flow is constant along the
channel occurs when a crosssection of channel is constant
constant depth
fluid surface is parallel with
channel bed
Steady Flow
Velocity and hence depth remain constant with respect to time.
Unsteady Flow
Velocity and depth vary with respect to time at any section of the channel.
For analysis purposes, it is usual to consider the flow in open channels to be
steady uniform flow, however most real life flows are non-uniform and unsteady.
Term
Definition
v
2g
v2
+y
2g
specific energy, E
So
slope of channel
Fr
Froude Number =
gy
Equations
Continuity, Energy and Momentum equations may be applied in the same way as
pipe flow:
Consider point X, where the velocity is v, at a depth h, below the free surface:
p
v2
+
+( z + y h )
g 2g
p
=h
g
i.e. H = z + y +
v2
= Total Energy Head
2g
(1)
Specific Energy
In channel flow however, it is usual to refer to the channel bed, rather than a
horizontal datum. Hence, equation (1) becomes:
y+
v2
= Energy Head = E, specific energy
2g
The hydraulic grade line coincides with the free surface. The total energy line lies
v2/2g above this.
For a given value of specific energy E the flow can have two depths. The first is
where the flow is deep and slow moving and is known as tranquil or subcritical
flow. The second is where the flow is shallow and fast moving and is known as
rapid or supercritical flow.
Critical Depth
For a given value of Specific Energy, it can be seen from the diagram above, there
is one depth corresponding to maximum flow rate. This is called the critical depth,
yc.
Certain flow measuring devices e.g. weirs and flumes generate critical depth flow
in their operation.
The equation for critical depth is: y c = 3
q2
g
or Q = AC RS O Chezys Equation
v=
1 2 3 12
A 2 1
R SO or Q = R 3 SO2
n
n
Mannings Equation
(very widely used in practice)
0.011
0.013
0.014
0.018
0.022
0.035
Solution:
A = by =1.5 0.75 =1.125 m 2
y = 0.75m
P = b + 2 y =1.5 + 2 0.75 = 3 m
Hence, R =
A 1.125
=
= 0.375 m
P
3
b = 1.5m
Figure 59 : Worked Examples U.C.F. 1
Q = AC RS0
1 Q
1
3.5
S0 =
=
= 1 206.5
R AC
0.375 1.125 72
Solution:
y = 1.2m
b = 2.4m
Figure 60 : Worked Examples U.C.F. 2
A 2.88
= 0.6 m
Hence, R = =
P
4.8
Q=
2
1
A 2 3 12
2.88
R S0 =
0.6 3 0.001 2 = 4.32 m 3 s
n
0.015
Solution:
Q = Av A =
Q 1.7
=
= 2.833
v 0.6
y = 0.9m
60
t
b
Figure 61 : Worked Examples U.C.F. 3
From Figure 61 ,
tan 60 =0.9 x
sin 60 = 0.9 t
t = 0.9 sin 60
A 2 1
Q = R 3 S02
n
nQ 0.025 1.7
S0 =
=
2
2
AR 3 2.833 0.602 3
= 1
2259
4. A canal has a bottom width of 4m and sides with a slope of 1 vertical to 1.5
horizontal. The depth of water is 1.0m when the discharge is 4 m 3/s.
(a) Calculate the slope of the channel bed using the Manning formula with
n = 0.022.
(b) Calculate the discharge in m3/s when the depth of flow is 1.2m.
Solution:
(a)
1.0
A=
[ b + ( b + 2 1.5 y ) ] = 4 +1.5 1.0 = 5.5m 2
2
P = b +2 y 12 +1.5 2 = 4 +2 1.0 3.25 = 7.6m
R=
y = 1.0m
A 5.5
=
= 0.724m
P 7.6
1
1.5
Q=
(b)
A 2 3 12
R S0
n
nQ 0.022 4
S0 =
=
2
2
AR 3 5.5 0.724 3
= 1
2540
R=
Q=
A
6.96
=
= 0.836m
P 8.327
2
A 2 3 12 6.96
1
R S0 =
0.836 3
= 5.57 m 3 s
1
2
n
0.022
2540
The height of the sluice gate above the channel bed is such as to cause
supercritical flow immediately downstream of the sluice, where otherwise the flow
would be subcritical. The flow reverts back to subcritical flow with a dissipation of
energy, resulting in a turbulent area known as a standing wave or hydraulic jump.
The energy loss, dE, can be seen on the diagram.
y2
2
y1
y2 =
2
y1 =
( 1 + 8Fr 1)
( 1 + 8Fr 1)
2
2
2
1
Weirs
b = width of channel
Cd found from BS 3680
Q actual = C d 1.7bH
Broad crested weirs are essentially low dams across the entire channel, which to
produce critical depth over the weir, must have a width in the direction of channel
flow, of at least three times the maximum height of water above the weir. Thus
they are massive and expensive structures, which invariably collect silt against
their upstream faces and require annual maintenance. As measuring systems they
tend to be inaccurate at low rates of flow.
Crump and flat-vee weirs are modern developments, designed to increase flow
measurement accuracy and to reduce construction costs.
Notches, often termed sharp crested or thin plate weirs, are little more than steel
plates inserted vertically into a channel section and with a crest plate of some nonrusting metal (usually brass) with a precisely machined bevel.
The openings in such notches can be made triangular, for accurate measurement
of small flow rates, or rectangular when larger flow rates have to be passed. The
accuracy achievable with thin plate weirs is by far the highest of any type of weir
(about 1 or 2 percent) but their use is rather restricted because they are unable,
structurally, to withstand the forces met in real life situations and their crest units
are easily damaged by floating debris and vandalism.
The equations for notches are:
5
Flumes
b = width of channel
Cd Cv found from BS 3680
Q actual = 1.7C d C v bH
Flumes do not suffer from siltation problems, since any silt is washed through the
structure. However their length and thus cost of construction are higher than for
normal weirs. To minimise these costs, a large number of flumes have been
constructed by driving sheet piles into the channel bed and backfilling to the
original river bank with suitable fill materials.
Another advantage of flumes is the very limited backing up of the upstream water
level it produces. In flat areas this is a considerable advantage.
3. Chemical Means
Used for rough, highly disturbed flow, the method involves the introduction of a
known quantity of a chemical at a prescribed rate at an upstream location. The
turbulent nature of the flow ensures thorough mixing of the chemical. Samples of
the fluid are taken at a downstream location and by chemical analysis, the
concentration of chemical in the fluid can be found. This degree of concentration
can be related to flow rate. The chemical dilution method gives an accuracy to
5%.
Some modern develops include electrochemical methods, laser scanning and
ultrasonic devices.
Hydraulic Machines
Functions and Types
Hydraulic machines are power or energy converters. They convert between
mechanical and hydraulic forms of power. There are two types pumps and
turbines.
Pumps:
Turbines:
The effect on the hydraulic system may be shown on the total energy diagram.
1 Inlet
2 Outlet
flow velocity (m/S)
pressure (N/m2)
H total head across the machine (m)
Most pumps and turbines provide a continuous flow rate through a rotodynamic
action. However, positive displacement pumps are used in some situations.
Rotodynamic Pumps
The mechanical power is transmitted through a rotating shaft P M = 2NT watts
where N = rotational speed of shaft (rev/s)
T = torque in the shaft (N/m)
Impeller blades, attached to the shaft, transfer power / energy to the fluid. The
hydraulic power PH = gQH watts
where Q = discharge / flow rate through the pump (m 3/s)
H = increase in total energy head across the pump (m)
i.e. H is the rise in the T.E.L. in the direction of flow.
The efficiency of the pump =
P
output power
100% = H 100%
input power
PM
Flow past the impeller is entirely radial. The volute casing is designed to withstand
the high pressures generated. The centripetal action produces a relatively high
pressure difference.
These types of pumps are used to extract water from boreholes, in water supply
pipelines and sewage pumping through long rising mains.
Flow past the impeller is entirely axial. The impeller, which is shaped like a ships
propeller, allows relatively high flows, but the head difference which can be
maintained across it is low. The twist which is imparted to the water is partially
removed using guide vanes downstream, thus reducing the energy loss.
These types of pumps are used in land drainage schemes, and to return activated
sludge in large sewage works.
Flow past the impeller is partially radial and partial axial. The shape of the impeller
and casing depends on the characteristics required. Some mixed flow pumps
resemble centrifugal pumps, but with a thickened volute casing; others resemble
axial flow pumps, but with a bulb or bowl casing around the impeller.
These types of pumps are used to pump storm water through short rising mains,
and in small land drainage schemes.
Multistage Pumps
These are formed by building a number of identical centrifugal impellers onto a
single driving shaft (in series). The same flow rate passes each impeller in turn,
the water receiving an accumulating head lift at each stage.
These pumps are usually installed with the shaft vertical in boreholes and deep
wells.
Francis Turbine
The Francis turbine may be regarded as a centrifugal pump operating in reverse.
The water enters the outer part of the casing and flows through the guide vanes
which direct the flow radially inwards through the rotating element (called the
runner), transferring energy to the runner. The water then drains out of the casing
through the central outlet passage.
There are two major differences between the turbine and the pump:
a) In the turbine, the rotating element is surrounded by guide vanes, so that
the velocity and direction of the water can be adjusted. This provides for
optimum flow conditions over a wide range of discharge and power output.
(N.B. electrical requirements vary over a 24 hour period.)
b) The water leaving the turbine passes through a draft tube, which is tapered
so as to minimise the loss of kinetic energy. This ensures that the
maximum energy is available at the turbine.
Virtually all modern units incorporate mechanical means of varying the propeller
blade angle of the runner, so that high runner efficiency may be maintained over
the specified range of discharge and power output.
Variable angle designs are called Kaplan turbines. In recent years, a number of
pumped storage schemes have utilized a special type of Kaplan unit. This unit
operates as a turbine during periods when the demand for electricity is high.
However, demand is low during the night. The blade is then reversed and the unit
is motor driven so as to act as a pump.
Both the Kaplan and Francis units run full of water. There is therefore a
continuous flow of water between the reservoir and the tailwater.
Generally, turbines are very efficient, i.e. hydraulic and mechanical energy losses
are low. They commonly attain efficiencies in excess of 90%.
Kaplan units are generally applied where there is a large discharge at a low
pressure, whereas the Francis unit is appropriate for moderate discharges at
moderate head (250 300 m).