You are on page 1of 23

Spherical Trigonometry

distances : angles : declination or


latitude : sunset position : sundial


Introduction
Spherical Trigonometry deals with triangles drawn on a sphere. The subject originated in the
Islamic Caliphates of the Middle East, North Africa and Spain during the 8th to 14th centuries. It
arose to solve an apparently simple problem: Which direction is Mecca?
The development of this subject lead to improvements in the art of navigation, stellar map
making, geographic map making, the positions of sunrise and sunset, and improvements to the
sundial.

In the figure above, a triangle, ABC, is drawn on a spehere. Each line of the triangle is a Great
Circle. These are circles drawn on a sphere with the same radius as the sphere. Great circles
cover the shortest distance between two points.
The capital letters (A, B, C) denote the angles between the great circle arcs of the triangle as
measured on the surface of the sphere. The small latters (a, b, c) represent the lengths of the great
circle arcs measured as angles from the centre of the sphere.
A spherical triangle, differs from a plane triangle in that the sum of the angles is more than 180
degrees.
The Cosine Rule
There is a Cosine Rule for spherical triangles:
Cos(a) = Cos(b) Cos(c) + Sin(b) Sin(c) Cos(A)
Cos(b) = Cos(a) Cos(c) + Sin(a) Sin(c) Cos(B)
Cos(c) = Cos(b) Cos(a) + Sin(b) Sin(a) Cos(C)
The Cosine Rule allows the length of one of the arcs of a spherical triangle to be evaluated if the
other two arcs and the angle opposite the arc are known.
The Sine Rule
The Sine Rule for spherical triangles is:
Sin(a) / Sin(A) = Sin(b) / Sin(B) = Sin(c) / Sin(C)
The Sine Rule can be used to find an angle if two sides and an angle are known OR to find a side
if two angles and a side are known.

Tables and Data
This is a table of Latitudes and Longitudes of selected cities (in alphabetical order) for the
worked examples.
City Country Latitude Longitude
Athens Greece 38.00N 23.44E
Baghdad Iraq 33.20N 44.26E
Beijing China 39.55N 116.26E
Buenos Aires Argentina 34.40S 58.30W
Cape Town South Africa 33.56S 18.28E
Chicago USA 41.50N 87.45W
Jakarta Indonesia 6.08S 106.45E
London UK 51.30N 0.10W
Mecca Saudi Arabia 21.26N 39.49E
Mexico City Mexico 19.25N 99.10W
Nairobi Kenya 1.17S 36.50E
Sydney Australia 16.40S 139.30E
This is a table of Declinations and Right Ascensions of selected stars (in alphabetical order) for
the worked examples.
Star Name Declination Right Ascension
Alpha Centauri -60.5 14h 40m
Vega +38.5 18h 40m
The diameter of the Earth is assumed to be 12,756 km giving a circumference of 40,074 km. To
convert kilometers to miles, divide by 1.609

Distance Between Two Points
Definitions
The Cosine and Sine Rules can be used to solve the basic problems of navigation on the surface
of the Earth.

In the figure above, the points B and C are two points on the surface of the Earth. We can define
the following:
Point A is the North Pole.
The great circle joining points B and C is the shortest distance between them.
The great circle (in blue) joining B' and C' is the Equator (Latitude 0).
The great circle (red) joining ABB' is a line of Longitude. It is the Longitude of B.
The great circle joining ACC' is another line of Longitude. It is the Longitude of C.
The length of the great circle arc B'B is the Latitude of point B. The arc B'A is 90
(Equator to Pole).
The length of the great circle arc C'C is the Latitude of point C. The arc C'A is also 90.
Latitude () is measured in degrees () measured from the Equator Northwards (marked N) or
Southwards (S). The Latitude of the North Pole is 90N and the Latitude of the South Pole is
90S. Southern Latitudes are considered negative (by convention). The Equator is a natural line
on the Earth as it represents the great circle bisecting the Earth's axis of rotation.
Longitude (L) is measured in degrees East (E) or West (W) of the Line of Longitude passing
through Greenwich Observatory, in a suburb of London (UK). This is called the Prime
Meridian of the Greenwich Meridian. It is not a natural line and has been chosen by
convention.
Using the Cosine Rule
The Cosine Rule can be used to determine the distance between points B and C (the arc, a) as
follows:
Cos(a) = Cos(b) Cos(c) + Sin(b) Sin(c) Cos(A)
where
A is an angle measured in degrees. It is the difference in Longitude between points B and
C.
The great circle arc, b, is 90 minus the Latitude of C. This is called the Polar Distance.
The great circle arc, c, is 90 minus the Latitude of B.
Example 1: Find the distance bewteen London (UK) and Baghdad (Iraq).
If we use the diagram below then B is London while C is Baghdad. From the table above London
has a Latitude of 51.30N and a Longitude of 0.10W. Baghdad has a Latitude of 33.20N and a
Longitude of 44.26E.

To use the Cosine Rule, we need to list the other terms needed:
We seek a, the angular distance along a great circle between London and Baghdad. This
is the shortest distance between these two cities along the surface of the Earth. It is shown
in red in the diagram.
A (the difference in Longitude between London and Baghdad) is 44.26E + 0.10W =
44.36. The two cities lie on different sides of the Greenwich Meridian (just) so we add
the Longitudes.
b is the Polar Distance of Baghdad given by 90 minus the Latitude of Baghdad (90 -
33.20 = 56.80).
c is is the Polar Distance of London: 90 minus the Latitude of London (90 - 51.30 =
38.70).
By the Cosine Rule:
Cos(a) = Cos(b) Cos(c) + Sin(b) Sin(c) Cos(A)
putting in the values:
Cos(a) = Cos(56.80) Cos(38.70) + Sin(56.80) Sin(38.70) Cos(44.36)
which gives:
Cos(a) = 0.5476 0.7804 + 0.8368 0.6252 0.7150
Cos(a) = 0.4273 + 0.3741 = 0.8014
Therefore, the great circle arc joining London and Baghdad (a) is 36.74. The Earth's
circumference is 40,074 km which is equivalent to 360. The value 36.74 is 36.74 / 360 of the
Earth's circumference. Therefore the distance between London and Baghdad is given by
40,074 km 36.74 / 360 = 4089 km
Cosine Rule With Latitudes
In the section on Trigonometry, we saw that for any angle, X, in degrees,
Cos(90 - X) = Sin(X) and Sin(90 - X) = Cos(X)
so we can re-write the Cosine Rule to use (the more readilly available) Latitudes instead of Polar
Distances.
There are two forms of this rule depending on if the values of the two Longitudes. If the
Longitudes are both on the same side of the Greenwich Meridian, (i.e both E or both W), the
formula is given by:
Cos(Dist
BC
) = Sin(
C
)Sin(
B
) + Cos(
C
)Cos(
B
)Cos(L
C
- L
B
)
If the Longitudes are on different sides of the Greenwich Meridian (i.e. One is E and the other is
W), the formula is given by:
Cos(Dist
BC
) = Sin(
C
)Sin(
B
) + Cos(
C
)Cos(
B
)Cos(L
C
+ L
B
)
In either form:
Dist
BC
is the angular distance between B and C along an arc of a great circle. This is the
shortest distance between the two points.

B
is the Latitude of B (positive for N, negative for S).

C
is the Latitude of C (positive for N, negative for S).
L
B
is the Longitude of B.
L
C
is the Longitude of C.
Example 2: Find the distance bewteen Chicago (USA) and Mexico City (Mexico).
If we set B to Mexico City and C to Chicago in the diagram below and we use the Cosine Rule
With Latitudes:
Cos(Dist
BC
) = Sin(
C
)Sin(
B
) + Cos(
C
)Cos(
B
)Cos(L
C
[+-] L
B
)

Dist
BC
is the required angular distance between Mexico City and Chicago. This is a on
the diagram above.

B
is the Latitude of Mexico City (Angle BB' = 19.25N).

C
is the Latitude of Chicago (CC' = 41.50N).
L
B
is the Longitude of Mexico City (99.10W). The great circle ABB' is this Longitude.
L
C
is the Longitude of Chicago (87.45W). Great circle ACC'.
The two Longitudes are both West of the Greenwich Meridian, so we use the following Cosine
Rule With Latitudes:
Cos(Dist
BC
) = Sin(
C
)Sin(
B
) + Cos(
C
)Cos(
B
)Cos(L
C
- L
B
)
Putting in the values and taking the difference between the two Longitudes we have:
Cos(Dist
BC
) = Sin(41.50)Sin(19.25) + Cos(41.50)Cos(19.25)Cos(11.65)
This gives:
Cos(Dist
BC
) = 0.6626 0.3297 + 0.7490 0.9441 0.9794 = 0.9110
Therefore:
Dist
BC
= 24.36
The distance between Chicago and Mexico City is given by:
40,074 km 24.36 / 360 = 2712 km
Example 3: Find the distance bewteen Buenos Aires, Argentina and Athens, Greece.

Set B to Buenos Aires and C to Athens and we use the Cosine Rule With Latitudes,
Cos(Dist
BC
) = Sin(
C
)Sin(
B
) + Cos(
C
)Cos(
B
)Cos(L
C
[+-] L
B
)
Dist
BC
is the required angular distance between Buenos Aires and Athens (a).

B
is the Latitude of Buenos Aires (B'B = 34.40S). Being South of the Equator this can
be written as -34.40.

C
is the Latitude of Athens (CC' = 38.00N).
L
B
is the Longitude of Buenos Aires (58.30W). Great circle AB'B.
L
C
is the Longitude of Athens (23.44E). Great circle ACC'.
The two Longitudes are on different sides of the Greenwich Meridian, so we use the following
Cosine Rule With Latitudes:
Cos(Dist
BC
) = Sin(
C
)Sin(
B
) + Cos(
C
)Cos(
B
)Cos(L
C
+ L
B
)
Put in the values. Remember we are using a negative Latitude for Buenos Aires:
Cos(Dist
BC
) = Sin(38.00)Sin(-34.40) + Cos(38.00)Cos(-34.40)Cos(81.74)
From the graphs of sines and cosines in the Trigonemtric Equations essay we know that:
Sin(-X) = -Sin(X) and Cos(-X) = Cos(X)
Therefore,
Cos(Dist
BC
) = -Sin(38.00)Sin(34.40) + Cos(38.00)Cos(34.40)Cos(81.74)
Which gives:
Cos(Dist
BC
) = -(0.6157 0.5650) + 0.7880 0.8251 0.1437 = -0.2544
Therefore:
Dist
BC
= 104.74
The distance between Buenos Aires and Athens is given by:
40,074 km 104.74 / 360 = 11,659 km

Direction Between Two Points
Definitions
In this section we will look at the direction between the two points. If we are travelling from B to
C (in the diagram below) then we must travel in a certain direction given by angle ABC. This
angle is called the Heading or Course and is measured in degrees clockwise from North.

Using The Sine Rule
The Sine Rule can be used to determine the direction between points B and C (the angle, B) as
follows:
Sin(a) / Sin(A) = Sin(b) / Sin(B) = Sin(c) / Sin(C)
where
The lower case letters (a, b, c) are the arcs of great circles.
The upper case letters(A, B, C) are the angles between the great circles making up the
triangle. The angle A is the difference in Logitudes between points B and C. The
Longitudes are added if they are on different sides of the Greenwich Meridian and
subtracted if they are on the same side of the Greenwich Meridian.
Example 4: What direction is Mecca (Saudi Arabia) from Jakarta (Indonesia).
Using the diagram below, set C to Jakarta and B to Mecca.

We are looking for angle C. This is the angle between the line of Longitude (b) which faces due
North and a, the arc of the great circle joining point C to point B.
The arcs of the great circles (c and b) are known. They are simply the Polar Distances of points
B and C respectivly (90 minus the Latitudes of these points). Angle A is also known: it is the
difference in Longitudes between points C and B. The only way that the Sine Rule can be used is
as follows:
Sin(c) / Sin(C) = Sin(a) / Sin(A)
Rearranging for C, gives
Sin(C) = Sin(A) Sin(c) / Sin(a)
where
C is the angle required. It will be West of North (Angle ACB on the diagram).
A is the Longitude difference between Mecca and Jakarta. In this case the value is 66.96.
c is the Polar Distance of Mecca (90 - 21.26 = 68.74).
a is the Distance between Mecca and Jakarta. This is found by using the Cosine Rule and
has a value of 71.08 (corresponding to a distance of 7912 km).
By the Sine Rule,
Sin(C) = Sin(A) Sin(c) / Sin(a) = Sin(66.96) Sin(68.74) / Sin(71.08)
which gives
Sin(C) = 0.9202 0.9319 / 0.9460 = 0.9066
This gives a value for angle C,
C = 65.04
To face Mecca from Jakarta, one must face North and turn anti-clockwise through an angle of
65.04.
Example 5: An airplane is to fly from Cape Town in South Africa to Beijing in China. If
the craft flies in a straight line, what Heading should the pilot follow.
Using the diagram below, set B to Cape Town and C to Beijing.

We are looking for angle B. This is the angle between the line of Longitude (c) which faces due
North and a, the arc of the great circle joining points B and C.
Again, we use the Sine Rule:
Sin(a) / Sin(A) = Sin(b) / Sin(B)
Rearranging for B, gives
Sin(B) = Sin(A) Sin(b) / Sin(a)
where
B is the angle required. It will be East of North. Heading is measured clockwise from
North therefore this angle will be the Heading.
A is the Longitude difference between Cape Town and Beijing. In this case the value is
97.98.
b is the Polar Distance of Beijing (90 - 39.55 = 50.45).
a is the Distance between Cape Town and Beijing. This is found by using the Cosine
Rule and has a value of 116.18 (corresponding to a distance of 12,933 km).
By the Sine Rule,
Sin(B) = Sin(A) Sin(b) / Sin(a) = Sin(97.98) Sin(50.45) / Sin(116.18)
which gives
Sin(B) = 0.9903 0.7711 / 0.8974 = 0.8509
This gives a value for angle B,
B = 58.31
To fly from Cape Town to Beijing, one must keep to a Heading of 58.31.

Declination or Latitude from Stars
Definitions
In the essay about Coordinate Systems, it was shown that there are two local coordinates that can
be used to fix the position of a star from a particulat location. In the diagram below, point O is
the observer and S is a star:
The angle NOT is the Azimuth, , (measured in degrees clockwise from North).
The angle TOS is the Altitude, measured in degrees from the horizon. In practice it is
easier to measure Zenith Distance, z, which is 90 - Altutude. The Zenith is the point
directly overhead.

A star map (or a table of star positions) is a very useful aid in navigation. The Celestial Sphere
has a coordinate system analagous to that on the Earth. The Right Ascention is analagous to
Longitude on the Earth. It is found by measuring times and will not be discussed here. The
Declination of a star is the number of degrees North or South of the Celestial Equator. Once
these two coordinates are known, the star can be plotted accurately onto a star map or tabulated
for use in navigation.
Finding Declinations
If a star's Azimuth () and Zenith Distance (z) are measured at the same time from a location
whos Latitude () is known, the star's Declination (given the symbol, ) can be found by using
the Declination Formula below.
Sin() = Sin()Cos(z) - Cos()Sin(z)Cos()
Stars have fixed positions (in a human lifetime) but objects like the Sun, Moon, planets and
comets change their positions in the sky so this process can also be used to track their
movements against the background stars and plot their paths on a star map.
Example 6: A new comet is found in Sydney, Australia. Its Azimuth () is measured as
57.40 while its Zenith Distance (z) is 83.70. What is its Declination.
Before using the formula we list the values to be used:
The Declination () required.
The Azimuth () is 57.40.
The Zenith Distance (z) is 83.70.
The Latitude of Sydney () is 16.40S (which can be written as -16.40).
Using the Declination Formula,
Sin() = Sin()Cos(z) - Cos()Sin(z)Cos()
which gives
Sin() = Sin(-16.40) Cos(83.70) - Cos(-16.40) Sin(83.70) Cos(57.40)
Remembering that Sin(-X) = -Sin(X) and Cos(-X) = Cos(X), this can be re-written as
Sin() = -Sin(16.40) Cos(83.70) - Cos(16.40) Sin(83.70) Cos(57.40)
This gives
Sin() = -(0.2823 0.1097) - (0.9593 0.9940 0.5388) = -0.5447
Therefore,
The Declination () = -33.00
On a star map, the comet lies 33 South of the Celestial Equator.
Finding Latitude
This is the reverse of finding Declinations. However, two stars must be used. Both must be of
known Declination. To find the Latitude, the navigator requires a table of Declinations and an
instrument to measure the Zenith Distance and Azimuth of the selected stars.
The method is to measure the Zenith Distance and Azimuths of two known stars at the same
time. The formula is long so it is broken down below:
Cos() = -P / Q
where
P = Sin(
1
)Cos(z
2
) - Sin(
2
)Cos(z
1
)
and
Q = Cos(z
1
)Sin(z
2
)Cos(
2
) - Sin(z
1
)Cos(z
2
)Cos(
1
)
The symbols are defined as follows:
is the required Latitude.
z
1
, z
2
are the Zenith Distances of the two selected stars.

1
,
1
are the Azimuths of the two selected stars.

1
,
1
are the Declinations of the selected stars (from tables or a star map).
In the following example, angles are measured to only 1 decimal place for brevity.
As a side note, the Longitude is found by knowing the local time and comparing it with
Greenwich Mean Time. Each difference of one hour corresponds to a difference of 15 in
Longitude. This is not covered in this essay.
Example 7: On a ship, the following measurements are made of the stars Alpha Centauri
(Azimuth: 183.0; Zenith Distance: 74.0) and Vega (Azimuth: 51.0; Zenith Distance:
54.5). Find the Latitude.
Firstly we list the items required for the formula.
is the required Latitude.
z
1
, z
2
are the Zenith Distances of Alpha Centauri (74.0) and Vega (54.5).

1
,
1
are the Azimuths of Alpha Centauri (183.0) and Vega (51.0).

1
,
1
are the Declinations of Alpha Centauri (-60.5) and Vega (38.5) taken from the
table above.
We can now begin to insert the values into the formula, begining with P:
P = Sin(
1
)Cos(z
2
) - Sin(
2
)Cos(z
1
) = Sin(-60.5) Cos(54.5) - Sin(38.5) Cos(74.0)
giving
P = -(0.8704 0.5807) - (0.6225 0.2756) = -0.6770
Now, Q:
Q = Cos(z
1
)Sin(z
2
)Cos(
2
) - Sin(z
1
)Cos(z
2
)Cos(
1
)
= Cos(74.0) Sin(54.5) Cos(51.0) - Sin(74.0) Cos(54.5) Cos(183.0)
giving
Q = (0.2756 0.8141 0.6293) - (0.9613 0.5807 -0.9986) = 0.6987
Finally,
Cos() = -P / Q = - (-0.6770) / 0.6987 = 0.9690
This gives us a value for the Latitude,
= 14.3

Sunrise and Sunset Points
Definitions
The Sun's Declination changes throughoiut the year from +23.5 on 21 June to -23.5 on 21
December. These two dates are called the Solstices. This movement from north of the Equator to
south of the Equator causes the seasons. It also changes the length of daylight and the position of
local sunrise and sunset throughout the year.
On the Equinoxes (21 March and 23 September) the Sun's Declination is 0 and the Sun rises
exactly in the East (Azimuth 90) and sets exactly in the West (Azimuth 270). At other times of
the year the Sun rises and sets North or South of the East or West point as its Declination
changes.

In the diagram above (set in the Northern Hemisphere), the red line is the daily path of the Sun
on the Equinox. It rises in the East (Azimuth = NOE) passes through the South (when it is at its
highest) and sets in the West (Azimuth = NOW).
The blue line is the daily path of the Sun during the December Solstice. The Sun rises South of
East (Azimuth = NOR), passes through the South (lower than at the Equinoxes) and sets to the
South of West (Azimuth = NOT).

In the diagram above, the green line is the daily path of the Sun during the June Solstice. The
Sun rises North of East (Azimuth = NOR), passes through the South (higher than at the
Equinoxes) and sets to the North of West (Azimuth = NOT).
This formula calculates the rising and setting points of the Sun (or any other object) if its
Declination is known for a given Latitude.
Cos() = Sin() / Cos()
The symbols are defined as follows:
is the required Azimuth.
is the Declinations of the Sun (or other object).
is the Latitude of the observer.
Example 8: Show that on 21 March (when the Sun's Declination is 0), the Sun rises exactly
due East in London (UK), Nairobi (Kenya) and Sydney (Australia).
First we list the values to be used:
is the required Azimuth.
is the Declinations of the Sun (0 on 21 March).
is the Latitude of London, Nairobi or Sydney. These values 51.30N, 1.17S and
16.40S respectively.
Using the formula,
Cos() = Sin() / Cos()
It is clear that, regardless of the value of , when = 0,
Cos() = Sin(0) / Cos() = 0 / Cos() = 0
therefore,
= 90 (due East) and 270 (due West)
This proves that the Sun rises and sets due East and West respectively on 21 March, for the three
cities.
Example 9: Find the sunrise position in Nairobi on 21 June and 21 December.
First we list the values to be used:
is the required Azimuth.
is the Declinations of the Sun on these two days (+23.5 on 21 June; -23.5 on 21
December).
is the Latitude of Nairobi (1.17S or -1.17).
Using the formula,
Cos() = Sin() / Cos()
For Nairobi on 21 June,
Cos() = Sin(23.5) / Cos(-1.17) = 0.3987 / 0.9998 = 0.3988
For Nairobi on 21 December,
Cos() = Sin(-23.5) / Cos(-1.17) = -0.3987 / 0.9998 = -0.3988
This gives the two sunrise points required:
= 66.50 (23.5 North of East) and 113.5 (23.5 South of East)
Nairobi is close to the Equator ( = 1.17S). The difference in sunrise position on the two
Solstice days is 47, which is the difference in the Sun's Declination between the two dates.
Example 10: Find the sunrise position in London on 21 June and 21 December.
First we list the values to be used:
is the required Azimuth.
is the Declinations of the Sun on these two days (+23.5 on 21 June; -23.5 on 21
December).
is the Latitude of London (51.30N).
Using the formula,
Cos() = Sin() / Cos()
For London on 21 June,
Cos() = Sin(23.5) / Cos(51.30) = 0.3987 / 0.6252 = 0.6377
For London on 21 December,
Cos() = Sin(-23.5) / Cos(51.30) = -0.3987 / 0.6252 = -0.6377
This gives the two sunrise points required:
= 50.38 (39.62 North of East) and 129.62 (39.62 South of East)
London is far North of the Equator ( = 51.30N). The difference in sunrise position on the two
Solstice days is over 79.

The Sundial
History and Description
The earliest time keeper was the sundial.
These originally consisted of a stick (called a gnomon) placed vertically in the ground. From the
position of the shadow, an idea of the time of day could be obtained. The simple gnomon was
used by all the major ancient civilisations including the Babylonians, Egyptians, Indus Valley,
Chinese, Greek and Roman.
One problem with a vertical gnomon is that the Sun's Declination changes throughout the year.
This affects the Sun in two ways:
The Sun is at different Altitudes for a given time of day at different times of the year.
The Sun's apparent path in the sky changes throughout the year.
These two effects mean that the movement of the Sun's shadow during a day in June is different
to the movement of the shadow in December. An hour in June, as measured from the Sun's
shadow at the foot of a gnomon, is a different length to an hour measured in December. Each
month requires a different scale at the foot of the gnomon for telling the time accurately.
The Modern Sundial
During the 10th century AD, the Moorish rulers of Spain solved this problem by making the
sundial at an angle.

The diagram above shows the Moorish sundial which is now a common ornament in UK
gardens.
The angle OQP is equal to the Latitude of the place where the sundial will be located. A sundial
for Baghdad will not work in London or Athens. The sundial is positioned (in the Northern
Hemisphere) so that the line QP faces the point directly above the North Pole in the sky (The
North Celestial Pole). In other words, the sundial is aligned along the North-South meridian.
This makes the line QP parallel to the Earth's axis of rotation.
This simple change has the effect of making all hours, measured by the Sun's shadow, the same
length throughout the year, regardless of the Sun's apparent path in the sky.
The Sun's shadow at local noon will face due North. For each hour after local noon, the shadow
of the sundial (called the Shadow Angle and shown by OTQ in the diagram) will face a
different direction. There will be a regular movement of the shadow for each time unit and this
can be calculated.
Once the sundial has been built with the correct angle and has been positioned properly, the
graduations for measuring the time can be found with the following formula.
Tan(S) = Sin() Tan(15 H)
where
S is the Shadow Angle for a given time (say 1pm). The Shadow Angle is measured in
degrees from the position of the Sun's shadow at local noon. This is where the mark for
that time will be placed on the scale at the foot of the sundial.
is the Latitude of the sundial (which must equal angle OQP for it to work correctly).
H is the hour required. It is multiplied by 15 in the formula because during a complete 24
hour solar day, the Sun appears to go once around the Earth (360). This means that 360
is equivalent to 24 hours; making 15 equivalent to one hour (360 / 24 = 15).
Example 11: Find the Shadow Angle for 2pm for a sundial in London .
The values needed are:
S (the Shadow Angle). This is what we are looking for.
is the Latitude of London (51.30).
H is the hour required, in this case, 2.
Using the formula,
Tan(S) = Sin() Tan(15 H) = Sin(51.30) Tan(15 2) = Sin(51.30) Tan(30)
This gives,
Tan(S) = 0.7804 0.5774 = 0.4506
The Shadow Angle, S, is therefore
S = 24.26
The Sun's daily motion is East to West (if facing South, the motion is left to right in the Northern
Hemisphere). Therefore the Sun's shadow will move from its North position at local noon
towards the East. The mark for 2pm will be put at 24.26 from the North. Since the movement of
the Sun is symetrical, the mark for 10am (noon minus 2 hours) will also be at 24.26 but on the
West side of North.
In this manner all the hours (or half hours or even quarter hours) can be marked on the sundial
scale.
Tables
The following is a table of Shadow Angles from local noon (0h) to 5pm (5h) for sundials in
London (UK), Athens (Greece) and Mexico City (Mexico) derived from the above formula. Of
course, the same angles can also be used from 7am to local noon.
Time
London
( = 51.30)
Athens
( = 38.00)
Mexico City
( = 19.25)
0h 0 0 0
1h 11.81 9.37 5.05
2h 24.26 19.57 10.78
3h 37.97 31.62 18.25
4h 53.51 46.84 29.73
5h 71.05 66.48 50.90
This table allows the building and marking of sundials in the three cities named above or in any
place with the same Latitudes.
From the table we can see that in all three cities the Shadow Angle is 0 at local noon (0h). The
other angles all differ. For example, in London, the Sun's shadow will move 37.39 between
local noon and 3pm. This is the Shadow Angle for 3h in the table. In Athens the same time
period will produce a shadow movement of 31.62. In Mexico City, the figure will be 18.25.
The closer the sundial is to the Equator, the less movement of the Sun's shadow between local
noon and 3pm.
Sundial Corrections
Before a sundial can be used for telling the time, three corrections must be made to the reading
of the position of the shadow.
The Sun is not, in fact, a perfect time keeper. This is because its movements have certain
irregularities that can make the time read from a sundial differ by up to 17 minutes from clock
time. A correction needs to be made (called the Equation of Time) and subtracted from the time
read from a sundial to give the correct clock time. This correction depends only on the date. A
diagram is shown below. The Equation of Time is zero on four days of the year.

Most countries use Time Zones. These are strips of territory, usually 15 wide. The clock time is
set to the local time in the centre of the time zone. If the sundial is exactly on the centre of the
time zone, no correction needs to be made. If, however, the sundial is located at the edge of the
time zone it may be 7.5 away from the centre. Since 1 hour is equivalent to 15, this error will
cause the sundial time to be up to half an hour out from the clock time. This correction depends
on the location of the sundial and has a constant value at all times. It is equal to
Time Zone Correction (in hours) = (L
S
- L
T
) 15
where L
S
is the Longitude of the sundial and L
T
is the Longitude of the centre of the Time Zone.
If the sundial is to the East of the time zone centre, the correction is subtracted, if to the West the
correction is added.
The third correction is Summer Time or Daylight Saving Time. If it is force, an hour must be
added to the sundial time to give the clock time. Each country has different rules for when this
extra hour is in force.

You might also like