8 Ch19 Steel

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CHAPTER 19
Structural Steel Construction
Introduction
Introduction
The structural frame of a steel building is constructed by
assembling prefabricated steel components at the site.
This is in contrast to the buildings whose structural
system consists of load-bearing masonry or cast-in-
place reinforced concrete.
In these buildings, almost the entire structure is site-
constructed with virtually no prefabrication.
Therefore, issues related to component fabrication,
component erection, and component assembly are
important in a steel structure.
Preliminary Layout of Framing Members
(Design Coordination)
Preparing the preliminary framing layout of a steel-frame
building (and also of wood or concrete buildings) is not
simply a structural engineering exercise.
It involves careful integration of structural considerations
with several nonstructural considerations, such as HVAC,
the building envelope, fire resistance, interior finishes,
aesthetics, and cost.
Because of its integrative nature, preparation of the
preliminary framing layout is at the heart of an architects
expertise and is generally undertaken during the design
development phase.
(Framing Plans)
The framing layout of a structure is usually prepared in
plan view; therefore, it is referred to as a framing plan.
Generally, a roof framing plan is different from a floor
framing plan because of the difference in floor and roof
loads.
In preparing the framing plans, establishing the structural
grid is the first step.
A structural grid determines the column locations, which
are generally placed at the intersection of the grid lines.
Therefore, the grid lines are also called column lines.
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(Framing Plans) contd
An important feature of the framing of a floor or
roof of a steel building is that all components are
one-way components, that is, they span along one
direction only.
This is in contrast to cast-in-place concrete slabs, which
may either be one-way or two-way slabs.
contd (Use of W-Sections)
For the primary and secondary elements in most
buildings, the choice is between the use of W-sections
or steel joists, as indicated by the following four
alternatives:
W-sections for both primary (girders) and secondary
(beams) elements
W-sections for primary elements and steel joists for
secondary elements.
Steel joist girders or trusses for primary elements and steel
joists for secondary elements.
contd (Use of W-Sections)
In some buildings, such as those with load-bearing walls, the
secondary supporting elements may be omitted and the roof
deck may be supported directly on the primary elements.
(Use of W-Sections) contd
A floor structure with W-sections for
primary and secondary framing
elements. Note the hierarchy in the
load transfer mechanism. The floor
load is transferred from the deck
panels (tertiary elements) to
secondary elements (secondary
beams). From the secondary beams,
the load is transferred to the primary
elements (primary beams) and then
to columns. Instead of using the terms
primary beam and secondary beam,
the terms girder and beam
respectively,
are more common. The term girder is
used for a beam that supports other
beams.
contd (Use of Steel Joists)
A roof structure with steel joist
girders as primary framing elements
and steel joists as secondary
elements. Note that the roof load is
transferred from deck panels to
joists, from the joists to joist girders,
and then to columns.
(Use of Steel Joists) contd
In this roof structure, the roof deck
panels transfer the load to steel
joists, which transfer the load to a
masonry wall. Thus, the joists
function as primary elements and
the deck panels as secondary
elements. Observe the daylight
filtering through the deck. This is
because the deck is a perforated
(acoustical) deck.
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The structural framing of a building must consider
both gravity and lateral loads.
Therefore, simultaneously with the preparation of
the floor and roof framing plans, the architect (in
consultation with the structural engineer) should
determine how to provide lateral load resistance to
the structure.
contd (Lateral Load Resistance)
In a steel-frame building, the choice is between the
use of the following alternatives or their
combinations:
Rigid frames
Braced frame
Reinforced concrete shear walls
Steel shear walls
(Lateral Load Resistance) contd
contd (Examples of Framing Layouts)
(Examples of Framing Layouts) contd
(Examples of Framing Layouts) contd
Bolts and Welds
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Bolts and Welds
Steel bolts are of two types:
Unfinished (or common or ordinary) bolts are made from carbon steel
and generally have the same stress-strain characteristics as A36 steel.
As per ASTM specifications, they are classified as A307 bolts.
The use of A307 bolts has decreased significantly since the introduction of
high-strength bolts.
High-strength bolts are based on ASTM specification A325 or A490.
A325 bolts are made from heat-treated carbon steel and have an
approximate yield stress of 85 ksi.
A490 bolts are made from a heat-treated steel alloy and have a yield
strength of 120 ksi.
A325 bolts are more commonly used because they cost less.
Bolts and Welds contd
(Snug-Tight Connection)
A typical spud wrench for making snug-tight bolted connections.
(Slip-Critical Bolted Connection)
Steps in making a slip-critical connection using the twist-off bolt method.
Welding is a process by which connected steel parts
are brought to a plastic or fluid state through
heating of the parts, allowing them to fuse together,
generally with the addition of another molten metal.
Welding may be done using either gas welding or
arc welding.
(Welds)
Welding advantages over bolting:
Larger range of applicability
Elimination of bolts and connection gusset plates, which
can amount to a substantial saving of steel in some
structures.
Continuity between the connected members, which is
more difficult to obtain through bolting.
(Welding versus Bolting)
Welding disadvantages:
Greater level of skill required.
Preferably carried out under the controlled conditions
of a shop.
Members to be welded must be dry and free from dirt
and grease.
Therefore, field welding is generally avoided as
much as possible.
Bolts and Welds
(Welding versus Bolting) contd
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Bolting advantages over welding:
Rapid
Less-skilled labor
No surface cleaning
It is more suited to field conditions than welding
because weather conditions have relatively little effect
on bolting.
Bolts and Welds
(Welding versus Bolting) contd
Connections Between Framing Members
The more commonly used connection types are:
Column-to-beam connections
Beam-to-beam connections
Column-to-column connections (i.e., column splice)
contd (Typ. Type II Connections)
Typical column-beam shear (Type II) connection.
(Typ. Type II Connections) contd
Typical column-beam shear (Type II) connections.
(Typ. Type II Connections) contd
Typical column-beam shear (Type II) connection.
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contd (Column-Beam Connections)
The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
divides column-beam connections as follows:
Rigid connection, also called moment connection or AISC
Type I connection
Simple connection, also called shear connection or AISC Type
II connection
Semirigid connection, also called AISC Type III connection
In practice, however, most connections are either simple or rigid
connections.
contd (Rigid Column-Beam Connections)
Typical column-beam rigid connection.
(Rigid Column-Beam Connections) contd
Typical column-beam rigid connection.
contd (Girder-Beam Shear Connections)
Typical girder-beam (shear) connection.
(Girder-Beam Shear Connections) contd
Typical girder-beam (shear) connection.
contd (Column Splices)
Column splices are a necessity in a multistory building
because of the limited length of steel members.
Generally, column splices are provided every two
stories.
In a three-story building, however, the columns can be
continuouswithout splices.
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(Column Splices) contd
Typical column splices. Column ends are milled smooth giving full end bearing to
achieve proper transfer of loads.
Steel Detailing and Fabrication
Unlike masonry and site-cast concrete construction, in
which various components, such as walls, columns, and
beams, are constructed at the site, structural steel
components are brought to the site in a prefabricated
and finished state, ready for erection and assembly.
There is very little cutting, notching, and drilling of
components at the site.
contd (Detailing)
For most buildings, the design and detailing of connections
between components (such as those shown in the previous
slides) are prepared by the fabricator based on the framing
plans and other information provided in the projects structural
drawings.
Leaving connection detailing to the fabricator allows the
fabricator to use the details that are most economical and best
suited for erection, scheduling, and the peculiarities of the site.
Where details are aesthetically significant, the fabricator must
conform to the architectural and structural requirements of the
project.
contd (Ordering Materials)
After the shop drawings are completed, they are
reviewed first by the general contractor and then by
the project architect and structural engineer.
Because the modifications expected from the review
process are generally minor, the fabricator orders the
structural steel sections from the rolling mills while the
review of shop drawings is in progress.
contd (Fabrication)
Most large steel-fabrication shops are
semiautomated, that is, computer assisted, which
makes the fabrication process not only precise but
also quick.
Welding in most fabrication shops is carried out
manually.
For long, continuous lines of welds or repetitive
welding, an automated welding system is used.
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(Fabrication) contd
A computer-aided plate and angle punching machine cuts plates and angles to the
required size and drills holes of the required diameters and spacings without any
manual labor.
(Fabrication) contd
A computer-aided band saw cuts heavy steel members to size. The machine is
versatile enough to make skew cuts instead of a right-angle cut, as shown here.
Steel Erection
Steel Erection
The erection of the structural steel frame at the site may be
performed by the fabricator or by a separate erection
company.
In most cases, the general contractor will seek separate bids
for fabrication and erection.
If the fabricator, selected on the basis of a competitive bid for
fabrication, also submits a competitive bid for erection, the
fabrication and erection may be done by the same
organization. If not, the erection contract may be given to a
different company.
Fabrication and erection by the same entity is obviously
preferred.
Steel Erection contd
The erection of a steel frame begins with the erection of columns. The columns, with
their shop-welded base plates, are anchored to the bolts embedded in the foundations
by the general contractor as per the fabricators details. In a multistory building, each
column shaft is generally two stories tall.
Some of the various types of cranes used in steel frame erection.
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Leveling a column base plate using leveling nuts.
Leveling a column base plate using high-strength plastic shims placed under a thin steel
plate.
A steel erector (with his body harness
tied to the beam on which he sits)
maneuvers the new beam into position,
initially using the rope attached at the
end of the beam and later by hand. The
rope is referred to as a tagline in
erection vernacular.
Generally, members at a connection are forced to align. In this image, a drift pin has
been used to make the alignment. In some connections, crow bars or hammers may
have to be used.
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE:
Fundamentals of Frame Construction
POST-AND-BEAM CONSTRUCTION
(a) A typical post-and-beam structure used by ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans.
(b) Stonehenge (United Kingdom, approximately 2500 to 1700 BC) is generally cited
as the earliest surviving example of the post-and-beam structure.
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Under gravity loads, the beam in a post-and-beam structure is subjected to bending,
which causes it to rotate at the joint. Because of the absence of a connection between
the post and the beam, the rotation of the beam at the joint is not transferred to the
post. The post is, therefore, subjected to compression only.
Under the action of both in-plane and out-of-plane lateral loads, a post-and-beam
structure is unstable.
PIN-CONNECTED CANTILEVERED FRAME
A single-bay, pin-connected frame in which the beam and column are connected
together with a single nail, screw, or bolt. A pin connection is also referred to as a
shear connection because the gravity load from the beam is transferred to the column,
creating shear in the nail, screw, or bolt.
A connection between a stud and the top (or bottom) plate of a wood light frame,
typically using two or three nails, is considered a pin connection.
(a) A glass roof at Toronto Airport supported by three-pin frames. Each frame
consists of two members, a linear trussed member and a curved hollow-web
member. The members are joined at the top with a pin connection. (b) A pin connect-
ion has also been used to support each member at its support (base). All three pins
in each frame have been detailed as true pins.
In a conceptual line diagram of a pin-connected frame, a pin is represented by a
circular dot, and the frame members are represented by single heavy lines.
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(a) A typical isolated footing for a steel column. (b) A small column footing is regarded
to provide a pinned column base because it tends to rotate under the action of the
lateral load. (c) To obtain cantilever behavior from a column with an isolated footing,
the footing must be large and heavy.
PIN-CONNECTED BASE FRAME
A four-pin frame is not a structure but a mechanism because it is unstable under both
lateral loads and asymmetrical gravity loads.
A four-pin frame can be stabilized by using X-bracing. Note that only one of the two
X-braces is active under a lateral load.
K-braces and eccentric K-braces.
(a) If a single brace is used, it must be sufficiently heavy against buckling under
compression. (b) Shear wall bracing.
RIGID FRAME
(Unlike a pin connection, a rigid connection retains its 90 angle between the
connected members on deformation. Consequently, a rigid frame resists gravity loads
by creating bending in all three frame members. Because bending is structurally
inefficient, a rigid frame is generally less economical than a comparable braced
frame. Note that a rigid frame under gravity loads experiences an outward
thrust in column bases similar to that of an arch. In a single-line diagram of the frame,
a rigid connection is denoted by diagonal thickening of the joint.
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RIGID FRAME
A rigid connection between two wood frame members can be obtained by nailing a
plywood or OSB gusset plate on both sides of the joint. A rigid connection between two
steel members is more complex.
RIGID FRAME VS. BRACED FRAME
Comparison of the racking of a rigid frame and a braced frame.
RIGID FRAME VS. BRACED FRAME
Racking of the frame is produced even under asymmetrical gravity loads, which is more
pronounced in a rigid frame than in a braced frame.
MULTIBAY SINGLE-STORY FRAMES
Some of the ways of bracing a four-bay, single-story frame.
(a) Braced frames in both principal directions. (b) Braced frames in one direction and
rigid frames in the other direction.
It is possible to obtain sufficient rigidity by using rigid connections in a few bays of a
multibay frame.
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TALL BUILDINGS IN STEEL
Plan and elevation of a high-rise steel-frame building with a braced steel-frame shear
core.
TALL BUILDINGS IN STEEL
Plan and elevation of a high-rise steel-frame building with a reinforced concrete shear
core.
LONG-SPAN STEEL BUILDINGS
A commonly used method of framing a tall building that is much longer in one direction
than the other is to use a central core and two end shear walls (or braced bays).

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