Concepts and functions of

Geographic Information Systems

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H02Q8A Geomatics for urbanism and strategic planning
MaHS & MAUSP
2011-2012

Jos Van Orshoven
Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Belgium
2
Concepts and Functions of GIS
.PPT
Topic #1 Topic #2 Topic #3
1 A GIS is an information
system
GIS is a technology
2 Spatial Data modelling Sources of data for
geodatasets
Metadata
3 Geo-referencing
4 Query, visualisation,
mapping
A/D-conversion and input Structuring
5 Coordinate
transformations

6 Spatial Analysis
7 Terrain modelling Spatial Interpolation Surface Analysis
3
The world as it is
4
The world as it is
5
The world as it is
6
The world as it is
7
The world as we wish
8
A simplistic view
Spatial planning deals with
The spatial organisation and functioning of
1. The real world, the world as it is (organised/functioning)
2. The world as it was
3. The world as it will be (foresee-able, projected future, BAU)
4. The world as we want it to be (planned future)
The understanding of the transition between 2
and 1
The processes and instruments to minimise the
difference between 3 and 4

9
Maps
Are the traditional instruments to
describe the world as it was or is

Topographic (base) maps
Thematic maps (printed on top of a
topographic base map)
Photo-maps (printed on top of a
geometrically corrected aerial photograph)

10
Map scale = 1:50.000
11
Photo scale = 1:10.000
12
Plans / Sketches
Plans and sketches are the traditional
instruments to describe the world as we want it
to be

13
Plan scale = 1:2.500
14
Maps / Sketches / Plans
Are simplified, abstract representations (models) of geographic
reality (the real, expected or planned world)
Display the location and shape of entities (buildings, roads,
which occur in geographic reality
Are scaled. Allow measurements of distances, areas, in 2D-
space (2.5D, 3D)
Describe the state of geographic reality at a given moment in
time
Give meaning to the displayed entities by symbolisation
according to a legend
Information content is positively related to map scale
The extent of the represented zone on a given paper size is
quadratically inversely proportional to the map scale
Are static, difficult to update and difficult to analyse
15
Geographic or Geospatial databases (gDB)
With the advent of geospatial technology, a new
instrument is introduced: the geospatial database
Data describing geographic reality are no longer stored
in analogue maps, plans and sketches but in digital
databases
GIS-software provides tools to create and work with
geospatial databases to
Produce maps
Enhance understanding and knowledge
Derive and communicate information
Support decisions
16
From data collection to database

Data about entities:
persons
associations
companies
licences
invoices
municipalities, districts
properties,
17
Data about entities
Persons
Associations
Companies
Invoices
Insurance contracts
Provinces
Parcels
Buildings
.

Date of birth, ...
List of members, ...
List of employees, ...
Due date of payment, ...
Insured risks, ...
Capital city, ...
Owner, ...
Construction cost, ...
18
From data collection to database

A/D conversion
Structuring
Computing functions
Other functions
Data collection Database Information System
19
Database =
structured collection of digital data
If not acquired in digital form, data need to be A/D
converted

Structuring is required to facilitate search and query
of the data:
Tables are often used to structure the data
Several software packages/tools exist that work with tables
for further processing
MS-Access, MS-Excel, dBase, are all table- (row/column)
based
20

Data about entities:
persons
associations
companies
licences
invoices
municipalities, districts
properties,
What ?
When ?
What if ?

From database to information system
21

From database to information system
22
Information system
Database equipped with tools which allow to ask
questions and obtain answers
Information = structured and interpreted data, fit for
specific use,
Information = data put in its context to allow for
interpretation; Answer to a specific question
Information is derived from data using transformation
procedures
query tools
computing tools
advanced analytical tools
presentation tools
Questions / Information about
entities
Persons
Associations
Companies
Invoices
Insurance polices
Provinces
Parcels
Buildings
.

How old ? When 18 ?
How many members ?
Monthly salary cost ?
Amount unpaid ?
How large the risk ?
Budget deficit ?
(Un)built ?
Available for students ?
What extra gains if taxes rise with 10% ?
What deficit if #students decrease to 25.000 ?
How many extra voters if right to vote from the age 16 i.s.o. 18 years ?
24
From database to information system
What ?
When ?
What if ?

WHERE ?
25

Data about geospatial entities
rivers, hydrography
spatial destination zones
muncipalities
properties, buildings
...
What ?
When ?
What if ?
WHERE ?
From maps and other collections of
spatial data to GIS
26
Examples of (sub-)classes of
geospatial entities (1)
For cadastral applications:
Patrimonium (e.g. of K.U.Leuven)
Unbuilt parcels
Residences

Related to spatial planning
Transport links (road, railway, public transport
connection, water- and airways,...)
Zones with a defined spatial destination
Zones with an effective land use
...
27
Examples of (sub-)classes of
geospatial entities (2)
Related to security policy
Location of traffic accidents
Properties where theft occurred

Related to management of natural resources
Fossil fuel fields; pumping stations
Mining zones
Fishing areas
Natural reserves
UNESCO world heritage


28
Examples of (sub-)classes of
geospatial entities (3)
Related to agricultural and environmental
policies
Agricultural zones and parcels
Irrigation and drainage canals
Water abstraction points
Zones for soil erosion abatement
Related to other issues
Wind mills
Mangrove patches
Traffic lights
Sewer lines, electricity lines
29
From data on spatial entities to spatial
information
From data regarding buildings, demography,
migration to requirements for housing

From data regarding (non-) irrigated agricultural land,
soils and climate to rice production capacity by
province

From data on factories and owners of cars to air
quality distribution

From data regarding beach resorts to regional
touristic potential

30
Real world geospatial entities are modelled
and stored in gDB as geospatial objects
Geospatial entities
Are crisp elements occurring in
geographic reality

Geospatial entities of the same
type can be grouped into
geospatial entity classes

Data about geospatial entities can
be implicitly (adresses, indirect
spatial designations) or explicitly
(coordinates) geospatial

Input of data about geospatial
entities in a geospatial database
requires abstraction and
modelling

Geospatial objects
Are the abstract model equivalent of
geospatial entities

Have a location relative to a known
reference system, a geometric shape,
characteristics, behaviour

Shape of objects can be: point, line,
area, volume, one or more cells
(pixels), one or more voxels

Objects of a similar shape and an
identical structure for their
characteristics belong to one object
class (cadastral parcels, street axes,
traffic lights, ). Such class generally
has more than 1 member

One object classes is stored in one
object-oriented geodataset

Feature often is used as a synonym for both entity and object
gDB = collection of geodatasets

31
32
Y
X
ID Name # Inhabitants
6045
De
beemdhof 3403


6045
33
Y
X
Vunt 103
Molenbeek 102
Vunt 101
Name ID
101
103
102
34
Y
X
A00235
A00234
99-nov-16 A00233
Date ID
A00233
35
The real world = spatial entities + ??
36
Terrain
Geographic reality is more than classes of georeferenced spatial entities

= The spatial continuum of very many terrain characteristics
Elevation (shaping relief and landscapes)
Depth of lakes, aquifers
Concentration of toxic substances in soil
Meteorological conditions (air temperature, air pressure, precipitation)
Air quality
Noise,

Terrain acts as the canvas on which entities occur

Because of the spatially continuous nature of terrain characteristics, they cannot
be represented by crisp objects

Point observations are used to construct continuous fields of a terrain
characteristic

Each continuous field of a terrain characteristic (e.g. elevation) is modelled and
stored in the gDB as a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of single valued surface
(surface)

37
Example of DTM
Digital Elevation Model
from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
Resolution: 30 m ; Mission: 11-22/2/2000
URL: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/
38

Data about geospatial entities and/or terrain
rivers, hydrography
spatial destination zones
muncipalities
properties, buildings
elevation, bathymetry,
What ?
When ?
What if ?
WHERE ?
From geospatial database to GIS
39
gDB contains data about spatial
entities and/or terrain
Geodata have up to three components:
A geometric component: defines the position and shape of
objects/locations with respect to a reference system;
ALWAYS present
A descriptive component: attaches characteristics or
attributes to objects or locations
Time as the third component. Locations and/or characteristics
can change over time

Geographic primitive = most elementary building
block for the description of the geometric component
of spatial entities and terrain
Points
Cells

40
Geodata in a gDB must be structured
and interpreted
Structuring of the geometric primitives point or cell into

2D geographic objects for entities:
Elementary point, line, polygon objects
More complex network, region objects
Cells and aggregations of cells (pixels picture cells)
Linked to ATTRIBUTE-information

3D geographic objects for entities
Volume objects
Voxels and aggregations of voxels (volumetric cells)

2.5D surfaces for terrain characteristics
Single-valued surfaces, DTM or 2D-fields
Elevation, groundwater depth, noise intensity

3D surfaces for terrain characteristics
Multi-valued surfaces

3D fields for terrain characteristics
Hydraulic conductivity, bulk density, concentration of pollutant

41
Example of structuring of point primitives into
2D-polygon objects
2
42
Examples of structuring of point & cell
primitives into 3D-objects
43
Structuring of point primitives to 2.5D
surfaces
44
2.5D and 3D surfaces versus 3D objects
1 Z for each (X,Y)
multiple Z for each (X,Y)
45
Data in a gDB must be structured
and interpreted
Interpretation of the geometric object- and
surface structures through coupling with
identification codes and characteristics:

Object classes with individual members: specific
parcels, water courses, land use zones,

Surfaces which model specific terrain
characteristics (e.g. digital elevation model; digital
noise intensity model)

46
Geospatial databases
Database = geospatial database if it
contains data about:
Location
(Shape)
(Characteristics) of
geospatial entities and/or
terrain-characteristics of specific locations

47
GI-Systems

gDB equipped with computational and other functions

Are information systems; allow the user to formulate
questions about geographic reality and obtain best
possible answers, given the content of the gDB

Extension of, but comparable to more traditional non-
geographic information systems

Emphasis is on the geometric component, the
Where-question

48
Generic questions for a GIS
What is at a given location ?
Which type of building ? How deep is the groundwater table ?
Where are the entities with the specified characteristics ?
Where are the most densely populated municipalities within the province ?
Where are the locations where specific archeological artefacts have been
found ?
What has changed since ?
Which roads have been built since ?
To what extent has the coastline been eroded between 1990 and 2010 ?
Which spatial patterns do occur ?
Which is the configuration of atmospheric high and low pressure zones ?
What is the dominant wind direction and speed ?
Which are the consequences of ? What if ?
Which area will flood if a dike is perforated at a given location ?
How many people in EU27 will no longer be exposed to dangerous
concentrations of air pollutants if industry is reducing emissions with X%
49
GIS is an Information System but also
GIS = TECHNOLOGY to build and exploit gDBs
Spatial data
modelling
50
GIS is an Information System but also
GIS = TECHNOLOGY to build and exploit gDBs
Management
Transformation
Visualisation, Query, Cartography
Analysis
51
GIS as a technology

Sets of computer programs, infrastructure and know-how
to:
A/D-convert
Structure
Process data about spatial entities and terrain into information
Query and communicate this information
Based, to an important extent, on database-technology
(DBMS)
Applicable in each thematic domain for which locations
are important

52

Summary of important items
The world as it is or was; The world as we expect it or
want it to be

Maps versus geospatial databases
Geospatial entities versus terrain characteristics
Geometric, descriptive and temporal components of
geodata

A GIS is an information system
that can provide answers to where ? and related questions
regarding the current, past, expected and planned geographic
reality
that is based on a model of the geographic reality which is
captured in a geospatial database (gDB)
GIS is a technology
which enables to build and exploit geospatial models/gDB