Teaching Strategies For English

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Online Resources: Digests
December 1992
Eight Approaches to Language Teaching
Don Snow, Amit !oun"ation, O#erseas $oor"ination O%%ice
Where there was once consensus on the right way to teach foreign languages, many
teachers now share the belief that a single right way does not exist. It is certainly true that
no comparative study has consistently demonstrated the superiority of one method over
another for all teachers, all students and all settings.
resented here is a summary of eight language teaching methods in practice today: the
!rammar"#ranslation $ethod, the %irect $ethod, the &udio"'ingual $ethod, the (ilent
Way, (uggestopedia, )ommunity 'anguage 'earning, the #otal hysical *esponse
$ethod, and the )ommunicative &pproach. +f course, what is described here is only an
abstraction. ,ow a method is manifest in the classroom will depend heavily on the
individual teacher-s interpretation of its principles.
(ome teachers prefer to practice one of the methods to the exclusion of others. +ther
teachers prefer to pic. and choose in a principled way among the methodological options
that exist, creating their own uni/ue blend.
#he chart inside provides a brief listing of the salient features of the eight methods. 0or
more details, readers should consult #echni/ues and rinciples in 'anguage #eaching by
%iane 'arsen"0reeman, published in 1234 by +xford 5niversity ress in 6ew 7or., on
which this summary was based. &lso see references listed in 0or 0urther *eading.
&rammar'Translation (etho"
#he !rammar"#ranslation $ethod focuses on developing students- appreciation of the
target language-s literature as well a teaching the language. (tudents are presented with
target"language reading passages and answer /uestions that follow. +ther activities
include translating literary passages from one language into the other, memori8ing
grammar rules, and memori8ing native"language e/uivalents of target language
vocabulary. )lass wor. is highly structured, with the teacher controlling all activities.
Direct (etho"
#he %irect $ethod allows students to perceive meaning directly through the language
because no translation is allowed. 9isual aids and pantomime are used to clarify the
meaning of vocabulary items and concepts. (tudents spea. a great deal in the target
language and communicate as if in real situations. *eading and writing are taught from
the beginning, though spea.ing and listening s.ills are emphasi8ed. !rammar is learned
inductively.
Au"io'Lingual (etho"
#he &udio"'ingual $ethod is based on the behaviorist belief that language learning is
the ac/uisition of a set of correct language habits. #he learner repeats patterns until able
to produce them spontaneously. +nce a given pattern : for example, sub;ect"verb"
prepositional phrase : is learned, the spea.er can substitute words to ma.e novel
sentences. #he teacher directs and controls students- behavior, provides a model, and
reinforces correct responses.
The Silent )a
#he theoretical basis of !attegno-s (ilent Way is the idea that teaching must be
subordinated to learning and thus students must develop their own inner criteria for
correctness. &ll four s.ills : reading, writing, spea.ing, and listening : are taught from
the beginning. (tudents- errors are expected as a normal part of learning: the teacher-s
silence helps foster self"reliance and student initiative. #he teacher is active in setting up
situations, while the students do most of the tal.ing and interacting.
Suggestope"ia
'o8anov-s method see.s to help learners eliminate psychological barriers to learning. #he
learning environment is relaxed and subdued, with low lighting and soft music in the
bac.ground. (tudents choose a name and character in the target language and culture, and
imagine that person. %ialogs are presented to the accompaniment of music. (tudents ;ust
relax and listen to them being read and later playfully practice the language during an
activation phase.
$ommunit Language Learning
In )urren-s method, teachers consider students as whole persons, with intellect,
feelings, instincts, physical responses, and desire to learn. #eachers also recogni8e that
learning can be threatening. <y understanding and accepting students- fears, teachers help
students feel secure and overcome their fears, and thus help them harness positive energy
for learning. #he syllabus used is learner"generated, in that students choose what they
want to learn in the target language.
Total *hsical Response (etho"
&sher-s approach begins by placing primary importance on listening comprehension,
emulating the early stages of mother tongue ac/uisition, and then moving to spea.ing,
reading, and writing. (tudents demonstrate their comprehension by acting out commands
issued by the teacher= teachers provide novel and often humorous variations of the
commands. &ctivities are designed to be fun and to allow students to assume active
learning roles. &ctivities eventually include games and s.its.
The $ommunicati#e Approach
#he )ommunicative &pproach stresses the need to teach communicative competence as
opposed to linguistic competence= thus, functions are emphasi8ed over forms. (tudents
usually wor. with authentic materials in small groups on communicative activities,
during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.
!or !urther Rea"ing
&eneral
<owen, %., $adsen, ,., > ,ilferty, &. ?1234@ TESOL techniques and procedures.
*owley, $&: 6ewbury ,ouse.
'arsen"0reeman, %. ?1234@. Techniques and principles in language teaching. 6ew 7or.:
+xford 5niversity ress.
*ichards, A., > *odgers, #. ?1234@. Approaches and methods in language teaching.
)ambridge, $&: )ambridge.
On the &rammar'Translation (etho"
)hastain, B. ?12C4@. Developing second language skills ?Dnd ed.@, )hapter E. )hicago:
*and"$c6ally.
Belly, '.!. ?1242@. 25 centuries of language teaching. *owley, $&: 6ewbury ,ouse.
On the Direct (etho"
%iller, B.). ?12C3@. #he language teaching controversy. *owley, $&: 6ewbury ,ouse.
+n the &udio"'ingual $ethod
)hastain, B. ?12C4@. Developing secondlanguage skills ?Dnd ed.@, )hapter E. *and
$c6ally.
*ivers, W. ?1243@. Teaching foreignlanguage skills! )hapters D"F. )hicago: 5niversity
of )hicago ress.
On the Silent )a
!attegno, ). ?12CD@. Teaching foreign languages in schools" The silent #a$ ?Dnd ed.@.
6ew 7or.: Gducational (olutions ?2E 5niversity lace, 6ew 7or., 67 1HHHI@.
!attegno, ). ?12C4@. The common sense of teaching foreign languages. 6ew 7or.:
Gducational (olutions.
(tevic., G. ?123H@. Teaching languages" A #a$ and #a$s! )hapters I"4. *owley, $&:
6ewbury ,ouse.
On Suggestope"ia
'o8anov, !. ?123D@. (uggestology and suggestopedia. In *.G. <lair ?Gd.@, %nnovative
approaches to language teaching. *owley, $&: 6ewbury ,ouse.
(tevic., G. ?123H@. Teaching languages" A #a$ and #a$s. )hapters 13"12. *owley, $&:
6ewbury ,ouse.
On $ommunit Language Learning
)urran, ).&. ?12C4@. &ounselinglearning in second language. Gast %ubu/ue, I':
)ounseling"'earning ublications.
*ardin, A. ?12C4@. & counseling"learning model for second language learning. TESOL
'e#sletter () ?D@.
(tevic., G. ?123H@. Teaching languages" A #a$ and #a$s. )hapters C"1C. *owley, $&:
6ewbury ,ouse.
On the Total *hsical Response (etho"
&sher, A. ?123D@ Learning another language through actions. The complete teacher*s
guide+ook ?Dnd ed.@. 'os !atos, )&: (.y +a.s roductions.
<lair, *.W., ?Gd.@. ?123D@. %nnovative approaches to language teaching. *owley, $&:
6ewbury ,ouse.
Brashen, (., > #errell, #. ?123I@. The natural approach. (an 0rancisco, )&: &lemany
ress.
On the $ommunicati#e Approach
<rumfit, ).A., > Aohnson, B. ?Gds.@. ?12C2@. The communicative approach to language
teaching. +xford: +xford )ommunity ress.
Aohnson, B., > $orrow, B. ?Gds.@. ?1231@. &ommunication in the classroom. Gssex, 5B:
'ongman.
'ittlewood, W. ?1231@. &ommunicative language teaching. )ambridge, $&: )ambridge
5niversity ress.
(avignon, (. ?123I@. &ommunicative competence" Theor$ and classroom practice.
<oston: &ddison"Wesley.
Widdowson, ,.!. ?12C3@. Teaching language as communication. +xford: +xford
5niversity ress.
Wil.ins, %.&. ?12C4@. 'ational s$lla+uses. +xford: +xford 5niversity ress.
Eight Approaches to Language Teaching
The &rammar'Translation (etho"
&oals
#o be able to read literature in target language= learn grammar rules and vocabulary=
develop mental acuity.
Roles
#eacher has authority= students follow instructions to learn what teacher .nows.
#eaching/'earning rocess
(tudents learn by translating from one language to the other, often translating reading
passages in the target language to the native language. !rammar is usually learned
deductively on the basis of grammar rules and examples. (tudents memori8e the rules,
then apply them to other examples. #hey learn paradigms such as verb con;ugations, and
they learn the native language e/uivalents of vocabulary words.
+nteraction: Stu"ent'Teacher , STu"ent'Stu"ent
$ost interaction is teacher"to"student= student"initiated interaction and student"student
interaction is minimal.
Dealing with !eelings
n/a
Aspects o% Language the Approach Emphasi-es
9ocabulary= grammar emphasi8e= reading, writing are primary s.ills= pronunciation and
other spea.ing/listening s.ills not emphasi8ed.
Role o% Stu"ents. /ati#e Language
6ative language provides .ey to meanings in the target language= native language is used
freely in class.
(eans %or E#aluation
#ests re/uire translation from native to target and target to native language= applying
grammar rules, answering /uestions about foreign culture.
Response to Stu"ents. Errors
,eavy emphasis placed on correct answers= teacher supplies correct answers when
students cannot.
The Direct (etho"
&oals
#o communicate in target language= to thin. in target language.
Roles
#eacher directs class activities, but students and teacher are partners in the
teaching/learning process.
Teaching0Learning *rocess
(tudents are taught to associate meaning and the target language directly. 6ew target
language words or phrases are introduced through the use of realia, pictures or
pantomime, never the native language. (tudents spea. in the target language a great deal
and communicate as if in real situations. !rammar rules are learned inductively : by
generali8ing from examples. (tudents practice new vocabulary using words in sentences.
+nteraction: Stu"ent'Teacher , Stu"ent'Stu"ent
<oth teacher and students initiate interaction, though student"initiated interaction with
teacher or among each other, is usually teacher"directed.
n/a
1iew o% Language, $ulture
'anguage is primary spo.en, not written. (tudents study common, everyday speech in the
target language. &spects of foreign culture are studied such as history, geography, daily
life.
9ocabulary emphasi8ed over grammar= oral communication considered basic, with
reading, writing based on oral practice= pronunciation emphasi8ed from outset.
6ot used in the classroom.
(tudents tested through actual use, such as in oral interviews and assigned written
paragraphs.
(elf"correction encouraged whenever possible.
The Au"io'Lingual (etho"
&oals
5se the target language communicatively, overlearn it, so as to be able to use it
automatically by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming native
language habits.
Roles
#eacher directs, controls students- language behavior, provides good model for imitation=
students repeat, respond as /uic.ly and accurately as possible.
6ew vocabulary, structures presented through dialogs, which are learned through
imitation, repetition. %rills are based on patterns in dialog. (tudents- correct responses are
positively reinforced= grammar is induced from models. )ultural information is
contextuali8ed in the dialogs or presented by the teacher. *eading, writing tas.s are based
on oral wor..
(tudents interact during chain drills or when ta.ing roles in dialogs, all at teacher-s
direction. $ost interaction is between teacher and student, initiated by teacher.
n/a
%escriptive linguistics influence: every language seen as having its own uni/ue system of
phonological, morphological, and syntactic patterns. $ethod emphasi8es everyday
speech and uses a graded syllabus from simple to difficult linguistic structures. )ulture
comprises everyday language and behavior.
'anguage structures emphasi8ed= vocabulary contextuali8ed in dialogs but is limited
because syntactic patterns are foremost= natural priority of s.ills : listening, spea.ing,
reading, writing, with emphasis on first two= pronunciation taught from beginning, often
with language lab wor. and minimal pair drills.
(tudents- native language habits are considered as interfering, thus native language is not
used in classroom. )ontrastive analysis is considered helpful for determining points of
interference.
%iscrete"point tests in which students distinguish between words or provide an
appropriate verb for a sentence, etc.
#eachers strive to prevent student errors by predicting trouble spots and tightly
controlling what they teach students to say.
The Silent )a
&oals
#o use language for self"expression: to develop independence from the teacher, to
develop inner criteria for correctness.
Roles
#eaching should be subordinated to learning. #eachers should give students only what
they absolutely need to promote their learning. 'earners are responsible for their own
learning.
(tudents begin with sounds, introduced through association of sounds in native language
to a sound"color chart. #eacher then sets up situations, often using )uisenaire rods, to
focus students- attention on structures. (tudents interact as the situation re/uires.
#eachers see students- errors as clues to where the target language is unclear, and they
ad;ust instruction accordingly. (tudents are urged to ta.e responsibility for their learning.
&dditional learning is thought to ta.e place during sleep.
#he teacher is silent much of the time, but very active setting up situations, listening to
students, spea.ing only to give clues, not to model speech. (tudent"student interaction is
encouraged.
Dealing with %eelings
#eachers monitor students- feelings and actively try to prevent their feelings from
interfering with their learning. (tudents express their feelings during feedbac. sessions
after class.
'anguage and culture are inseparable, and each language is seen to be uni/ue despite
similarities in structure with other languages.
&ll four s.ill areas wor.ed on from beginning ?reading, writing, spea.ing, listening@=
pronunciation especially, because sounds are basic and carry the melody of the language.
(tructural patterns are practiced in meaningful interactions. (yllabus develops according
to learning abilities and needs. *eading and writing exercises reinforce oral learning.
&lthough translation is not used at all, the native language is considered a resource
because of the overlap that is bound to exist between the two languages. #he teacher
should ta.e into account what the students already .now.
&ssessment is continual= but only to determine continually changing learning needs.
#eachers observe students- ability to transfer what they have learned to new contexts. #o
encourage the development of inner criteria, neither praise nor criticism is offered.
(tudents are expected to learn at different rates, and to ma.e progress, not necessarily
spea. perfectly in the beginning.
Grrors are inevitable, a natural, indispensable part of learning.
Suggestope"ia
&oals
#o learn, at accelerated pace, a foreign language for everyday communication by tapping
mental powers, overcoming psychological barriers.
Roles
#eacher has authority, commands trust and respect of students= teacher desuggests
negative feelings and limits to learning= if teacher succeeds in assuming this role, students
assume childli.e role, spontaneous and uninhibited.
(tudents learn in a relaxing environment. #hey choose a new identity ?name, occupation@
in the target language and culture. #hey use texts of dialogs accompanied by translations
and notes in their native language. Gach dialog is presented during two musical concerts=
once with the teacher matching his or her voice to the rhythm and pitch of the music
while students follow along. #he second time, the teacher reads normally and students
relax and listen. &t night and on wa.ing, the students read it over. #hen students gain
facility with the new material through activities such as dramati8ations, games, songs,
and /uestion"and"answer sessions.
&t first, teacher initiates all interaction and students respond only nonverbally or with a
few words in target language that they have practiced. Gventually, students initiate
interaction. (tudents interact with each other throughout, as directed by teacher.
!reat importance is placed on students- feelings, in ma.ing them feel confident and
relaxed, in desuggesting their psychological barriers.
'anguage is one plane= nonverbal parts of messages are another. )ulture includes
everyday life and fine arts.
9ocabulary emphasi8ed, some explicit grammar. (tudents focus on communicative use
rather than form= reading, writing also have place.
#ranslation clarifies dialogs- meaning= teacher uses native language, more at first than
later, when necessary.
(tudents- normal in"class performance is evaluated. #here are no tests, which would
threaten relaxed environment.
Grrors are not immediately corrected= teacher models correct forms later during class.
$ommunit Language Learning
&oals
#o learn language communicatively, to ta.e responsibility for learning, to approach the
tas. nondefensively, never separating intellect from feelings.
Roles
#eacher acts as counselor, supporting students with understanding of their struggle to
master language in often threatening new learning situation. (tudent is at first a
dependent client of the counselor and becomes increasingly independent through five
specified stages.
6ondefensive learning re/uires six elements: security, aggression ?students have
opportunities to assert, involve themselves@, attention, reflection ?students thin. about
both the language and their experience learning it@, retention, and discrimination ?sorting
out differences among target language forms@.
<oth students and teacher ma.e decisions in the class. (ometimes the teacher directs
action, other times the students interact independently. & spirit of cooperation is
encouraged.
#eacher routinely probes for students- feelings about learning and shows understanding,
helping them overcome negative feelings.
'anguage is for communication, a medium of interpersonal sharing and belonging, and
creative thin.ing. )ulture is integrated with language.
&t first, since students design syllabus, they determine aspects of language studied= later
teacher may bring in published texts. articular grammar, pronunciation points are
treated, and particular vocabulary based on students- expressed needs. 5nderstanding and
spea.ing are emphasi8ed, though reading and writing have a place.
5se of native language enhances students- security. (tudents have conversations in their
native language= target language translations of these become the text around which
subse/uent activities revolve. &lso, instructions and sessions for expressing feelings are
in native language. #arget language is used progressively more. Where students do not
share the same native language, the target language is used from the outset, though
alternatives such as pantomime are also used.
6o specific means are recommended, but adherence to principles is urged. #eacher would
help students prepare for any test re/uired by school, integrative tests would be preferred
over discrete"point tests= self"evaluation would be encouraged, promoting students-
awareness of their own progress.
6onthreatening style is encouraged= modeling of correct forms.
Total *hsical Response (etho"
&oals
#o provide an en;oyable learning experience, having a minimum of the stress that
typically accompanies learning a foreign language.
Roles
&t first the teacher gives commands and students follow them. +nce students are ready
to spea., they ta.e on directing roles.
'essons begin with commands by the teacher= students demonstrate their understanding
by acting these out= teacher recombines their instructions in novel and often humorous
ways= eventually students follow suit. &ctivities later include games and s.its.
#eacher interacts with individual students and with the group, starting with the teacher
spea.ing and the students responding nonverbally. 'ater this is reversed= students issue
commands to teacher as well as to each other.
#he method was developed principally to reduce the stress associated with language
learning= students are not forced to spea. before they are ready and learning is made as
en;oyable as possible, stimulating feelings of success and low anxiety.
+ral modality is primary= culture is the lifestyle of native spea.ers of the target language.
!rammatical structures and vocabulary are emphasi8ed, imbedded in imperatives.
5nderstanding precedes production= spo.en language precedes the written word.
$ethod is introduced in students- native language, but rarely used later in course.
$eaning is made clear through actions.
#eachers can evaluate students through simple observation of their actions. 0ormal
evaluation is achieved by commanding a student to perform a series of actions.
(tudents are expected to ma.e errors once they begin spea.ing. #eachers only correct
ma;or error, and do this unobtrusively. 0ine"tuning occurs later.
The $ommunicati#e Approach
&oals
#o become communicatively competent, able to use language appropriate for a given
social context= to manage the process of negotiating meaning with interlocutors.
Roles
#eacher facilitates students- learning by managing classroom activities, setting up
communicative situations. (tudents are communicators, actively engaged in negotiating
meaning.
&ctivities are communicativeJthey represent an information gap that needs to be filled=
spea.ers have a choice of what to say and how to say it= they receive feedbac. from the
listener that will verify that a purpose has been achieved. &uthentic materials are used.
(tudents usually wor. in small groups.
#eacher initiates interactions between students and participates sometimes. (tudents
interact a great deal with each other in many configurations.
Gmphasis is on developing motivation to learn through establishing meaningful,
purposeful things to do with the target language. Individuality is encouraged, as well as
cooperation with peers, which both contribute to sense of emotional security with the
target language.
'anguage is for communication. 'inguistic competence must be coupled with an ability
to convey intended meaning appropriately in different social contexts. )ulture is the
everyday lifestyle of native spea.ers of the target language. 6onverbal behavior is
important.
0unctions are emphasi8ed over forms, with simple forms learned for each function at
first, then more complex forms. (tudents wor. at discourse level. #hey wor. on
spea.ing, listening, reading, and writing from the beginning. )onsistent focus on
negotiated meaning.
(tudents- native language usually plays no role.
Informal evaluation ta.es place when teacher advises or communicates= formal
evaluation is by means of an integrative test with a real communicative function.
Grrors of form are considered natural= students with incomplete .nowledge can still
succeed as communicators.
#his report was prepared with funding from the +ffice of Gducational *esearch and
Improvement, 5.(. %ept. of Gducation, under contract no. *I33H4DH1H. #he opinions
expressed do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of +G*I or G%.

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