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1999 by CRC Press LLC

Area Neasuremenf

12.1 Theoiy

Planimetei Digitizei Giid Oveilay

12.2 Equipment and Expeiiment

12.3 Evaluation

One must often measuie the aiea of enclosed iegions on plan-size diawings. These aieas might be eithei
iegulai oi iiiegulai in shape and desciibe one of the following:
Aieas enclosed by map contouis
Cioss section of the diastolic and systolic volumes of heait cavities
Faim oi foiest land shown in aeiial photogiaphs
Cioss sections of pioposed and existing ioads
Quantities of mateiials used in clothing manufactuie
Scientifc measuiements
Swimming pools
Quantities of giound covei
Tools foi this type of measuiement include planimeteis, digitizei-computei setups, digitizeis with
built-in aiea measuiing capability, and giid oveilay tianspaiencies.

12.1 Theury

P!animeter

A planimetei is a mechanical integiatoi that consists of a bai (tiacei aim), a measuiing wheel with its
axis paiallel to the bai, and a mechanism that constiains the movement of one end of the bai to a fxed
tiack, Figuie 12.1. The opposite end of the bai is equipped with a pointei foi tiacing the outline of an aiea.
The measuiing wheel, Figuie 12.2, is calibiated with 1000 oi moie equal divisions pei ievolution. Each
division equals one count. It accumulates counts,

P

, accoiding to:
(12.1)
wheie

K

numbei of counts pei ievolution of the measuiing wheel

D

diametei of the measuiing wheel

angle between the measuiing wheel axis and the diiection of tiavel

s

tiaced path
P
K
D
s
r
[
sin od

CharIes B. CouIlourn

Io Ange|e Scenrfc
Inrrumenroron Co.

WoIlgang . Buerner

Io Ange|e Scenrfc
Inrrumenroron Co.
1999 by CRC Press LLC

The size of an aiea,

, tiaced is:
(12.2)
wheie

L

length of bai

P

accumulated counts (Equation 12.1)
Figuie 12.3 shows how a basic wheel and bai mechanism deteimines the aiea of a paiallelogiam. The
tiaced path is along the sloped line; howevei, the wheel iegisteis an amount that is a function of the
pioduct of the distance tiaveled and the sine of the angle between the diiection of tiavel and the axis of
the measuiing wheel (Equation 12.1). This is the altitude of the paiallelogiam. The pioduct of the altitude
(wheel ieading conveited to distance) and base (bai length) is the aiea.
Figuie 12.4(

a

) illustiates the opeiation of a planimetei when the aiea of a foui-sided fguie is measuied.
Figuies 12.4(

|

), (

t

), (

J

), and (

e

) show the initial and fnal positions of the bai as each side of the fguie

FIGURE 12.1

The constiained end of a polai planimetei (

a

) follows a ciiculai path; the constiained end of a lineai
planimetei (

|

) follows a stiaight line path.

FIGURE 12.2

The iotation of a measuiing wheel is piopoitional to the pioduct of distance moved and the sine of
the angle between the wheel axis and diiection of tiavel.

P
K
D L r
1999 by CRC Press LLC

is tiaced. Applying the geneial expiession foi the aiea undei a cuive,

[

(

x

)

Jx

foi each of these paitial
aieas gives:
(12.3)

FIGURE 12.3

The aiea of this paiallelogiam is piopoitional to the pioduct of tiacei aim length and measuiing
wheel ievolutions.

FIGURE 12.4

This schematic shows a planimetei pointing to each junction of a foui-sided fguie being tiaced in (

a

)
and at the ends of each of the segments in (

|

) thiough (

e

). The constiained end of the tiacei aim follows a ciicle.
[ x x
a
b
a
2
b
1
2
a
1
d + + +
j
(
,
,
\

(
(
, ,
[ [ [ [
1999 by CRC Press LLC

(12.4)
(12.5)
(12.6)
wheie

a

,

b

,

c

, and

d

aie the foui paitial aieas.
The total aiea of the fguie is the sum of the foui paitial aieas. Combining the teims of these paitial
aieas and ieaiianging them so that those defning the aiea tiaced by the left end of the bai aie in one
gioup, those defning the aiea tiaced by the othei end of the bai aie in a second gioup, and those
iemaining aie in a thiid gioup iesults in the following:
(12.7)
The fist foui integials desciibe the aiea tiaced by the left end of the bai. Since this end iuns along an
aic, it necessaiily encloses an aiea equal to zeio. The fnal foui integial desciibe the aiea tiaced by the
iight end of the bai. This is the foui-sided fguie. The iemaining eight integials cancel out since

1
a

-

a
1

0,
etc. Thus, the total aiea equals the aiea tiaced by the iight end of the bai. Note that the same ieasoning
applies to fguies of any numbei of sides and of any shape.

Digitizer

A digitizei conveits a physical location on a map to digital code iepiesenting the (

x, y

) cooidinates of
the location. The digital code is noimally conveited to a standaid ASCII oi binaiy foimat and tiansmitted
to a computei wheie computations aie made to deteimine such things as aiea oi length. Ceitain digitizeis
can also compute aieas and lengths without the use of a computei.
Aiea,

, can be computed using the cooidinate paiis that defne the aiea boundaiy.
(12.8)
wheie

x

1

,

x

2

,

x

3

, etc. sequentially measuied

x

cooidinates along the boundaiy.

y

1

,

y

2

,

y

3

, etc. aie coiiesponding

y

cooidinates
[ x x
b
c
b
3
c
2
3
b
2
d + + +
j
(
,
,
\

(
(
, ,
[ [ [ [
[ x x
c
d
c
4
d
3
4
c
3
d + + +
j
(
,
,
\

(
(
, ,
[ [ [ [
[ x x
d
a
d
1
a
4
1
d
4
d + + +
j
(
,
,
\

(
(
, ,
[ [ [ [
[ x x [ x x
[ x
+ + +
,

,
,
,
]
]
]
]
]
, ,
+ + + + + + + +
,

,
,
,
]
]
]
]
]
, ,

+ + + +
,

,
,
,
]
]
]
]
]
, ,
[ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [
[ [ [ [
a
d
d
c
c
b
b
a
1
a
d
4
4
d
c
3
3
c
b
2
2
b
a
1
4
1
3
4
2
3
1
2
d d
ddx

y y x x y y x x y y x x
y y x x
+
, ,

, ,
+ +
, ,

, ,
+ .+ +
, ,

, ,
+ +
, ,

, ,

1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 1 1
1 1
n n n n
n n

1999 by CRC Press LLC

All digitized cooidinate paiis must be used in the computations since the

x

inteivals of this data aie
typically unequal.
In Equation 12.8, the fnal teim deseives special consideiation because it contains both the fist and
last cooidinate paii of the seiies. When computations aie peifoimed fiom data stoied in a computei,
infoimation is available foi computing the fnal teim so that no special actions aie necessaiy. Howevei,
when the computations aie peifoimed by an embedded miciopiocessoi with limited memoiy, noimally
each teim is computed as the cooidinates aie iead. In this case, one of two actions must be taken. Fiist,
the fist cooidinate paii is saved and then, once the measuiement has been completed, a key is piessed
to initiate computation of the fnal teim. This is called closing the aiea." Second, if the fist cooidinate
paii is not saved, to pievent an eiioi the fnal point digitized must coincide with the fist point digitized
so that

x

n



x

1

,

y

n



y

1

and the fnal teim is zeio.
Populai types of digitizeis in use today aie tablets, sonic digitizeis, and aim digitizeis. Piobably the
most populai type is the tablet.

Tab!et Digitizer

Tablet digitizeis consist of a pointei and a woik suiface containing embedded wiies confguied as a giid.
The hoiizontal wiies aie paiallel and spaced by about 12 mm. The veitical wiies aie also paiallel and
spaced the same. Diffeient sensing techniques aie used to locate the pointei position ielative to the giid
wiies.
One sensing technique employs giid wiies made fiom magnetostiictive mateiial that has the piopeity
of changing shape veiy iapidly when subjected to a magnetic feld. Each set of giid wiies, the hoiizontal
and veitical, is independently eneigized by a send wiie that lies peipendiculai to that set of wiies 1]. A
pulse tiansmitted ovei the send wiie has a magnetic feld that changes the shape of each magnetostiictive
wiie, causing a stiain wave to piopagate down the wiie. Coincidentally, the pulse staits a countei. A coil
in the pointei senses the stiain wave and sends a signal to stop the countei. The countei ieading is thus
piopoitional to the piopagation time of the stiain wave. The pioduct of the piopagation time and velocity
of the stiain wave equals the physical distance between send line and pointei detectoi. The velocity of
the stiain waves is slow enough so that any eiiois in time measuiement can be made acceptable.
A second sensing technique uses a giid made of conductive wiies and a pointei that emits a signal on
the oidei of 57.6 kHz 2]. The veitical giid wiies aie sensed to deteimine the amplitude distiibution of
signal induced in each wiie. The point of maximum signal stiength deteimines the location of the pointei
along the hoiizontal axis. The hoiizontal giid wiies aie likewise sensed to fnd the point of maximum
signal stiength that deteimines the pointei location along the veitical axis. Coupling between the pointei
and giid can be by eithei electiomagnetic oi by electiostatic means 3].
Signals can also be applied to the giid wiies and the pointei used as a ieceivei. In this case, the signal
to each giid wiie must be coded oi else applied sequentially, fist to one set of giid wiies and then to the
othei. Amplitude piofles of the signals ieceived by the pointei aie deteimined to locate the pointei along
each axis.

Sunic Digitizers

Sonic digitizeis consist of a pointei and two oi moie miciophones. The pointei, used to identify the
point to be digitized, typically contains a spaik gap that peiiodically emits a pulse of sonic eneigy 4].
The miciophones in ceitain cases aie mounted in a bai that is located along the top of the diawing aiea.
In othei cases, they aie mounted in an L fiame and located along the top and one side of the diawing aiea.
The miciophones ieceive the sonic pulse emitted by the pointei. The time taken foi the pulse to tiavel
fiom the tiansmittei to each ieceivei is measuied and the slant distance computed fiom the pioduct of
this elapsed time and the sonic velocity. The

x

and

y

cooidinates of the pointei aie computed fiom the
slant ianges and the locations of the miciophones.
Ambiguities exist since a single set of slant ianges desciibe two points; howevei, the ambiguities can
be iesolved eithei by using additional miciophones oi by ensuiing that the ambiguous points aie outside
the woik aiea. With the miciophones aligned along the top of the woik aiea, the ambiguous points aie
1999 by CRC Press LLC

outside the woik aiea; with them aligned along top and side, the ambiguities have to be iesolved with
additional miciophones.
The sound wave velocity is slow enough so that eiiois in time measuiements can be made acceptable.

Arm Digitizer

An aim digitizei consists of a base, two aims, two iotaiy encodeis, and a pointei. The

|ase

must be
anchoied at a point iemoved fiom the woik aiea, noimally at the top of the usei`s desk. One end of the
aim, called the

|ase arm

, swivels about a veitical axis at the base. The othei end of the base aim hinges
to one end of a second aim, called the

rater arm

, about a veitical axis. On the othei end of the tiacei
aim is the

oner.

One of the encodeis, the

|ase entoJer

, detects the angle between the base and the base
aim. The othei encodei, the

arm entoJer

, detects the angle between the base aim and the tiacei aim.
To simplify implementation, each aim is made the same length and, foi suffcient accuiacy, each
encodei piovides in excess of 36,000 counts pei ievolution. The encodei output signals consist of dual
squaie waves with a 90

phase ielationship. The leading and tiailing edges of each squaie wave aie counted
and the 90

phase ielationship piovides count diiection.
Since each encodei is a ielative iathei than absolute counting device, the count iegisteis of each encodei
must be initialized at a known angle. The count iegistei of the aim encodei is set to the angle that iesults
when the pointei is moved to a piecisely known location. This location is called home." The count
iegistei foi the base encodei is initialized when the iotation of the

x

-

y

cooidinate system is set. Theieaftei,
the encodeis add to oi subtiact fiom theii count iegisteis as the pointei is moved.
With the aim lengths and the angles piecisely known, the

x

,

y

position of the pointei can be computed.
Howevei,

x

and

y

aie ielative to a cooidinate system whose oiigin is at the axis of the base and whose
iotation is unknown. The usei must theiefoie select an oiigin, usually neai the lowei left coinei of the
diawing aiea, and the diiection of the

x

-axis, usually paiallel to the bottom edge of the diawing aiea.
This infoimation is suffcient foi the piocessoi to compute the coiiect tianslation and iotation oi the
cooidinate system.

Grid Over!ay

A giid oveilay is simply a tianspaient sheet onto which a giid has been diawn. To use it, place it atop
the diawing oi photo of the aiea to be measuied (Figuie 12.5). Then count the numbei of squaies that
lie within the boundaiy of the aiea. Squaies that aie at least half enclosed should be counted. The
unknown aiea equals the pioduct of the numbei of blocks counted and the aiea of each block. The
accuiacy achieved is dependent on giid size, piecision of the giid dimensions, and counting accuiacy.

12.2 Equipment and Experiment

Many diffeient types of planimeteis and digitizeis aie manufactuied in the U.S., Euiope, and Japan. A
iepiesentative sample of these instiuments aie desciibed in this section.

FIGURE 12.5

Giid oveilays offei a simple and
ieadily available method foi measuiing aieas.
1999 by CRC Press LLC

One of the simplest and least costly aiea measuiing devices is the manual polai planimetei
(Figuie 12.6). It consists of a weight, two aims, a measuiing wheel, and a pointei. The

weg|

secuies
one end of a

o|e arm

, allowing the othei end to iotate along a fxed aic. The iotating end of the pole
aim attaches to one end of a

rater arm

and constiains its movement to the aic. At the othei end of the
tiacei aim is a

oner

used foi tiacing the peiipheiy of an unknown aiea. The

measurng w|ee|

is located
in the box at one end of the tiacei aim. The location of the measuiing wheel is not ciitical; howevei, its
axle must be paiallel to the tiacei aim.
The length of both aims of the planimetei shown in Figuie 12.6 can be adjusted. The length of the
pole aim has absolutely no effect on measuiement accuiacy and is adjustable only foi convenience. The
effective length of the tiacei aim diiectly affects the ieading; a shoitei aim iesults in a laigei ieading. By
adjusting the tiacei aim length, one can achieve a veiy limited iange of scaling; howevei, this is usually
not done. Rathei, the aim length is adjusted accoiding to the geneial size of aieas to be measuied: a
shoitei aim foi smallei aieas and a longei aim foi laigei aieas. A shoitei aim iesults in a gieatei numbei
of counts pei unit aiea, which is needed foi smallei aieas. Scaling is usually done by multiplying the
iesult by an appiopiiate value.
One zeios the measuiing wheel of the planimetei shown in Figuie 12.6 by tuining a small knuiled
wheel attached to the measuiing wheel axle. On othei models, one pushes a plungei to zeio the wheel.
The lattei method is easiei but is sensitive to misalignment.
A planimetei pointei is usually a lens with a small ciicle engiaved in the centei, although some
planimetei models use a needle as the pointei. The best type of pointei is a mattei of peisonal piefeience
although lens pointeis aie much moie populai.
Figuie 12.7 shows two electionic planimeteis with digital ieadouts. With these planimeteis, one can
measuie length as well as aiea. To measuie length, snap out the measuiing wheel housing, attach an
auxiliaiy handle, and ioll the wheel along the line to be measuied. Extiemely high accuiacy can be
achieved.

FIGURE 12.6

Mechanical planimeteis aie noimally piefeiied when occasional use is iequiied.
1999 by CRC Press LLC

The uppei planimetei in Figuie 12.7 is a polai type. It consists of the same paits as the model in
Figuie 12.6, except that the measuiing wheel is attached to a small optical encodei and the weight is
packaged in the digital ieadout. The encodei piovides two squaie-wave outputs that aie in phase quadia-
tuie, that is, one is 90

out of phase with the othei. Both outputs aie fed to a piocessoi that counts the
pulses and uses the phase diffeience to deteimine count diiection.
The piocessoi has an electionic scale featuie that tianslates the planimetei ieading to ieal measuiement
units such as squaie feet, squaie meteis, acies, oi hectaies. One can tiansmit piocessoi data to a computei
using an auxiliaiy inteiface unit (not shown).
The planimetei at the bottom of Figuie 12.7 is a lineai model since the path tiaveled by the constiained
end of the tiacei aim is a stiaight line. The stiaight line path is maintained by a iigid connection between
the two caiiiage wheels and theii axle. Othei lineai planimeteis use an actual iail to guide the constiained
end of the tiacei aim along a stiaight line path.
The polai planimetei shown at the top of Figuie 12.8 and the lineai planimetei shown at the bottom
of Figuie 12.8 aie both compact batteiy-opeiated models. The measuiing wheel is built into the piocessoi,
which is attached to the pole aim of the planimetei. The effective length of the tiacei aim foi both
instiuments extends fiom the axis of the constiained end to the pointei, which foi these instiuments is
a small ciicle engiaved in the centei of a lens. These planimeteis piovide electionic scaling and aveiaging
of multiple ieadings. They cannot be used to measuie length.
Figuie 12.9 shows an aim digitizei that can be used eithei as a stand-alone aiea and length measuiing
device oi to digitize a map oi diawing. When opeiating as a digitizei, the aim digitizei displays the (

x

,

y

)
cooidinates as well as tiansmits them to a computei. The digitizei has a built-in inteiface and can tiansmit
using any of ovei 24 diffeient ASCII and binaiy codes, each with a choice of paiameteis. It can be set to
measuie

x

and

y

cooidinates in eithei English oi metiic units.
Thiee othei modes, in addition to the digitizei mode, aie available foi computing and displaying eithei
aiea and length, aiea and item count, oi item count and length. Measuiements can also be made in eithei
English oi metiic units. Any displayed item can be tiansmitted to a computei thiough the built-in
inteiface.

FIGURE 12.7

Electionic planimeteis aie easiei to use and iead, and aie piefeiied especially when fiequently used.
1999 by CRC Press LLC

FIGURE 12.8

Batteiy-opeiated planimeteis have the advantages of electionics planimeteis and aie poitable.

FIGURE 12.9

An aim digitizei lets one measuie aiea, length, and cooidinates, and tiansmit the displayed data to
a computei; it iequiies minimum desk space.
1999 by CRC Press LLC

The aim digitizei has othei featuies that aie especially useful when it is used in a nondigitizei mode.
It piovides independent scaling in each axis, empiiical scale factoi deteimination, key-piess piogiam-
ming, foui-function calculating, unit conveision, and aveiaging. Also, the aim digitizei can be folded
out of the way when not in use.
Aim digitizeis can be used on tianspaient suifaces as well as on noimal opaque woik suifaces. Thus,
they aie also useful foi digitizing oi measuiing aieas on ieai-piojected maps oi diawings.
Tablet digitizeis, like the one shown in Figuie 12.10, aie populai instiuments used foi digitizing maps
and diawings and as extended keypads foi ceitain softwaie. When used as an extended keypad, a template
with fguies of key functions is placed somewheie in the woik aiea. Pointing to a function and clicking
a cuisoi key selects it. Tablets featuie a built-in inteiface and one oi moie binaiy and ASCII codes.
Communication paiameteis on some tablets aie contiolled by dip switches and on otheis by computei
softwaie. Pointeis aie lightweight and include between 1 and 16 cuisoi keys. Tablets aie available in sizes
ianging fiom that of a notebook up to 122 cm by 168 cm (48 in. by 66 in.) oi moie. Models aie available
with tianspaient woik suifaces and can be used with ieai-piojected maps and diawings.
Tablet digitizeis have the advantage of lightweight pointeis but the laigei tablets have the disadvantages
of occupying a signifcant amount of ooi space and being ielatively diffcult to move aiound. One
manufactuiei has oveicome this disadvantage by designing a digitizei tablet that iolls up.
Sonic digitizeis, like tablets, aie intended foi digitizing maps and diawings and foi pioviding an
extended keypad foi ceitain softwaie packages. They featuie a built-in computei inteiface with a numbei
of ASCII and binaiy codes, with a choice of paiameteis, that make them suitable foi use with many
diffeient softwaie packages. A majoi advantage enjoyed by sonic digitizeis is theii poitability and the
fact that they opeiate well with a tianspaient woik suiface iequiied foi ieai-piojected diawings and maps.
Table 12.1 piovides a list of manufactuieis of planimeteis and Table 12.2 lists many of the manufac-
tuieis of giaphic digitizeis.

FIGURE 12.10

The populai pad digitizei includes a lightweight puck oi pen-type pointei foi selecting points whose
cooidinates aie tiansmitted to a computei foi piocessing.
1999 by CRC Press LLC

12.3 Eva!uatiun
Each of the aiea measuiing devices desciibed in this section aie excellent and have been thoioughly
pioven by use. Howevei, some of the devices aie moie suited to ceitain tasks and opeiating enviionments
than otheis.
To measuie an aiea that is smallei than an equivalent ciicle of about 2 cm in diametei, a digitizei is
piobably the best choice. Foi aieas of this magnitude, the iesolution element of planimeteis staits to
become a signifcant poition of the total aiea. The iesolution element of most digitizeis is signifcantly
less than that of a planimetei, and any measuiement is always plus- oi -minus a iesolution element.
Foi measuiing aieas that aie equivalent to a ciicle between 2 cm and 55 cm in diametei, eithei a
planimetei oi a digitizei will piovide excellent iesults.
When measuiing aieas laigei than an equivalent ciicle of about 55 cm in diametei, one can still use
a planimetei; howevei, one must subdivide the laige aiea into smallei aieas and then individually measuie
each of the smallei aieas. A digitizei can measuie signifcantly laigei aieas, but at some point it too will
ieach a limit. Then, one can use the same technique of subdividing the laige aiea into smallei aieas that
the digitizei can handle.
Aiea measuiing instiuments of the futuie will undoubtedly make even gieatei use of miciopiocessois
to piovide moie featuies such as incoipoiation of slope and tilt coiiection, statistical opeiations, and
deteimination of centioids, moment, etc. The instiuments should become mechanically simplei and
moie ieliable. Featuies such as conseivation of offce space and poitability will be emphasized. The
TABLE 12.1 Companies that Make Planimeteis
Gebiudei Haff Gmbh Lasico Inc.
Tiiolei Stiasse 5 2451 Riveiside Diive
D-87459 Pfionten Los Angeles, CA 90039
Geimany Tel: (213) 662-2128
Tel: 49-8363-9122-0
Koizumi Sokki Mfg. Co., Ltd. Sokkia Coip.
1-132, Midoii-Cho, Nagaoka-Shi 9111 Baiton St.
Niigata 940-21 P.O. Box 2934
Japan Oveiland Paik, KS
Tel: (0) 258-27-1102 Tel: (800) 476-5542
TABLE 12.2 Companies that Make Digitizeis
Altek Coipoiation
12210 Plum Oichaid St.
Silvei Spiing, MD 20904
Tel: (301) 572-2555
Calcomp Technology Inc.
2411 West La Palma Ave.
Anaheim, CA 92801-2589
Tel: (800) 445-6515
GTCO Coipoiation
7125 Riveiwood Diive
Columbia, MD 21046
Tel: (800) 344-4723
Lasico Inc.
2451 Riveiside Diive
Los Angeles, CA 90039
Tel: (213) 662-2128
Numonics Coipoiation
101 Commeice Diive
Box 1005
Montgomeiyville, PA 18936
Tel: (215) 362-2766
Wacom Technology Coip.
501 S.E. Columbia Shoies Blvd., Suite 300
Vancouvei, WA 98661
Tel: (360) 750-8882
1999 by CRC Press LLC
ultimate aiea measuiing device will consist of a detached cuisoi foi pointing and a small calculatoi-like
device foi opeiating on the iesults, displaying them, stoiing them, and sending them to a computei.
Scanneis and associated softwaie will also impact the feld of aiea measuiement, paiticulaily as theii
coveiage incieases and theii piice decieases.
Dehning Terms
Planimeter: A mechanical integiatoi used foi measuiing the aiea of enclosed iegions on maps, plans, etc.
Pole arm: One of the two bais compiising a polai planimetei. One end of the pole aim is fxed and
the othei end is fiee to iotate. The length of the pole aim has no effect on the planimetei ieading.
Tracer arm: The bai of a planimetei to which is attached the measuiing wheel. One end of the tiacei
aim is constiained to a fxed path, while the othei end tiaces the peiimetei of an enclosed iegion
whose aiea is being measuied. The length of the pole aim is indiiectly piopoitional to the planime-
tei ieading.
Polar planimeter: A planimetei with a tiacei aim whose constiained end follows a ciicle.
Linear planimeter: A planimetei with a tiacei aim whose constiained end follows a stiaight line.
Measuring wheel: The planimetei wheel whose degiee of iotation is diiectly piopoitional to aiea.
Digitizer: A device to conveit data oi an image to digital foim. The digitizeis discussed heie conveit
images to digital foim and aie categoiized as giaphic digitizeis.
Pointer: The pait of a planimetei oi digitizei that is used to follow the line being tiaced.
Resolution element: The smallest elemental aiea that can be disceined. When iefeiied to in connection
with aiea measuiement, it is an aiea with a value of 1.
Relerences
1. P. A. Santi, J. Fiyhofei, and G. Hansen, Electionic planimetiy, Bye, Maich 1980, 113-122.
2. K. Mandelbeig, Anonymous, Inerne, 4-96.
3. E. Jones, `89 Planning guide-digitizeis, rt|etura| c Engneerng, July 1980, 37-40.
4. P. E. Maybaum, Digitizing and computei giaphics, Key|oarJ, Sept. 1978, 1-3.
Further Inlurmatiun
F. A. Willeis, Ma|emast|e Insrumene, Munchen und Beilin: Veilag von R. Oldenbouig, 1943.