Fabricación de Acero

FABRICACIN DE ACERO
http://www.steeluniversity.org/content/html/eng/bos-sim.asp
BF Simulation
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Click here to open simulation in a new window
In this simulation you will play the role of plant metallurgist in charge of the Blast Furnace
operations. Your aim is to optimise production of hot metal from your Blast Furnace by selecting
appropriate raw materials, production statistics and charging rates. Your results are shown in
terms of the mass and heat balance achieved with these settings.
Please note: Results from this simulation cannot be saved
Click here for detailed user guide (PDF)
Click here to download Adobe Acrobat Reader
This completes the current section. If necessary, please ensure that you have achieved the
learning outcomes for this section:
Identify where the blast furnace fits in the total steel production process
Describe the blast furnace layout and its auxiliary equipment
Explain the blast furnace process
Identify raw materials and their preparation
Describe the charging procedure & layered structure of the furnace
List the different zones and their physical and chemical states
Write down the main chemical reaction in different zones
Explain the thermodynamics and reaction kinetics of the iron ore reduction
Explain the functions of tuyere and raceway and importance of coke combustion
Describe the principle energy and mass balance of the process
Explain the role of pulverised coal injection (PCI) and injection of other fuels
Detail the influence of process parameters such as slag fluxes, blast injectants, blast
temperature, coke rate
Identify the critical control parameters of the process
Describe the products and by-products and their quality control
List other alternative ironmaking processes
External Links
Institute of Ferrous Metallurgy, Aachen University of Technology, IEHK
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sites.
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Liverpool
2002-2011 World Steel Association
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Secondary Steelmaking Simulation

In this simulation you will play the role of plant metallurgist in charge of secondary steelmaking
operations. You will take charge of a ladle of molten steel from the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF),
and attempt to deliver it to the appropriate caster at the specified time, composition,
temperature and inclusion content (cleanness). You should also aim to complete the simulation
at minimum processing cost.
There are four different steel grades from which to choose, each requiring a different processing
route. As a relatively undemanding grade, a general purpose construction steel for beams
and columns is recommended for novice users. A TiNb ultra-low carbon (ULC) steel for
automotive strip requires different processing in order to remove carbon. A linepipe steel for
oil and gas distribution is a much more demanding grade as it requires very low levels of sulfur
and hydrogen. Finally, a heat-treatable medium-carbon CrMo engineering steel provides an
example of a more highly alloyed grade. In addition, you can define your own custom steel grade.
To achieve your objectives, you will need to make decisions based on alloy and slag additions,
stirring, vacuum degassing and reheating. The sequencing, timing and quantity of additions
and applications of stirring, degassing and/or reheating practices will be critical to the successful
completion of the simulation.
At the end of the simulation, the user is given feedback on whether the composition, temperature,
inclusion level and delivery time were within the specified values, together with the total operating
cost.
Defining Your Own Steel Grade...

Explain the overall purposes of secondary steelmaking
Describe some of the equipment and processes involved in secondary steelmaking
Successfully perform a simulation of a secondary steelmaking shop by applying the main
thermodynamic and kinetic principles
See Also
Automotive > Selection and Design for Car Door Outer Panel
References
AISE, The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel - Steelmaking and Refining

BOS Simulation

In this simulation you will play the role of plant metallurgist in charge of the BOF operations. You
will have to decide on scrap and addition materials, and the amount of hot metal to charge into
the BOF to attain a target composition of the chosen steel grade and to tap within required time
and temperature limits.
You should also aim to minimize the cost of the whole operation.
Describe the BOS process
List and explain the main chemical reactions that take place during the BOS process,
especially with regards decarburization, slag formation and control and dephosphorization
Take charge of a virtual BOS plant and convert, at minimum cost, hot metal from the
blast furnace or desulphurization plant into steel ready for secondary steelmaking
Decide during the simulation: what additions to make and when to make them; when to
blow O2 and when to stop; what process parameters to measure and monitor; how to
respond to events that might occur; when to tap
Describe the BOS furnace and some of the auxiliary equipment
Explain the various process control parameters, sensors and models
References
AISE, The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel - Steelmaking and Refining Volume, The
AISE Steel Foundation, 0-930767-02-0
Branger, G & Henry, G, The Book of Steel, Lavoiser Pub, 2-7430-0022-8
External Links
Photo of Charging the Converter, Trinec, Czech Republic
World Steel Association, MATTER and their partners are not responsible for the content of external
sites.
Liverpool

EAF Simulation

In this simulation you will play the role of plant metallurgist in charge of the EAF operations. You
will have to select, melt and refine scrap materials in the EAF to attain a target composition of
the chosen steel grade and to tap within required time and temperature limits.
You should also aim to minimize the cost of the whole operation.
List and explain the functions of the key components of the electric arc furnace
Describe a typical power schedule for a 2-basket operation
Identify a range of different types of steel scrap
Explain the key considerations behind the loading of scrap baskets
Explain the advantages of slag foaming and how it is achieved
Describe the important chemical reactions that take place during the refining stage of the
process
Explain strategies for maximizing alloy yield
Successfully run a simulation of the EAF by selecting, melting and refining scrap materials
to attain a target composition and temperature
Liverpool

Continuous Casting Simulation

(You will need Flash 7 Player installed)
In this simulation you will play the role of plant metallurgist in charge of continuous casting
operations. The aim of the simulation is to successfully sequence cast three ladles meeting the
specified criteria of surface quality, internal quality and inclusion content. You should also
aim to minimize the cost of the whole operation.
Prior to casting, you will need to carefully select various parameters, for example:
Steel grade
Target casting speed
Secondary cooling
Mold oscillation
Having selected these parameters you are tasked with ordering three ladles of steel from the
secondary steelmaking shop. This step involves deciding on the liquid steel temperature and
estimated arrival time. Once the simulation begins, you can control the flow of liquid steel
between the ladle, tundish and molds. As the strand emerges, you can flame-cut it into lengths.
And try at all times to avoid a breakout of liquid from the mold!
Describe the main components and layout of slab, bloom and billet casters
Explain the functions of the tundish and mold
Explain the purpose of mold oscillation, and the effects of oscillation stroke, frequency and
casting speed
Describe and sketch typical temperature profiles for the liquid steel in both ladle and
tundish
Define the terms bulging, misalignment and bending/straightening strains and explain the
main parameters that affect each
Successfully perform a 3-ladle sequence cast in a continuous casting simulation
References
AISE, The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel - Casting Volume CD, The AISE Steel
Foundation,
Bernhard, C & Sjkvist, T, Die interaktive Stranggiesimulation auf
www.steeluniversity.org Berg- und Httenmnnische Monatshefte, SpringerWienNewYork,
0005-8912
Plate Rolling Simulation

(You will need Flash Player installed)
Your Role
You work as the manager of a steel plate rolling mill. Plate rolling involves taking re-heated slabs
and rolling them down to the specified plate dimensions with the required mechanical
properties. Your aim is to run a profitable mill.
Your Order
You have received an order to supply plates for 25 towers of an offshore wind farm, as shown.
Each tower is built from 21 sections:
The top 10 sections of the tower have a conical profile and are manufactured from fan-
shaped plates that will be cut out from rectangular parent plates, roll-formed and welded
to form a cone section. At 8 mm thick, the top cone is the thinnest section.
Below this is a cylindrical transition piece, which is directly above sea-level. It is
designed to provide a firm base for the cone by compensating for any dimensional
variance in the structure below sea-level.
The bottom 10 sections are cylindrical monopiles and produced by roll-formed and
welding rectangular plates to form a cylinder or can. The thickest plate, the mudline
can, is subject to the highest loads and is 45 mm thick.
Order Item 1 Order Item 2 Order Item 3
Top Cone Transition Piece Mudline Can

Thickness mm 8 25 45
Top diameter mm 2800 4000 4000
Bottom diameter mm 2900 4000 4000
Height mm 2500 4000 3000
Specification S235JR S355G10+M S355G10+M
Yield stress (Rp) MPa 235 355 355
UTS (Rm) MPa 360-510 470-630 470-630
%El % 24 22 22
ITT C N/A -70 -70
ITT = temperature above which a standard Charpy test specimen can withstand 24 J. Lower
values imply inherently tougher steels capable of withstanding more demanding conditions.
Click here to view the specs for the entire tower
Your Decisions & Actions
In this simulation, you are responsible for delivering these three important sections to the required
dimensions and mechanical properties, all at minimum cost. You will have to:
1. calculate the delivered plate dimensions from the can and cone specifications given
2. specify edge and end trim allowances
3. select an appropriate slab chemistry and rolling mode for each order item, based on
the required properties
4. specify your "slab build-up"; how many slabs and of what dimensions for each order
item. You will need to work within the dimensional and mass constraints of your mill
5. select an appropriate rolling schedule for each slab
6. roll the plates in an interactive simulation
Your Performance
After rolling any of the order items you will receive a test-house report. This will list:
1. actual plate dimensions against targets
2. actual mechanical properties against targets
3. total cost for this order item. This is based on the raw material (i.e. slabs) and mill time
(hourly rate).
You need to successfully roll all three order items to complete the order. Your best individual
results for the three different order items will be added together to give your best overall order
cost.
See Also
Plate Rolling > Plate Rolling Simulation (Original Version)
Section Rolling Simulation
http://www.steeluniversity.org/content/html/eng/default.asp?cati
d=199&pageid=2081272143
Conduct a Tensile Test
In order to complete this as a linked exercise, which includes sampling a steel plate, preparing test
pieces and conducting virtual tensile, Charpy and hardness tests, you will need login so that you
can save and retrieve your data. If you wish to do this please login below. However if you choose
to proceed you may only complete exercises in standalone mode.
Click here to login/register.

Open exercise in a new window.
At this stage you are able to insert the test piece into the grips of the tensile testing machine and
can carry out a load strain experiment. However, you should first check that the testing machine is
capable of measuring the tensile strength to sufficient accuracy.
Note that this machine has different load measurement capabilities and various loads can be
accommodated by changing the load cell.
The load cell is a device which senses the change in load and translates it to an electrical voltage
which in turn is displayed on the load indicator or 'load'
Note:
Recall that stress is measured in terms of force per unit area.
If you estimate a maximum breaking load of 5000 N, selecting a 10000 N range using a
5 kN load cell would risk damage to the instrument.
You are ready to conduct a virtual tensile test and have two options:
1. To test the test pieces of the ship plate steel that you have prepared previously.
2. To conduct a tensile test on a low carbon steel strip.
You will be asked to determine the yield and tensile strength, elongation and Young's modulus.
These may be followed by seeing the results of tests on high carbon steel rod and two wires that
have been drawn from it and an ultra-high strength alloy steel.
Vickers Hardness Test

You should now click on the link to open up the Vickers' hardness test in a new window.
See Also
Test Piece Preparation > Sampling, Cutting Test Coupons and Machining Test Pieces
References
Dieter, GE, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw Hill, 0071004068
Callister, WD, Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction, John Wiley & Sons,

Tabor, D, Hardness of Metals, OUP,
Charpy Test Simulation

In this exercise you will perform a simulated Charpy impact test and plot the change in impact
energy as the test temperature changes and link this data to the ductile/brittle transition in steels.
Click on the image below to start the exercise in its own window.
See Also
Test Piece Preparation > Sampling, Cutting Test Coupons and Machining Test Pieces
Liverpool

Sampling, Cutting Test Coupons and Machining Test Pieces

Open exercise in a new window. (please be patient while this loads)
You will now start an exercise to determine the mechanical properties of a ship plate steel (plate
ID number B21234). You will have to conduct longitudinal and transverse tensile tests (one of
each), hardness and Charpy impact toughness tests, and decide whether the ship plate steel
meets the requirements of the American Bureau of Shipping Standard (AB/EH36) that you have
studied in the previous section. The Charpy impact tests shall include 3 tests at the specified
temperature (40 C in this case) in both orientations, and the determination of a ductilebrittle
transition curve (Impact Transition Temperature) in the longitudinal direction. This will probably
require at least 10 tests at different temperatures within the range of 100 to +80 C.
You may be required to conduct 3 repeat Charpy impact tests at 40 C depending on the first
results.
You may be required to conduct two repeat tensile tests, depending on the first results. For this
exercise, please use 25 mm diameter round tensile test pieces.
You have a tight deadline to meet and must complete the property determination at minimum
cost. It is therefore important to get your sampling and test piece preparation and testing right
first time, without wasting material. Any re-preparation of plate samples, test coupons or test
pieces or retests that you have to do will mean that you will miss your deadline and increase your
costs.
See Also
Introduction to Standards & Specifications > American Bureau of Shipping Rules for
Materials & Welding
Hardness Test > Vickers Hardness Test
Tensile Test > Conduct a Tensile Test
Charpy Impact Test > Charpy Test Simulation
Liverpool

Design and Make Exercise and User Guide

Open exercise in a new window
Objective
Your task is to supply an order for 9,000 tonnes of high strength steel plate that must meet the
following mechanical property requirements:
Lower yield stress, LYS >375 MPa
Ultimate Tensile Stress, UTS >530 MPa and <620 MPa
54 J Charpy impact transition temperature, ITT <40 C
Ratio LYS/UTS <0.82
Two levels of difficulty are available to you, Student or "Works Technical. In the former, you will
get some advice and guidance when you make your initial selections of composition and process
route. These will not be available at the more difficult "Works Technical level.
Initial decisions
You must first select your composition and heat treatment/rolling procedure for the first part
of the order comprising 5000 tonnes of 50 mm plate. When making these initial decisions you will
be advised of the predicted properties in the as-rolled condition. You may also be given other
advice and warnings at appropriate times.
You can view the cost of your steel at any time by opening the "Cost" window.
Please be aware that when selecting a composition, the composition of each cast made to your
specification will be subject to the following variations:
Element C Si Mn P S Cr Mo
Variation 0.01% 0.025% 0.05% 0.0015% 0.0015% 0.001% 0.001%

Element Ni Cu Al N Nb V
Variation 0.001% 0.03% 0.0025% 0.0005% 0.001% 0.001%
The mean grain size of each plate is dependent on the composition you select and on the rolling
process and/or heat treatment used.
Warning Messages
On this first composition and process route decision-making screen, the anticipated results for the
welding tests will be given as guidance in terms of green, amber and red lights. Each light has the
following meaning:
Green: The weldability is expected to be satisfactory and acceptable to the customer.
Amber: The weldability should be acceptable, but there is a small risk that some welding test
failures may occur.
Flashing Amber: The weldability may not be acceptable, as there is fairly high probability that
some weld test failures may occur.
Red: The weldability is expected to be unacceptable, as there is a very high probability that weld
test failures may occur. You should select a different composition.
Flashing Red: The weldability is not acceptable. You must select a different composition.
Additional costs will be incurred if any of the weldability tests fail and retests are required.
Making your Steel Plates
Once you have decided on a steel composition and process route that should be capable of
meeting the specification, you will see a Well Done! message and will be able to make your first
cast. When the first batch of 10 plates has been processed you will be presented with a histogram
of Tensile and Charpy impact test results. Each plate of the first two casts will be automatically
subjected to mechanical property tests.
If any of your plates fail to meet the customers requirements you will have to decide what action
to take. You will have some/all of the following options available to you:
Normalize the failed plate(s) or batch(es) that do not have adequate mechanical
properties. You may normalize each plate/ batch twice if required, as generally a finer
grain size and better properties are generated after a second normalizing treatment. As-
rolled and controlled rolled plates can be normalized.
Sell the failed plate(s) or batch(es) as downgraded material (seconds) at a price of
$200/tonne.
Scrap the failed plate(s) or batch(es) at a price of $90/tonne.
Supply the failed plate(s) or batch(es) to the customer. However, if the customer later
rejects the failed plates you have supplied you will then have to pay for the costs of
returning them to the steel works and decide whether to sell them as downgraded
material or scrap them. If this happens you will have to replace them at your expense.
Before proceeding to the rolling of the second batch of 10 plates from the first cast you have to
decide whether you want to change the process route (rolling/ heat treatment) or the composition
of the third cast. The second cast is already in production at this stage, therefore will have the
same composition/process route as the first.
If you decide to change the composition after you have made the first cast then you will incur an
additional cost of $30,000, as it is intended the first 5,000 tonnes of this order will be cast in
sequence, to minimize costs in the continuous casting plant. There is, therefore, a cost associated
with a disruption to this sequence. This cost penalty will be incurred every time you change the
composition after the first cast has been made.
The third and subsequent casts of the 50 mm plates will be rolled in a sequence and you will not
be able to change the composition or rolling process/ heat treatment once this has started, unless
there are serious weldability problems.
Welding Tests
Welding tests will be conducted on the first cast of the 50 mm plate and on the first cast of any
thicker plates. The results will be made available during the rolling of the subsequent cast.
Welding test results will be shown as Green (Pass) or Red (Fail) lights. If any of the welding tests
fail to meet the customers requirements then additional tests will be performed on the second and
third casts of the appropriate size plate. These re-tests will cost at least $10,000/cast. Depending
on the results of these additional tests, the customer may reject the steel you have made at this
size on the grounds of unacceptable weldability.
The third cast will have been made before you get the results of the welding tests and the results
of any retests will not be known until the fourth cast has been rolled. Therefore, if at this stage the
customer does not find the weldability of your steel acceptable, the first four casts will be rejected
and you will have to decide whether to dispose/retreat or replace them.
At the end of the second cast you will have the option of reducing the frequency of mechanical
property tests to one plate per batch. However, if this plate fails to meet the customers
requirements the remaining 9 plates in the batch will also be deemed to have failed. If you decide
to test every plate, which will incur additional testing costs, then each failed plate can be dealt
with separately.
Meeting the Order
If, at the end of the planned production schedule for each plate thickness, you have not supplied
sufficient plate to satisfy the customer's requirements, you will be required to make some
additional casts and to choose the composition and process route for them.
Any plates that you produce that are surplus to the order requirements will be sold at a reasonable
price ($450/tonne).
After you have successfully produced 5,000 tonnes of 50 mm plate, you will be advised of the
thickness required for the next 3,000 tonnes and later the thickness required for the final 1,000
tonnes of the order.
Towards the end of the exercise, if you are struggling to complete the order, you will be given the
option to Quit or to Continue. At the end of a successful order delivery you will be presented with
a certificate and a summary of the composition and rolling process/heat treatment you have
designed.
You should now be ready to start open the link at the top of this page and make your first
decision. Good Luck!
Select a composition and process route suitable for a weldable, high strength plate
application on an offshore platform, by applying your knowledge of metallurgical
strengthening mechanisms
References
Gladman, T, The Physical Metallurgy of Microalloyed Steels, Institute of Materials, 0
901716 81 2
Llewellyn, DT & Hudd, RC, Steels, Metallurgy and Applications, Butterworths-Heinemann,

Mintz, B, Ironmaking & Steelmaking, Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining,
Mintz, B et al., Mater. Sci. & Tech, ,
Mintz, B et al., Mater. Sci. & Tech, ,
Liverpool


In this interactive simulation you will take control of a bloom and roll it into an I-beam. To do this
you must take the bloom as it drops out of a re-heating furnace and move it down the line
towards the "roughing" stand. The view will change automatically to the Roughing Mill to allow you
to move and rotate the feedstock according to the "rolling schedule" shown on-screen. After
completing this, the view will revert back to the main Plant View and you must take the stock
through the end shear and onto the REF (Roughing-Edging-Finishing) stands where you can roll it
into its final shape.
You will be required to deliver the I-beam within a given time window.
User Interface Controls
Main Plant View
This is a view of the entire mill, in which you can pan along the line and zoom in/out along the
entire length of the mill to view all parts of the rolling process. This can be done by dragging the
mouse on the grid, using the keyboard shortcuts or simply by clicking on equipment that you wish
to see. Stock may only be moved up and down the line in this view (using the stock velocity
controller (1)).

1. Stock velocity controls. These can also be controlled via the keyboard shortcuts (5). In
the roughing stand view, clicking the curved arrow will rotate the stock to the required
orientation.
2. Timer. Displays the total elapsed rolling time.
3. Rolling schedule. Displays the next rolling stage on the plant view or target roll gap in
the roughing view. The schedule will change colour as actions are completed:
Grey: action complete
Green: next action (roughing view); action in progress (plan view)
Red: next action (plan view only)
Black: future actions
4. Zoom in/out buttons. These may also be controlled via the keyboard shortcuts (5).
5. Keyboard shortcuts. These are only visible in the plant view.
6. Plant overview. This is only visible in the plant view. The shaded box will display the
currently viewed area, dragging this box will pan along the line and clicking on a given
plant object will pan to that object. The overview will also display the current position of
the stock on the rolling line.
7. Target roll groove . This is only visible in the roughing view. It will turn red to indicate
the next groove to be used and then green when the stock is correctly aligned to pass
through.
Roughing Stand View
This axial view is activated when the stock approaches the roughing mill. No zooming or panning
is required is this view. The stock can be moved both along and across the rolling line, in addition
to being rotated in order to pass through the rolls in the targeted roll groove.

Instructions for Roughing Stand
1. Use the roughing view controls to roll the feedstock according to the roll schedule given
on-screen.
2. Use the "left" and "right" controls or keyboard arrows to align the stock with the correct
roll "groove" (the label on the roll will turn green when the stock is positioned correctly).
3. Rotate as necessary using the "rotate control" or spacebar. Grooves labelled "P" take the
feedstock in the upright orientation; those labelled "F" take it flat.
4. Once aligned, use the "up" and "down" controls or keyboard arrows to feed the stock
through the rolls.
5. Try not to run the stock into the roll at the wrong position, as it will cause damage to the
ends. If you cause excessive damage you may not be able to pass the stock through the
roll and you will fail the simulation. Moderate damage will result in a reduced yield as it
will be necessary to take a longer end crop to remove the damaged material.
6. The upper roll (the roll with labelled grooves) will automatically adjust to the required
height (roll gap) for each pass.
7. Once you have completed the rolling schedule in the roughing stand, moving the stock
down the line away from the rolls will return you to the main plant view to complete the
REF stage of the process.
REF Stands View
The REF (rougher, edger, finisher) stands carry out the final rolling passes in the UBM. These
three stands operate in tandem in a precisely designed rolling schedule and output the final rolled
I-beam ready for cutting.

Rougher:
This consists of two vertical rolls accompanied by a pair of side rolls, which can be moved
independently. The rolls on this stand are contoured and give the resultant 'dog-bone' shape of
the beam in section. The rougher is responsible for the majority of the deformation of stock hence
the largest reductions in cross sectional area occur here.
Edger
This consists of two intricately machined vertical rolls. Very little reduction in area of the stock
occurs at this stand, which instead is responsible for controlling the shape of the beam, in
particular the flange (the two vertical ends on the section).
Finisher
This consists of two vertical rolls and a pair of side rolls, which can be moved independently. The
rolls on this stand are cylindrical and are responsible for controlling the final dimensions of the I-
beam. The finisher is only used on the final pass through the REF stands.
Instructions for REF Stands
1. Use the plant view controls to roll the bloom stock according to the roll schedule given.
2. All roll gap settings will adjust automatically according to the rolling schedule.
3. After a successful pass through the REF stands the stock will stop automatically. You will
need to use the stock velocity controller to start the stock moving again to take the next
pass.
4. When all passes have been completed, moving the stock forward to the saws will
complete the rolling process.

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