Mechanical Engineering Lab Manual

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

KNJ2261 Laboratory IV
MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING LABORATORY IV

LABORATORY MANUAL

Revised: December 2010

TABLE OF CONTENT

Lab Code Title Page
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
F10

Venturi Meter
Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus
Flow Through Orifice
Orifice and Free Jet Flow
Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration
Osborne Reynolds Demonstration
Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings
Pelton Turbine
Wind Tunnel
Pump Performance Test
1
8
20
30
38
49
54
58
65
71

Appendix
A
B
C
D
Safety First
Guidelines for Laboratory Report
Example of Front Page Cover
Example
76
77
78
79

KNJ2261 Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory IV
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

1. TOPIC 1: VENTURI METER.

1.1 THEORY:
Introduction
In engineering and industrial practice, fluid measurement of many of the variables and properties,
such as density, viscosity, pressure, velocity, flow rate, etc, is one of the problems most frequently
encountered by engineers. It is therefore an essential for engineers to be well equipped with
knowledge of the fundamentals and existing methods of measuring various fluid properties and
phenomena. This apparatus is specially designed to obtain the flow rate measurement by utilizing
venturi meter.

Venturi Meter
The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi tube has a
converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure below. The function of the
converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower its static pressure. A pressure
difference between inlet and throat is thus developed, which pressure difference is correlated with the
rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the area of the streamback to the entrance area
and convert velocity head into pressure head.

Figure 1.1: The Venturi Tube
Assume incompressible flow and no frictional losses, fromBernoullis Equation

2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
Z
g
v p
Z
g
v p
+ + = + +

(1)

Use of the continuity Equation Q =A1V1 =A2V2, equation (1) becomes
Page 1 of 81


(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
1
2
2
2
2 1
1
2
2 1
A
A
g
Z Z
p p

(2)
Ideally,
2 / 1
2 1
2 / 1
2
1
2
2 2 2
2 1
2 1
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =

Z Z
p p
g
A
A
A V A Q
i
(3)

However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than that given by
equation (3) because of frictional effects and consequent head loss between inlet and throat. Therefore,
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
2
2 1
2 1
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

Z Z
p p
g
A
A
A C Q
d a
(4)

In metering practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally determined
discharge coefficient, Cd that is termed as the coefficient of discharge. With Z1 =Z2 in this apparatus,
the discharge coefficient is determined as follow:
i
a
d
Q
Q
C =
(5)

Discharge coefficient, Cd usually lies in the range between 0.9 and 0.99.

Page 2 of 81


1.2 APPARATUS:
`

Figure 1.2: Parts Identification and Equipment Set-up of Venturi Meter

1. Staddle Valve 6. Baseboard
2. Manometer Tubes 7. Unions
3. Manometer Board 8. Venturi Inlet Connection
4. Discharge Valve 9. Venturi Meter
5. Venturi Outlet Connection 10. Adjustable Feet
The Venturi Meter has been designed to be operated together with a basic hydraulic bench or any
water supply to study the characteristics of flow through both converging and diverging sections.
During the operation, water is fed through a hose connector. A discharge valve is installed at the
1
2
3
4
5
7
8
10
6
9
Page 3 of 81


Venturi outlet for flow rate control. The venturi can be demonstrated as a means of flow measurement
and the discharge coefficient can be determined.

1.3 MAINTENANCE AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1. It is important to drain all water fromthe apparatus when not in use. The apparatus
should be stored properly to prevent damage.
2. Any manometer tube, which does not fill with water or slow fill, indicates that tapping or
connection of the manometer is blocked. To remove the obstacle, disconnect the flexible
connection tube and blow through.
3. The apparatus should not be exposed to any shock and stresses.
4. Always wear protective clothing, shoes, helmet and goggles throughout the laboratory
session.
5. Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and procedures.

General Shut-Down Procedures
1. Close water supply valve and venturi discharge valve.
2. Turn off the water supply pump.
3. Drain off water fromthe unit when not in use.

Page 4 of 81


1.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:
1.4.1 Experiment 1: Discharge Coefficient
Objective
To determine the discharge coefficient of the venturi meter.

Procedures
1. Adjust the discharge valve to the maximummeasurable flow rate of the venturi.
2. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method
and record the necessary readings.
3. Repeat the steps for few data collection by regulating the venturi discharge valve.
4. Obtain the actual flow rate, Qa
5. Calculate the ideal flow rate, Qi
6. Finally obtain the discharge coefficient, Cd
7. Discuss your result.

Experimental Data Sheet
Qa
(LPM)
Water Head (mm)
hA hB hC hD hE hF

Data Analysis:
Throat Diameter, D3 (mm) = 16.0
Inlet Diameter, D1 (mm) = 26.0
Throat Area, At (m2) = 2.011E-04
Inlet Area, A (m2) = 5.309E-04
g (m/s2) = 9.81
(kg/m3) = 1000

Page 5 of 81


1.4.2 Experiment 2: Flow Meter Measurement
Objective
To measure the flow rate with venturi meter

Procedures
1. Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow rate.
2. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method
and record the manometers reading.
3. Repeat the steps with other few data collection.
4. Calculate the venturi meter flow rate of each data.
5. Compare the volumetric flow rate with venturi meter flow rate.
6. Discuss your result.

Qa
(LPM)
Water Head (mm)
hA hB hC hD hE hF

Data Analysis:
Cd = _____
Throat Dia, D3 (mm) = 16.0
Inlet Dia, D1 (mm) = 26.0
Throat Area, At (m2) = 2.011E-04
Inlet Area, A (m2) = 5.309E-04
g (m/s2) = 9.81
r (kg/m3) = 1000

Page 6 of 81


Qa (LPM) hA-hC (m) Calculated FlowRate (LPM) Error (%)

1.5 OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS:
1. Briefly explain any two common devices that are used to measure velocity and flow rate.
2. In your own words, explain how flow rate is measured with obstruction-type flowmeter.
3. If the flow rate of fluid increase, explain what happen to the pressure inside a venturi meter.

Page 7 of 81


2. TOPIC 2: FLOWMETER MEASUREMENT APPARATUS

2.1 THEORY:
Rotameter
The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free float is the indicating element.

Figure 2.1: The Rotameter

Venturi Meter
The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and a suitable differential pressure gauge.

Figure 2.2: Venturi Meter

Assume incompressible flow and no frictional losses, fromBernoullis Equation
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
Z
g
v p
Z
g
v p
+ + = + +

....(1)
Use of the continuity Equation Q =A1V1 =A2V2, equation (1) becomes

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
= +
2
1
2
2
2
2 1
1
2
2 1
A
A
g
V
Z Z
p p
....(2)

Ideal
Tapered tube
Flow
Scale
1
2
Inlet
Throat
Page 8 of 81


2 1
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
2 2 2
2 1
2 1
/
/
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =

Z Z
p p
g
A
A
A V A Q

.....(3)

However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than that given by
equation (2) because of frictional effects and consequent head loss between inlet and throat. In
metering practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally determined
coefficient, Cd that is termed as the coefficient of discharge. With Z1 =Z2 in this apparatus, equation
(3) becomes

Actual
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
2
2 1
2 1
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

p p
g
A
A
A Cd Q
...... (4)

Hence,
( ) | |
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
/ 2 1 P P g
A
At
At Cd q
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=

....... (5)

Where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge (0.98)
D2 = Throat diameter =16 mm
D1 = Inlet diameter =26 mm
At = Throat area =2.011 x 10
-4
m
2

A = Inlet area =5.309 x 10
-4
m
2

g = 9.81 m/s
2

= Density of water =1000 kg/m
3

P1 = Inlet pressure (Pa)
P2 = Throat pressure (Pa)

Orifice Meter
The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consists of a concentric square-edged circular
hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the pipe as shown in the figure below.

Figure 2.3: Orifice Meter

Equation (4) for the venturi meter can also be applied to the orifice meter where

A
1
A
2
Page 9 of 81


Actual
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
2
2 1
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

p p
g
A
A
A Cd Q
..(6)

The coefficient of discharge, Cd in the case of the orifice meter will be different fromthat for the case
of a venturi meter.

( ) | |
2 1
8 7
2 1
2
2 1 h h g
A
At
At Cd Q
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=

.(7)

Where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge (0.63)
D7 = Orifice diameter =16 mm
D8 = Orifice upstreamdiameter =26 mm
At = Orifice area =2.011 x 10
-4
m
2

A = Orifice upstreamarea =5.309 x 10
-4
m
2

(h7 h8) = Pressure difference across orifice (m)

Page 10 of 81


90
o
elbow
Figure below shows fluid flowing in a pipeline where there is some pipe fitting such as bend or valve,
and change in pipe diameter. Included in the figure is the variation of piezometric head along the pipe
run, as would be shown by numerous pressure tappings at the pipe wall.

Figure 2.4: Piezometric head along a pipeline

If the upstreamand downstreamlines of linear friction gradient are extrapolated to the plane of fitting,
a loss of piezometric head,
h, due to the fitting is found. By introducing the velocity heads in the

upstreamand downstreamruns of pipe, total head loss, H can be determined in which

g
V
g
V
h H
2 2
2
2
2
1
+ =
(8)

Energy losses are proportional to the velocity head of the fluid as it flows around an elbow, through an
enlargement or contraction of the flow section, or through a valve. Experimental values for energy
losses are usually expressed in terms of a dimensionless loss coefficient K, where

g V
H
or
g V
H
K
2 2
2
2
2
1
/ /

=
..(9)

depending on the context.
For results of better accuracy, long sections of straight pipe are required to establish with certainty the
relative positions of the linear sections of the piezometric lines. However, in a compact apparatus as
described in this manual, only two piezometers are used, one placed upstream and the other
downstreamof the fitting, at sufficient distances as to avoid severe disturbances. These piezometers
measure the piezometric head loss,
h between the tapping. Thus

f
h h h = '
..(10)

Where
V
2
2
/ 2g
V
1
2
/ 2g

H
h
V
2 V
1
Page 11 of 81


|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
g
V
D
L
f h
f
2
4
2

hf = friction head loss which would be incurred in fully developed flow
along the run of pipe between the piezometer tappings
f = friction factor
L = distance between the piezometer, measured along the pipe center line
D = pipe diameter
V = average velocity of fluid flow in pipe

The friction head loss is estimated by choosing a suitable value of friction factor, f for fully developed
flow along a smooth pipe. The method used in this manual to determine the friction factor is the
Prandtl equation

( ) 4 0 4
1
. Re log = f
f
(11)

Typical values derived fromthis equation are tabulated in the table below:

Re, x 10
4
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
f, x 10
-3
9.27 7.73 6.96 6.48 6.14 5.88 5.67

In determination of the fraction factor, f, it is sufficient to establish the value of f at just one typical
flow rate, as about the middle of the range of measurement due to the fact that f varies only slowly
with Re, and the friction loss is generally fairly small in relation to the measured value of h.

Page 12 of 81


2.2 APPARATUS:

Figure 2: Flowmeter Measurement Apparatus

1. Manometer Tubes 6. Rotameter
2. Discharge Valve 7. 90 Elbow
3. Water Outlet 8. Orifice
4. Water Supply 9. Venturi
5. Staddle Valve

4
3
2
1
5
6
7
8
9
Page 13 of 81


Specification of dimensions

i) Venturi meter

Figure 3: Specification of the Venturi Meter

Tapping A = 26 mm
Tapping B = 21.6 mm
Tapping C = 16 mm
Tapping D = 20 mm
Tapping E = 22 mm
Tapping F = 26 mm

ii) Orifice

Figure 4: Specification of the Orifice Plate

Orifice upstream diameter (G) = 26 mm
Orifice diameter (H) = 16 mm

C
A
D
E F B
G H
Page 14 of 81


session.


Page 15 of 81


2.4.1 Experiment 1: Characteristics of Flowmeter Measurement Devices

Objective
To obtain the flow rate measurement by utilizing three basic types of flow measuring
techniques, which are rotameter, venturi meter and orifice meter.

Procedures
1. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up
the pump supply fromhydraulic bench.
2. Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened.
3. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close
the bench valve to reduce the flow to the maximummeasurable flow rate.
4. Adjust water level in the manometer board. Retain maximum readings on
manometers with the maximummeasurable flow rate.
5. Note readings on flowmeter devices.
6. Repeat the steps for few data collection.
7. To demonstrate similar flow rates at different systemstatic pressures, adjust
bench and flow control valve together. Adjusting manometer levels as required.
8. Discuss the result

Page 16 of 81

Universiti MalaysiaSarawak

Manometer reading (mm) Rotameter
(l/min)
Vol
(l)
Time
(min)
Flowrate,
Q
(l/min)
Flowrate calculated using the
Bernoulli's Equation (l/min)
A B C D E F G H I J Venturi Orifice

Page17 of 81


2.4.2 Experiment 2: Loss Coefficient
Objective
To investigate losses at one typical fitting, which is a 90 elbow

Procedures
1. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up
the pump supply fromhydraulic bench.
3. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close
the bench valve to reduce the flow to the maximummeasurable flow rate.
4. Adjust the water level in the manometer board. Retain maximumreadings on
manometers with the maximummeasurable flow rate.
5. Note readings on manometers.
7. Determine the coefficient of losses.
8. Discuss the result.

Page 18 of 81



1. Explain what are the primary considerations when selecting a flowmeter to measure the flow
rate of a fluid.
2. In your own words, explain the mechanismof rotameter.
3. Compare rotameter, venture meter and orifice meter with respect to cost, size, head loss and
accuracy.

Volume
(L)
Time
(sec)
Flowrate,Q
(l/min)
Differential Piezometer Head, h' (mm)
V
(m/s)

Page 19 of 81


3. TOPIC 3: FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE

3.1 THEORY:
A fluid passing though an orifice constriction will experience a drop in pressure across the orifice.
This change can be used to measure the flowrate of the fluid.
To calculate the flowrate of a fluid passing through an orifice plate, enter the parameters below. (The
default calculation involves air passing through a medium-sized orifice in a 4" pipe, with answers
rounded to 3 significant figures.)

As long as the fluid speed is sufficiently subsonic (V <mach 0.3), the incompressible Bernoullis
equation describes the flow reasonably well. Applying this equation to a streamline traveling down the
axis of the horizontal tube gives,

2
1
2
2 2 1
2
1
2
1
V V p p p = =

where location 1 is upstreamof the orifice, and location 2 is slightly behind the orifice. It is
recommended that location 1 be positioned one pipe diameter upstreamof the orifice, and location 2
be positioned one-half pipe diameter downstreamof the orifice. Since the pressure at 1 will be higher
than the pressure at 2 (for flow moving from1 to 2), the pressure difference as defined will be a
positive quantity.
Page 20 of 81


Fromcontinuity, the velocities can be replaced by cross-sectional areas of the flow and the volumetric
flowrate Q,
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
A
A
A
Q p

Solving for the volumetric flowrate Q gives,
2
1
2
2
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
A
A p
Q

The above equation applies only to perfectly laminar, inviscid flows. For real flows (such as water or
air), viscosity and turbulence are present and act to convert kinetic flow energy into heat. To account
for this effect, a discharge coefficient Cd is introduced into the above equation to marginally reduce
the flowrate Q,
2
1
2
2
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
A
A p
C Q
D

Since the actual flow profile at location 2 downstreamof the orifice is quite complex, thereby making
the effective value of A2 uncertain, the following substitution introducing a flow coefficient Cf is
made,
2
1
2
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
A
A
A
C A C
D O f

where Ao is the area of the orifice. As a result, the volumetric flowrate Q for real flows is given by the
equation,

p
A C Q
O f
=
2

The flow coefficient Cf is found fromexperiments and is tabulated in reference books; it ranges from
0.6 to 0.9 for most orifices. Since it depends on the orifice and pipe diameters (as well as the Reynolds
Number), one will often find Cf tabulated versus the ratio of orifice diameter to inlet diameter,
sometimes defined as b,
Page 21 of 81


inlet
O
D
D
=

The mass flowrate can be found by multiplying Q with the fluid density,
Q Q
mass
=

This experiment allows us to detect the effect of friction on water flow. There are three coefficients
that are useful in determining the performance of water through a jet and the effect of friction on that
performance. Cd, Cv, and Cc as defined earlier give us insite into the effects of friction on water flow.
Each of these coefficients is ratio of the actual performance to ideal performance as related to
discharge, velocity, and contraction. Without friction, each of these coefficients would be 1. With the
presence of friction, the actual performance is less than the ideal performance and therefore, each
coefficient is less than 1.

The coefficient of discharge is heavily related to the volumetric flow rate of the fluid flow and the
cross sectional area of the orifice. It is also related to the gravitational constant and the head pressure.
The coefficient of discharge is a ratio of the actual discharge divided by the ideal discharge. The
actual discharge is the discharge that occurs and which is affected by friction as the jet passes through
the orifice. The ideal discharge would be the discharge achieved without friction. Thus,

O O
C
D
gH A
Q
C
2
=
=
O
C
D
Q
Q
C =
(1)

Where,
=
c
Q
Actual Volumetric Flow Rate
=
o
Q
Ideal Volumetric Flow Rate
o o
c
D
V A
Q
C
thus V A Q
=
= ,

Actual Velocity, VC ;
C C
gH V 2 =
(2)
Ideal Velocity, VO ;
Page 22 of 81


O O
gH V 2 =
(3)
Cross Section, A;

( )
4
2
O
O
D
A

=
(4)

( )
4
2
C
C
D
A

= (5)
Theoretical Discharge, Q
Ideal Velocity x Orifice Area
Actual Discharge, QC

t
V
Q
C
=
1000
(7)

Coefficient of Velocity, CV

O
C
V
V
V
C =
(8)

Coefficient of Contracta

V
D
C
C
C
C =
1
(9)

o
c
C
D
D
C =
2
(10)
where,
DO =Orifice Diameter
DC =Vena Diameter

All three of these coefficients are a measure of energy loss. Fromthis particular relationship it is
evident that energy loss in the systemcan be directly related to the difference in head levels between
ideal and actual conditions.

The Coefficient of Contraction is a ratio of the actual diameter of the jet divided by the ideal diameter
of the jet. The actual diameter is the diameter that occurs and which is affected by friction as the jet
passes through the orifice. The ideal diameter would be the diameter of the orifice. The narrowing of
Page 23 of 81


the water jet is the direct result of friction on the jet as it passes through the sharp edge orifice. The
place at which the majority of narrowing has occurred is known as the Vena Contracta

The Vena Contracta is generally considered to occur at a distance downstreamfromthe orifice equal
to one half the diameter of the orifice. The Coefficient of Contraction can be derived froma
relationship with the Coefficients of Discharge and Velocity.

v
D
c
C
C
C =

The Coefficient of Contraction can also be derived fromdirect measurement if adequately precise
tools are available. This can be done using the blade attachment as described in the experimental
procedures section.

Page 24 of 81


3.2 APPARATUS:

Figure 3.1: Parts of Identification

1. Manometer
2. Water Inlet
3. Overflow
4. Traverse Total Head Tube
5. Orifice
6. Adjustable Feet

6
3
5
4
1
2
Page 25 of 81


Correction Factor

Figure 3.2 : Correction factor for Ho and Hc

Figure 3.2 shows the correction factor for Ho and Hc which is 10mm. Due to the placement of the
manometer scale is below the designated point of measurement of these two parameter, the readings
should be deducted with 10mmto acquire the desired readings.

Page 26 of 81


1. It is important to drain all water fromthe apparatus when not in use. The apparatus should
be stored properly to prevent damage.
2. Any manometer tube, which does not fill with or slow fill, indicates that tapping or connection
of the manometer is blocked. To remove the obstacle, disconnect the flexible connection tube
and blow through.
4. Always wear protective clothing, shoes, helmet, and goggles throughout the laboratory session.


Page 27 of 81



Characteristics of Vena Contracta
Objective
To determine the coefficient of contracta, coefficient of velocity and coefficient of discharge
for a flow through an orifice

Procedures
1. Turn on the hydraulic bench on and allow water flow to enter the cylindrical tank.
Adjust the flow until the water level in the tank is just above the overflow.
2. Using the adjustable inlet pipe, raise the level of the diffuser till it is just below water
level. For the best results, the level of the diffuser should always be adjusted to meet
this condition.
3. Record the water level in the tube connected to the bottomof the cylindrical tank.
Make sure there are no bubbles in the tube.
4. Move the Pitot tube onto position directly underneath the exiting water jet. Once
equilibriumis reached, record the water level in the tube connected to the Pitot tube.
5. Record the diameter of the exiting water jet using the wire.
6. Record the distance traversed by the wire to determine the diameter of the vena
contracta.

Page 28 of 81


Orifice Diameter,
mm
Volume
(mL)
Time
(s)
Orifice Manometer,
(mm)
Pitot Manometer,
(mm)
Vena Diameter,
(mm)

1. Explain what are is vena contracta
2. In your own words, discuss the relation between vena contracta and cavitation developed in
orifice

Page 29 of 81


4. TOPIC 4: ORIFICE AND FREE JET FLOW

4.1 THEORY:
Theory of Small Orifices
An orifice is an opening, usually circular, in the side or base of a tank or reservoir through which fluid
is discharged in the formof jet, usually into the atmosphere. The volume rate of flow discharged
through an orifice will depend upon the head of the fluid above the level of the orifice, and it can,
therefore be used as a mean of flow measurement. The termsmall orifice is applied to an orifice
which has a diameter or vertical dimension, which is small compared with the head producing flow.

Jet Flow
Figure 4.1 shows an orifice with a free discharge. Energy losses as fluid moves down a streamtube is
very small, so the application of Bernoulli should be appropriate. Applying the equation between
sections 1 & 2 for the flow gives:

2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
z
g
v
y
p
z
g
v
y
p
+ + = + +
(1)

1
2
h
do
Vena
Contracta

Figure 4.1 Orifice with free discharge

Page 30 of 81


If the free surface and jet at section 2 each were open to the atmosphere, then p1 would equal to p2. If
the area A1 were large in comparison with A2, the continuity equation shows that v1 would be small in
comparison with v2. Thus, if v1 can be neglected,

gh v 2
2
=
(2)

Because of the friction, the actual jet velocity at the exit of orifice, vo is less than ideal. A coefficient
can be introduced so that this expression gives an accurate result.

gh C v
v o
2 =
(3)

The coefficient Cv is called the coefficient of velocity of the orifice. For a sharp-edged small orifice
(that is d0 <<h) Cv is approximately 0.98 which show how well the energy approach works. The
flow through the orifice is given by the product of the velocity and the area of jet at the vena contracta,
that is:

vc
A v Q
0
=
(4)

gh A C Q
vc v
2 =
(5)

Unfortunately, the area of the vena contracta is not easily calculated by a theoretical method and
element of empiricismmust be introduced. The ratio of the area of the vena contracta to the area of
the orifice is called the coefficient contraction of the orifice Cc

0
A A C
vc c
/ =
(6)

So,

gh C A C Q
v c
2
0
=

Page 31 of 81


=
gh A C
d
2
0
(7)

The coefficient Cd is called the coefficient of discharge and is equal to the product Cv and Cc.

Thus the three coefficient can be summarized as below

o
vc
c
A
A
orifice the of Area
contracta vena the at area Actual
C = =
(8)

yh
x
gh velocity l Theoretica
y gx contracta vena the at velocity Actual
C
v
2 2
2
2
= =
,
(9)

c v d
C C
e disch l Theoretica
contracta vena the at e disch Actual
C = =
arg
arg
(10)

This coefficient can be determined independent of each other. The diameter at the vena contracta is
measured to calculate Cc, the coordinates of the jet trajectory to obtain the actual velocity for finding
Cv and the actual discharge to determine Cd.

Page 32 of 81


4.2 APPARATUS:
Description and Assembly

Figure 4.4: Orifice and Free Jet Flow

Specifications:
i) Quadrant-edged Orifice (No. 1)
Diameter : 4 mmand 8 mm

ii) Square-edged Orifice (No. 2)
Diameter : 4 mmand 8 mm

iii) J et Trajectory Probes
No. of Tracing Probes : 8

iv) Constant Head Tank
Max. Constant Head : 450 mm
Tank Diameter : 200 mm

1. Adjustable Overflow Baffle 4. Adjustable Feet
2. Adjustable Head Tank 5. Level Scale Board
3. Interchangeable Orifice 6. Jet Trajectory Probes
2
1
3
4
5
6
Page 33 of 81


session.
5. Clean and wipe the bench with damp cloth after every laboratory session.

Page 34 of 81


4.4.1 Experiment 1: Jet Trajectories

Objective
To compare the predicted and measured jet trajectories.

Procedures
1. Insert an orifice into orifice fitting.
2. Connect the apparatus to the water supply of the hydraulic bench and start the pump.
3. Adjust the water head to readable reading by means of the adjustable overflow.
4. Read the measured of the jet and note themdown in tabular form.
5. Plot the Trajectory Graph for both measured and calculated position.
6. Discuss the differences between the trajectories.


Measured and calculated jet trajectory (water head 0.4 m)

x position in m

y position in m
(measured)
y position in m
(calculated)

Page 35 of 81


4.4.2 Experiment 2: Flow Meter Measurement
Objective
Visual appreciation of the change of jet shape by varying the water head and the orifice
diameter

Procedures
1. Insert an orifice into the Orifice fitting device.
2. Connect the apparatus to the water supply of the hydraulic bench and start the pump.
3. Adjust the water head supply of the adjustable overflow to readable water head
reading.
4. Read the measurement y-position of the jet and note themdown in a tabular form.
5. Repeat the experiment with different water head.
6. Repeat the steps with different orifice size.
7. Discuss the effect of diameter and water head to the trajectories.

Orifice no. 1
x position (m)
y position (m)
Water head,
h = . mm
Water head,
h = mm

Page 36 of 81


Orifice no. 2
x position (m)
y position (m)
Water head,
h = mm
Water head,
h = .. mm

1. In your own words, describe the working principle of an orifice meter.
2. Give at least two (2) examples of engineering applications which are using orifice meter.
3. If the water head is higher, explain what will happen to the trajectories distance. J ustify your
answer.

Page 37 of 81


5 TOPIC 5: BERNOULLIS THEOREM DEMONSTRATION

5.1 THEORY:

Bernoullis Law
Bernoulli's law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross section, then
the pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher, and the pressure is higher where the
pipe opens out and the fluid stagnate. Many people find this situation paradoxical when they first
encounter it (higher velocity, lower pressure). This is expressed with the following equation:
Constant = = + +
*
h z
g
v
g
p
2
2
(3.8)
Where,
p =Fluid static pressure at the cross section
=Density of the flowing fluid
g =Acceleration due to gravity
v =Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z =Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum
h* =Total (stagnation) head

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head (h), velocity head
(hv ), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sumof these terms is known as the total head (h
*
).
According to the Bernoullis theoremof fluid flow through a pipe, the total head h
*
at any cross
section is constant. In a real flow due to friction and other imperfections, as well as measurement
uncertainties, the results will deviate fromthe theoretical ones.
In our experimental setup, the centerline of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the same
horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum, z =0, and thus, all the z values are zeros so
that the above equation reduces to:
Constant = = +
*
h
g
v
g
p
2
2
(3.9)
This represents the total head at a cross section.
For the experiments, the pressure head is denoted as hi and the total head as h
*
i , where i represents the
cross sections at different tapping points.
Static, Stagnation and Dynamic Pressures
Page 38 of 81


The pressure, p, which we have used in deriving the Bernoullis equation, Equation 3.7, is the
thermodynamic pressure; it is commonly called the static pressure. The static pressure is that pressure
which would be measured by an instrument moving with the flow. However, such a measurement is
rather difficult to make in a practical situation.

As we know, there was no pressure variation normal to straight streamlines. This fact makes it
possible to measure the static pressure in a flowing fluid using a wall pressure tapping, placed in a
region where the flow streamlines are straight, as shown in Figure 4 (a). The pressure tap is a small
hole, drilled carefully in the wall, with its axis perpendicular to the surface. If the hole is perpendicular
to the duct wall and free fromburrs, accurate measurements of static pressure can be made by
connecting the tap to a suitable pressure measuring instrument.
Flow
streamlines
Pressure
tap

(a) Wall Pressure Tapping

Flow
Small holes
Stem
To manometer or
pressure gage

(b) Wall Pressure Tapping
Figure 5.1: Measurement of Static Pressure

In a fluid stream far from a wall, or where streamlines are curved, accurate static pressure
measurements can be made by careful use of a static pressure probe, shown in Figure 4 (b). Such
probes must be designed so that the measuring holes are place correctly with respect to the probe tip
Page 39 of 81


and stemto avoid erroneous results. In use, the measuring section must be aligned with the local flow
direction.

Static pressure probes or any variety of forms are available commercially in sizes as small as 1.5 mm
(1/16 in.) in diameter. The stagnation pressure is obtained when a flowing fluid is decelerated to zero
speed by a frictionless process. In incompressible flow, the Bernoulli Equation can be used to relate
changes in speed and pressure along a streamline for such a process. Neglecting elevation differences,
Equation 3.7 becomes
constant = +
2
2
v p
(3.10)
If the static pressure is p at a point in the flow where the speed is v, then the stagnation pressure, Po,
where the stagnation speed, Vo, is zero, therefore,

2
2
1
V p p
o
+ =
(3.11)

Equation 3.11 is a mathematical statement of stagnation pressure, valid for incompressible flow. The
term V generally is the dynamic pressure. Solving the dynamic pressure gives:
p p V
o
=
2
2
1
(3.12)

Or

( )
p p
V
o

=
2
(3.13)

Thus, if the stagnation pressure and the static pressure could be measured at a point, Equation 3.13
would give the local flow speed.

Page 40 of 81


Small hole
Flow
To manometer or
pressure gage

Figure 5.2: Measurement of Stagnation Pressure

Flow
p po
A
Total
head
tube

(a) Total Head Tube Used with Wall Static Tap

Flow
Small holes
Stem

p
B
C
po

(a) Pitot-Static Tube
Figure 5.3: Simultaneous Measurement of Stagnation and Static Pressures

Stagnation pressure is measured in the laboratory using a probe with a hole that faces directly
upstreamas shown in Figure 5. Such a probe is called a stagnation pressure probe (hypodermic probe)
Page 41 of 81


or Pitot (pronounced pea-toe) tube. Again, the measuring section must be aligned with the local flow
direction.

We have seen that static pressure at a point can be measured with a static pressure tap or probe (Figure
4). If we know the stagnation pressure at the same point, then the flow speed could be computed from
Equation 3.14. Two possible experimental setups are shown in Figure 6.

In Figure 6(a), the static pressure corresponding to point A is read fromthe wall static pressure tap.
The stagnation pressure is measured directly at A by the total head tube, as shown. (The stemof the
total head tube is placed downstreamfromthe measurement location to minimize disturbance of the
local flow)

Two probes often are combined, as in the Pitot-static tube shown in Figure 6(b). The inner tube is used
to measure the stagnation pressure at point B, while the static pressure at C is sensed using the tapping
on the wall. In flow fields where the static pressure variation in the streamwise direction is small, the
Pitot-static tube may be used to infer the speed at point B in the flow by assuming pB =pC and using
Equation 3.14. (Note that when pB pC, this procedure will give erroneous results)

Remember that the Bernoulli equation applies only for incompressible flow (Mach number, M 0.3).

Page 42 of 81


5.2 APPARATUS:

Figure 5.4: Parts Identification Diagram

1. Manometer Tubes 6. Flow Control Valve
2. Test Section 7. Gland Nut
3. Water Inlet 8. Hypodermic Probe
4. Unions 9. Adjustable Feet
5. Air Bleed Screw

The unit consists of the followings:
a) Venturi: The venturi meter is made of transparent acrylic with the following
specifications:
Throat diameter : 16 mm
UpstreamDiameter : 26 mm
Designed Flow Rate : 20 LPM

b) Manometer: There are eight manometer tubes; each length 320 mm, for static pressure
and total head measuring along the venturi meter. The manometer tubes are connected to
an air bleed screw for air release as well as tubes pressurization.
5
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
Page 43 of 81


c) Baseboard: The baseboard is epoxy coated and designed with 4 height adjustable stands
to level the venturi meter.
d) Discharge valve: One discharge valve is installed at the venturi discharge section for
flow rate control.
e) Connections: Hose Connections are installed at both inlet and outlet.

Page 44 of 81


Page 45 of 81


session.

Page 46 of 81



5.4.1 Experiment 1: Discharge Coefficient Determination

Objective
To determine the discharge coefficient of the venturi meter

Procedures
1. Withdraw the hypodermic tube fromthe test section.
2. Adjust the discharge valve to the maximummeasurable flow rate of the venturi.
3. Measure the water flow rate using volumetric method and record the manometers reading.
5. Fromresults, determine the discharge coefficient, Cd.
6. Compare the results of actual flow rate and ideal flow rate.

5.4.2 Experiment 2: Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration
Objective
To demonstrate Bernoullis Theorem

Procedures
1. Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow rate.
2. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method.
3. Gently slide the hypodermic tube (total head measuring) connected to manometer #G, so
that its end reaches the cross section of the Venturi tube at #A. Wait for some time and
note down the readings fromthe manometers
4. Repeat step 1 to 3 with different flow rates.
5. Determine the difference between two calculated velocities, using Bernoullis equation
and using continuity equation.
6. Discuss on the comparison between the two velocities.

Page 47 of 81



*

P
l
e
a
s
e

*Refer to Schematic of Diagramfor Cross Section Diameter

1. In your own words, explain what are the differences between stagnation pressure and
dynamic pressure.
2. You are an engineer in a company and your company is setting up an experiment that
involves the measurement of airflow rate in a duct. You are assigned to come up with proper
instrumentation. Research the available techniques and devices for airflow rate measurement,
and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each technique. Also, make
recommendations.

Cross
Section
Using Bernoulli equation
Using Continuity
equation
Difference
i
h*=h
G

(mm)
hi
(mm)
ViB
(m/s)
Ai
(m
2
)
ViC
(m/s)
V (m/s)

Page 48 of 81


6 TOPIC 6:OSBORNE REYNOLDS DEMONSTRATION

6.1 THEORY:
The theory is named in honor of Osborne Reynolds, a British engineer who discovers the variables that
can be used as a criterion to distinguish between laminar and turbulent flow.

The Reynolds number is widely used dimensionless parameters in fluid mechanics.
Reynolds number formula:

v
VL
R =

Where; R =Reynolds number
V =Fluid velocity, (m/s)
L =characteristic length or diameter (m)
V =Kinematic viscosity (m
2
/s)

Reynolds number R is independent of pressure.

Page 49 of 81


6.2 APPARATUS:
The Osborne Reynolds Demonstration apparatus is equipped with a visualization tube for students
to observe the flow condition. The rocks inside the stilling tank are to calmthe inflow water so
that there will not be any turbulence to interfere with the experiment. The water inlet / outlet valve
and dye injector are utilized to generate the required flow.

Figure 6.1: Unit Assembly of Osborne Reynolds Demonstration

1. Dye reservoir 2. Dye injector
3. Stilling tank 4. Observation tube
5. Water inlet valve 6. Bell mouth
7. Water outlet valve 8. Overflow tube

1
2
4
3
5
6
7
8
Page 50 of 81


1. Place the unit on a level ground
2. Beware with the observation tube


6.4.1 Experiment 1: Observation of Flow Regimes

Objective
To compute Reynolds number and to observe the laminar, transitional and turbulent flow.

Procedures
1. Lower the dye injector until it is seen in the glass tube.
2. Open the inlet valve and allow water to enter stilling tank.
3. Ensure a small overflow spillage through the over flow tube to maintain a constant
level.
4. Open the flow control valve fractionally to let water flow through the visualizing tube.
5. Slowly adjust the dye control needle valve until a slow flow with dye injection is
achieved.
6. Regulate the water inlet and outlet valve until an identifiable dye line is achieved.
Identify the type of the flow and take the picture of the flow.
7. Measure the flow rate.
8. Repeat the experiment to produce few different types of flow.
9. Discuss on the development of different flow in pipe.

Page 51 of 81


Laminar flow
Volume T1 T2 T3 Tavg Q

Take diameter of the observation tube to be 15.6 mm, and the water temperature is
27 C

6.4.2 Experiment 2: Loss Coefficient
Objective
To determine the Reynolds number and to determine the upper and lower critical velocities at
transitional flow.

Procedures
1. Lower the dye injector until it is seen in the glass tube.
2. Open the inlet valve and allow water to enter stilling tank.
3. Ensure a small overflow spillage through the over flow tube to maintain a constant
level.
4. Allow water to settle for a few minutes.
5. Open the flow control valve fractionally to let water flow through the visualizing
tube.
6. Slowly adjust the dye control needle valve until flow with dye injection is achieved.
7. Produce small disturbance or eddies to determine the lower critical velocity.
8. Determine the flow rate.
9. Repeat the experiment by first introducing a turbulent flow and produce the laminar
flow to determine the upper critical velocity.
10. Summarize findings fromyour results


1 Explain the reasons why liquid is usually transferred in circular pipe.
2 In fully developed straight-duct flow, the velocity profiles do not change, but the pressure
drops along the pipe axis. Thus there is pressure work done on the fluid. If, say, the pipe is
insulated fromheat loss, where does this energy go? Make a thermodynamic analysis of the
pipe flow.

Page 52 of 81


7 TOPIC 7: ENERGY LOSSES IN BENDS AND FITTINGS

7.1 THEORY:
When fluid flow through typical pipe fittings such as an elbow or a bend, an enlargement or
contraction in cross-section, or through a valve, energy losses occur. These energy losses, which are
termed as minor losses, are primarily due to the change in the direction of flow and the change in the
cross-section of the flow path typically occurs in valves and fittings. Experimental techniques are used
to determine minor losses. Tests have shown that the head loss in valves and fittings is proportional to
the square of the average velocity of the fluid in the pipe in which the valve or fitting is mounted.
Thus the head loss is also proportional to the velocity head of the fluid. Experimental values for
energy losses are usually reported in terms of a loss coefficient, K, as follows:
g
v
K h
L
2
2
=
(1)
in which
K = Loss coefficient
v = Average velocity of flow in the smaller pipe (m/s)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s
2
)

Gate valve
Gate valve is one of several types of valves that is used to control the amount of flow. The value of
loss coefficient K of a gate valve is dependent on the position of the valve. Fluids flow through fully
open gate valves in straight line paths, thus there is little resistance to flow and the resulting pressure
loss is small. For fluid flow through partially opened gate valve, resistance to flow will be greater and
thus produces a larger value of K. Below are the theoretical values of loss coefficient for gate valve at
several positions.
Valve position Loss coefficient, K
Fully open
open
open
open
0.19
0.90
4.50
24.00

Page 53 of 81


7.2 APPARATUS:

Figure 7.1: Unit Construction for Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings

Note: Pipe and fittings sizes are as follows:
Pipe : OD = 20 mm
ID = 17 mm
Enlarged Section : OD = 50 mm
ID = 32 mm
Fittings : ID = 17 mm

1. 45 Elbow 7. Manometers Bank
2. Contraction 8. Gate Valve
3. Enlargement 9. Differential Pressure Gauge
4. 90 Elbow 10. 90 Elbow
5. Water Inlet Connection 11. Water Drain Connection
6. 90 Short Bend
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
5 11
Page 54 of 81


1. It is important to drain all water fromthe apparatus when not in use. The apparatus should be
stored properly to prevent damage.
session.
6. Clean and wipe the bench with damp cloth after every laboratory session.

7.4.1 Experiment 1: Energy Losses in Bends and Pipe Fittings

Objective
To measure the losses in the fittings related to flow rate and calculate the loss coefficients
related to velocity head.

Procedures
1. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up the pump
supply fromhydraulic bench.
3. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the
bench valve to reduce the flow to the maximummeasurable flow rate.
4. Adjust water level in the manometer board.
5. Note necessary readings.
6. Repeat the experiment for few data collection.
7. Determine the loss coefficients for each of the fittings and devices
Page 55 of 81


Volume,
V
(liter)
Time,
T
(s)
Flowrate, Q
(m
3
/s)
Manometer readings (mmH2O)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Page 56 of 81


7.4.2 Experiment 2: Energy Losses through Gate Valve
Objective
To determine the loss coefficients related to velocity head through gate valve

Procedures
1. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up the pump
supply fromhydraulic bench.
3. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the
bench valve to reduce the flow to the maximummeasurable flow rate.
4. Slowly close the gate valve and measure and record necessary readings.
5. Repeat the differential pressure measurement for few data readings.
6. Determine the loss coefficient.

1. Explain what is minor loss and major loss in pipe flow.
2. How does surface roughness affect the pressure drop in a pipe if the flow is turbulent?
What would your responses be if the flow were laminar?
3. Propose two ways to reduce the head loss in pipe.

Page 57 of 81


8 TOPIC 8: PELTON TURBINE

8.1 THEORY:
Turbines are classified into two general category impulse and reaction. In both types the fluid passes
through a runner having blades. The momentumof the fluid in the tangential direction is changed and
so a tangential force on the runner is produced the runner therefore rotates and performs useful work,
while the fluid leaves with reduced energy. The important feature of the impulse machine is that there
is no change in static pressure across the runner. In the reaction machine the static pressure decreases
as the fluid passer through the runner.

For any turbine the energy held by the fluid is initially in the formof pressure. i.e. a high level
reservoir in a hydroelectric scheme. The Impulse turbine has one or more fixed nozzles, in each of
which this pressure is converted to the kinetic energy of an unconfined jet. The jets of fluid then
impinge on the moving blades of the runner where they lose practically all their kinetic energy.

In a reaction machine the changes frompressure to kinetic energy takes place gradually as the fluid
moves through the runner, and for this gradual change of pressure to be possible the runner must be
completely enclosed and the passages in it entirely full of the working fluid.

The basic terms used to define, and therefore measure, turbine performance in relation to rotational
speed includes:
i) Volume flow rate
ii) Head
iii) Torque, power output and efficiencies

Volume Flow Rate, Q
The volume flow rate of fluid through the turbine is the volume passing through the systemper unit
time. In SI units, this is expressed in cubic meters per second (m
3
/s).

Head, H
The termhead refers to the elevation of a free surface of water above or below a reference datum. In
the case of a turbine we are interested in the head of the water entering the rotor, which of course has a
direct effect on the characteristics of the unit.
Page 58 of 81


Power Output and Efficiencies
The brake power Pb produced by the turbine in creating torque, T on the brake at rotor speed N is
given by Equation 4:
( ) Watt s Nm T N P
b
= = / 2
(4)
The torque itself is given by the equation:
r F T
b
=
(5)
Where Fb is the brake force reading on the balance and r is the pulley radius.
However, the fluid friction losses in the turbine itself, represented as F requires a hydraulic efficiency
Eh to be defined as:-
( )
( )
%
' '
100 =
h
r
h
P Supplied Power Useful
P rotor by absorbed Power
E
(6)
Further, the mechanical losses in the bearing, etc require a mechanical efficiency Emto be defined as:
( )
( )
%
sup
100 =
r
m
m
P rotor by absorbed Power
P rotor by plied Power
E
(7)
The Pelton turbine units do not include the direct measurement of mechanical power Pm, but indeed
measures brake force applied to the rotor via pulleys. A further efficiency is therefore required
expressing the friction losses in the pulley assembly Eb:
( )
( )
%
sup
100 =
m
b
b
P rotor by plied Power
P brake the by absorbed Power
E
(8)
The overall turbine efficiency Et is thus:
( )
( )
%
' '
100 =
h
b
b
P Power Fluid Useful
P brake the by absorbed Power
E

% 100
2

=
W i W
Q H g
T N

(9)
Thus,
b m h t
E E E E =
(10)
In general the efficiency of the turbine is provided as isoefficiency curves. They show the
interrelationship among Q, w, and h. A typical isoefficiency plot is provided in Figure 8.1.
Page 59 of 81


Figure 8.1 Isoefficiency curve for a laboratory-scale Pelton turbine

Figure 8.2 shows the formtaken by the curve relating hydraulic efficiency and the ratio of rotor
bucket to jet speed.

Bucket Speed/ J et Speed
Figure 8.2 Hydraulic efficiency versus bucket/jet speed ratio
The graph shows how the curve rises to a relatively sharp peak, and hence for a high hydraulic
efficiency it is essential for the ratio of bucket to jet speed to remain close to the theoretical value of
one half (the velocity of the jet being twice that of the bucket).
hydraulic
efficiency(%)
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Maximum
efficiency
Page 60 of 81


The rotational speed (and hence the bucket speed) of the rotor is required to remain constant in a
generating installation in order to produce power at the correct frequency. It then follows that for the
hydraulic efficiency to remain high, the jet speed must also remain the same. This is so even when the
power demand falls off and the flow rate passing through the turbine is therefore reduced (or vice-
versa).

With a standard throttle valve, the area of the outlet jet remains the same as the volume flow rate
changes. This causes a change in the jet velocity (Qv/A).

Page 61 of 81


8.2 APPARATUS:
a) Turbine
Material : Bronze
Impeller External Diameter : 5 inch
Width of Vane : 35 mm(17 Vanes)
Pulley Radius : 40 mm

b) Force Balance
Range : 0 2 kg x 10g

c) Pressure Gauge
Range : 0 2 kgf/cm
2

d) Tachometer
Measurement Range : 5 to 99999 rpm(optical)
Resolution : 0.1 rpm
Accuracy : 0.05%
Sensing Range : 50 to 150 mm

1. It is important to drain all water fromthe apparatus when not in use. The apparatus should be
stored properly to prevent damage.
session.
4. Always run the experiment after fully understands the unit and procedures.

Page 62 of 81



8.4.1 Experiment 1: Turbine characteristics

Objective
To study the characteristic curves of a Pelton turbine operating at a different fluid flow rates
with high head.

Procedures
1. Open and adjust the spear valve until 1.5 kgf/cm
2
of inlet water head is obtained.
2. Tighten up the tensioning screw on the pulley wheel until the turbine is almost stalled
(rotor just turning).
3. Note the value of the pulley brake. Decide on suitable increments in force to give
adequate sample points (typically 8 points between zero and maximumbrake force).
4. Slacken off the tensioning screw so no force is being applied to the turbine, i.e. Fb at
almost 0. Obtain the volumetric flowrate (Q), force reading (Fb), water head (P1) and
turbine rotational speed (N), then record into the experimental data sheet. This represents
the first point on the characteristic curve.
5. Tighten the screw to give the first increment in force for the brake. When readings are
steady enough, record all the readings again.
6. Repeat the steps above for a gradually increasing set of Fb values.
7. Now decrease the volume flow rate to a new setting by changing the throttle valve
position (half round) and at the same time also change the spear valve position to
maintain the pressure at 1.5 kgf/cm
2
. Repeat the taking of samples for gradually
increasing values of torque, as above. Repeating this step will produce a series of result
sets for comparison.
8. Plot the turbine performances curve; torque, power output and efficiency versus the
turbine rotational speed.

Page 63 of 81



V1 T T Q Q
(L) (S) (MIN) (LPM) (m
3
/s)

m1 m2 Fb1 Fb2 Fb N1 N2 N N
(g) (g) (N) (N) (N) (rpm) (rpm) (rpm) (Hz)

Q Fb N P1 Hi Ph T Pb Et
(m
3
/s) (N) (Hz) (kgf/cm
2
) (m) (W) (Nm) (W) (%)

1. In your own words, explain the differences between impulses, dynamic and reaction turbine.
2. We know that an enclosed rotating bladed impeller will impart energy to a fluid, usually in
the formof a pressure rise, but how does it actually happen? Discuss with sketches the
physical mechanisms through which an impeller actually transfers energy to a fluid.

Page 64 of 81


9 TOPIC 9: WIND TUNNEL

9.1 THEORY:
Introduction to Wind Tunnel
When studying aerodynamics, few engineers have access to full scale wind tunnel or actual airborne
laboratories. The majority rely on what is probably the most common tool for aerodynamics study, the
laboratory based wind tunnel. This tool saves both money and time, while producing very accurate
results, as long as the scale effect and reduced Reynolds numbers are taken into consideration.

The wind tunnel used in the experiment is of the closed working-section, open return suction type. Air
enters the tunnel through an aerodynamically designed effuser (cone) that accelerates the air in a linear
manner. It then enters the working section and passess through a grille before moving through a
diffuser and then to the variable speed axial fan. The grille protects the fan fromdamage by loose
objects. Then, the air leaves the fan, passes through a silencer unit and then back out to the atmosphere.
The speed of the axial fan which is also becoming the speed the air velocity in the working section is
controlled by an electronic drive control in the separate Control and Instrumentation unit. Figure 9.1
shows the general layout of the wind tunnel.

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Figure 9.1 General Layout of Wind Tunnel

Control and Instrumentation Frame
The control and instrumentation frame contains:
1. main electrical isolator for apparatus
2. motor drive control
3. switchgear and circuit protection for the motor drive
4. two sets of electrical sockets for additional equipment
5. support frame for additional equipment/ instruments

Figure 9.2 shows the main section of the Control and Instrumentation Frame. This section has all
controllers for the variable speed motor (fan). Technical data of the equipments is shown in Table
9.1.

Figure 9.2 Main Section of Control Panel frame

Table 9.1 Technical Data of Wind Tunnel
ITEM SPECIFICATION
Total length of Apparatus 3700 mm
Total Depth (front to back) 850 mm
Total Height 1900
Working Section Mm
Air Velocity 305 x 305 x 600 mm
Fan Motor 0 to 36 m/s
Electrical Supply
Page 66 of 81


Type Three-phase AC
Total Current with all optional instruments
connected
21A (415 V) / 26 A (220V)
Fuses
Drive Unit (415 V) Three 16 A MCB (Miniature Circuit
Breaker)
IEC Outlets 10 A MCB
Low Voltage Instrumentation Supply 2A MCB

Flat Boundary Layer
Using the wind tunnel, phenomena of boundary layer development and separation can be studied. The
phenomena are studied using a Flat Boundary Layer Model. This model is made of 2 hinged stainless
steel plates as shown in Figure 9.3. When the model is fitted inside the working section of a wind
tunnel, the angle of the plates can be adjusted to set the maximumconditions for the experiment.

Figure 9.3 Flat Boundary layer Model

On the upper surface of the model are 5 small aerofoil set at right angle to the surface. Each aerofoil is
drilled with 5 tiny pitot holes on the leading edge. Each hole is connected to a separate tube. All the
tubes are routed together and emerge at the side of the model. The aerofoils are staggered so that their
wakes do not interfere with each other. When the model is fitted in the wind tunnel, the tubes may be
Page 67 of 81


connected to a multi-tube manometer for pressure measurements. Figure 9.4 shows the schematic
diagramof the model.

Figure 9.4 Schematic diagramof Flat Boundary Layer Model

9.2 APPARATUS:
Wind tunnel testing unit

1. Do not walk in front the diffuser when the tunnel is operating.
2. Always clean the manometer tubes to avoid clogging

b) Distance of pitot holes frombaseplate
a) Distance fromleading edge of each aerofoil with the numbers of each pitot hole
Page 68 of 81



Experiment 1: Characteristics of Flowmeter Measurement Devices

Objective
The objective of the experiment is to illustrate the phenomena of boundary layer development and
separation of an external flow.

Procedures
1. Adjust the angle of attack down.
2. Adjust the trailing edge down.

Figure 9.5 Adjusting angle of attack and trailing edge

3. Draw the new shape formby the model
4. Ensure all fixings are tight.
5. Experiment shall start at a lower velocity.
6. Record the wall pressures upstreamand downstreamof the wind tunnel. Calculate the h0
in [mm] and find the approximate figure for the working section static pressure P0 .
7. The local velocity, V is a function of the difference between the total pressure measured
at each tapping PT and the local static pressure, P0 .
8. Record all pressure readings and calculate the local velocities.
9. Plot a graph of local velocity to give the curves for boundary layer growth around each
aerofoil.
10. Repeat the test at different wind tunnel velocities for few data collection.

Page 69 of 81


1. In your own words, explain what is boundary layer and how does it developed.
2. Some colleges such as Colorade State University have environmental wind tunnels that can
be used to study phenomena like wind flow over city buildings. What details of scaling might
be important in such studies?

Page 70 of 81


10 TOPIC 10: PUMP PERFORMANCE TEST

10.1 THEORY:
The pump to be tested is of a centrifugal type which generates a pressure rise in the fluid by virtue of
centrifugal action on the fluid contained within and rotating with the blades. The rotor, which is
usually called the impeller, rotates inside a spiral casing. Fluid is pushed into the centre of the impeller
and is expelled under centrifugal action at the outer periphery where it is collected in a spiral casing
(volute) leading the delivery pipe.

The pump is driven by an electric motor which is mounted on trunnion bearings with a balance
mechanismand pointer for torque measurement. Combined with the measured speed of rotation, this
allows the power delivered to the pump to be determined. The trunnion pointer must be aligned with
the frame pointer using the hand-wheel before the spring balance is read.
The volumetric flow rate, Q, of water delivered by the pump is determined by direct measurement of
the time needed to fill a known volume.

Summary of important parameters
Pump Efficiency,
a. Pump speed in rad/s : = 2N/60
b. Power required to drive the pump (shaft power):
Torque
S
W =

0
( )
S
W g S S R =
[Watt]
where;
g : gravitational acceleration [m/s
2
]
S : spring balance reading [kg]
S0 : spring balance zero reading [kg]
R : torque radius of trunnion balance [m]
: pump speed [rad/s]

c. Energy per unit mass,w, delivered by the pump to the water is obtained from the
mechanical energy equation;
Page 71 of 81


2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
2 2
P V P V
z w z

+ + + = + +
where, suffixes 1 and 2 denote the conditions in the suction and the delivery pipes
respectively.
Before starting the calculations, consider the positions of the pressure gauge in
relation to the points in the pipe where the energy balance is to be applied, and adjust
the pressure readings accordingly.
The total head increase across the pump is H = w/g
The velocities, V1 and V2 can be determined fromthe continuity equation;
Q = AV ;where Q is the measured volumetric flow rate and A is the area of the pipe

d. Power delivered by the pump :
w W mw Qw = =

; wherem
: mass flow rate

e. Overall efficiency of the pump is given by the ratio of the useful power transferred to the
fluid to the input power
w
S
W
W
=

w
S
W
W
=

10.2 APPARATUS:
Centrifugal pump unit

session.
2. Always run the experiment after fully understands the unit and procedures.

Page 72 of 81



10.4.1 Experiment 1: Characteristics of Flowmeter Measurement Devices

Objective
The objectives of the experiment are to operate a centrifugal pump at a fixed speed and to
determine the performance characteristics of the pump.

Procedures
1. Measure fromthe same datumheights z1 and z2 at the pressure tapping points as well as
heights of pressure gauges zpg1 and zpg2 to measure P1 and P2.
2. Adjust the spring balance such that the spring balance zero reading S0 is 0
3. Set he pump at a fixed speed and vary the volumetric flow rate, Q, by adjusting the
outlet valve. Start the test by taking readings at the shut-off, i.e. no flow, condition,
which corresponds to the maximumincrease in pressure drop, .p, across the pump. Then
conduct a test for the maximumflow rate through the pump. Adjust the flow to give 7
approximately equal steps in .p until the maximumflow rate is reached.
4. Record the necessary readings.
5. Use all the pump tests (to get the largest flow rate) and for one test only direct the flow
through the middle pipe only and measure the pressure drop across the orifice plate flow
meter by recording the difference in levels .ho on a mercury/water manometer the water
manometer into the circuit by directing the lever on the tap towards the relevant
connecting pipe.
6. Plot , W
, and H as function of Q on a single graph paper and determine the flow rate
corresponding to maximumefficiency.

Page 73 of 81


i) Relevant data
a. Maximumpower of the electric motor driving the pump ____ kW
b. Torque radius of trunnion balance R =____ m
c. Inside diameter of the pipes where the inlet & outlet pressures are
measured
D1 = ____m
D2 =____m
d. Pump impeller diameter _______ mm
e. Orifice meter diameter d =_______ mm
f. Inside diameter of the pipe containing the orifice plate D =_______ mm
ii) Experimental data

Height : z1 = _____________ m z2 = _____________ m
Pressure gauge height : zg1 = _____________ m zg2 = _____________ m
Spring balance zero reading : S0 = _____________
Take D1 = 49 mm, and D2 = 39 mm

Table of Observations
Test Shaft speed, N
[rpm]
Spring balance, S
[kg]
Inlet pressure,
P1 [kPa]
Outlet pressure,
P2 [kPa]
Volume of water
collected, V
0
[L]
Time, t [s]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Page 74 of 81


For the orifice plate measurement:
V
0
= ________________ [L]
Time Interval = ________________ [S]
h0 = ________________ [mmHg]

Analysis
Test Shaft speed,
[rad/s]
Water flow rate, Q
[m3/s]
Head across the
pump, H [m]
Shaft power,
S
W
[W]
Power delivered to
water,
W
W
[W]
Efficiency, [%]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

1. Performance data for centrifugal pumps, even if well scaled geometrically, show a decrease in
efficiency with decreasing impeller size. Discuss some physical reasons why this is so.
2. One of the parameter that affects the pump performance is number of blades on an impeller.
Do some reading on this subject and explain how the number of blades affects the
performance.

Page 75 of 81


APPENDIX A

SAFETY FIRST
Follow all instructions carefully.
Appropriate clothing must be worn in the lab. No loose clothing or jewelry around operating
equipment. Do not wear open toe shoes or sandal in operating laboratories.
Do not operate equipment or carry on experiments unless the instructor/technician is present in
the laboratory.
Assure that necessary safety equipment is readily available and in usable condition.
Become familiar with safety precautions and emergency procedures before undertaking any
laboratory work.
All injuries, no matter how small, must be reported.

Page 76 of 81


APPENDIX B

GENERAL REPORT GUIDELINES
All laboratory works should be conducted within the period given.
The laboratory rules and regulations apply throughout the lab sessions.
All students should follow the timetable.
Lab report should be submitted ONE (1) WEEK after every lab session.
Attendance for every lab session is COMPULSORY. No mark will be given to any report (s)
submitted without attending the lab session (s).
Reports must be written in the following format :-
Formatting guidelines
Font type & size : Times new roman, 12
Spacing : 1.5 spacing
Margin : left (1.5), right (1.25), top (1) and bottom(1)
Front Cover : See below
Tape binding
Text in each paragraph must be aligned to both left and right (J ustify)
Content guidelines
1. Cover page
2. Work distribution among group members (see example below)
3. Table of content
4. Theory ( Additional literature review in the section brings extra marks)
5. Objectives
6. Procedure
7. Result, Analysis and Discussion
8. Conclusion and/or Recommendation
9. Open Ended Question
10. References
Item 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10 can be prepared in group. Item 7 and 9 will be
evaluated as individual work. These sections must be prepared individually. See
example of report writing for these sections below.
Peer evaluation formis to be submitted upon every report submission.
Peer evaluation form(s) can be attached together with the report or can be submitted
separately.
Page 77 of 81


COVER PAGE FORMAT

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL & MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

KNJ 2261 LABORATORY IV
LABORATORY REPORT
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: VENTURI METER
GROUP: 1

Name (should be
arranged in alphabetical
order)
Matrix Number
Ah Seng 12345
Benjamin 56789
Christopher
Mohd Amin
Muhd Amin
Lecturer
Academic Session Sem2 2010/2011

*information in red color is a MUST HAVE information.

Page 78 of 81


EXAMPLE

Please refer to the following examples when you are preparing the report.

A) WORK DISTRIBUTION

Members Name Task
Ah Seng Group leader
During the experiment, responsible with
the manometer reading
Compiler
Raju Control the valve opening
Measure the flowrate
Sally Editing final report
John Result analysis

Page 79 of 81


B) RESULT, ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION SECTION

7. RESULT, ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION
7.1 Result

Figure 1.2 An example of result

7.2 Analysis and Discussions
Name: Ah Seng Matrix No.: 12345
Figure 1.2 shows the ..Fromthe graph, it shows that the discharge coefficient
for venture meter is Figure 1.3 shows the relation between ..The obtained
discharge coefficient for Venturi meter A is The results show a significant difference
between .. and .As the velocity increases it creates., thus the .
decreases due to the shear stress. This explains why the coefficients are different.

Name: Benjamin Matrix No.: 56789
for venture meter is (PLEASE AVAOID PLIAGARISM)

Name: Christopher Matrix No.: 23457
for venture meter is (PLEASE AVAOID PLIAGARISM)

y = 0.2368x
R
2
= 0.9775
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Velocity Head (mm)
P
i
e
z
o
m
e
t
r
i
c

H
e
a
d

(
m
m
)
Page 80 of 81


C) CONCLUSIONS

8. CONCLUSIONS
Air flow can be measured using various techniques such as venture meter, orifice and pitot tube. The
objective of the experiment is to compare the accuracy of flowmeter measurement using three
different devises; rotameter, pitot tube and venture meter. The results shows that rotameter give the
most accurate reading in comparison to pitot tube and venturi meter. ..
The slight difference between experimental data and the calculated value occurs due to the human
error. For future improvement, it is suggested that..

D) OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS

9. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
Name: Ah Seng Matrix No.: 12345
1. Boundary layer is .. (FIRST QUESTION)
2. Pressure gradient depends on the Reynolds number because.. (SECOND QUESTION)



Page 81 of 81

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h, due to the fitting is found. By introducing the velocity heads in the

h between the tapping. Thus

: mass flow rate

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